The Chart on Historical World Population Growth shows that pop growth was slow until 1000 AD, increased steadily until the indl age, when it 'exploded'

1993   32 countries had increased growth rates
1993   5.685 bb
1999   6.000 bb milestone
2000   6.043 bb
2007   6.639 bb
11/19/10                6,882,530,989

World Pop Clock http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/popclockworld.html

Link

- Supplement: The Population Clock, 2000

Link

POPULATION DENSITY EXAMINES HOW MANY PEOPLE LIVE IN AN AREA

World population density is very unequal in that while 63 % of land mass is north of equator, 90 % of population is north of equator

Most of the population lives on 10 % of land

Crude population density measures the population per sq mile or sq kilometer

Nutritional density measures the population per sq mile of cultivable land

Agricultural density measures the population of farmers / etc. per sq mile of cultivable land

Healthcare density is measured by the number of doctors per 1,000 population

Population pyramids are histograms turned vertically

A Cohort is a group who share a common temporal demographic experience
       Youth Cohort            less than   15 yrs
       Middle Cohort                          15 - 64 yrs
       Old Cohort               more than 64 yrs

The youth cohort consists of those who are less than 15 yrs old

The middle cohort consists of those who are btwn 15 & 64 yrs old

The old cohort consists of those who are more than 64 yrs old

The dependency ratio: is measured by adding the youth & old cohorts & dividing that sum by the middle cohort: Y + O / M

- Supplement: Swedish Population Pyramid

Link

- Supplement: US Population Pyramid: 1900

Link

- Supplement: US Population Pyramid: 1990

Link

There are many social factors affecting population growth including the

1. econ & political outlook
2. availability of birth control
3. availability of men & women (war, current pop)
4. status of women

5. educational level
6. income level
7. authorizing the age of marriage
8. availability of healthcare

Common general factors affecting pop growth include

1. crude birth rate
2. doubling time
3. crude death rate
4. total fertility rate
5. infant mortality rate
6. life expectancy

7. demographic transition
8. population movement
9. voluntary migration
10. forced migration
11. internal voluntary migration
12. internal forced migration

1. The crude birth rate ( CBR ) is the number of live births per 1000 people

2. The doubling time is the number of years it takes a population to double : today 1.8 % growth = doubling in 40 yrs

Today, w/ a growth rate of 1.8%, the world pop will double in 40 yr, i.e. be 12 bb in 2040, 24 bb in 2080

3. The crude death rate (CDR) is the number of deaths per 1,000 people

The factors affecting the CDR include healthcare, disease, food, war, etc.

The increase/decrease in the population = CBR - CDR

4. The total fertility rate (TFR) is the number of births per woman of child bearing age: 15 - 49 yrs

The TFR peaked in US at 3.7

The TFR is a better predictor of population than CBR

5. Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of infants less than 1 yr. old per 1,000 live births

Infant mortality rate is often used as a measure of healthcare & as a non econ measure of development

6. Life expectancy is the average number of yrs a cohort is expected to live

AIDS is among the top 10 leading causes of death in US

7. THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION (DT) OCCURS WHEN HIGH BIRTH & DEATH RATES ARE REPLACED BY LOW BIRTH & DEATH RATES

At the beginning of the DT there is high birth rates & death rates, which results in the highest population growth rate

At the end of the DT, there is low birth & death rates which results in the lowest population growth rate

As nations develop, usually the high death rate drops before the high birth rate drops so that many people are being born, & fewer are dying, resulting in the most rapid pop growth rates

Death rates are often reduced by better food, healthcare, vaccines, etc.

Birth rate reduction often opposed by custom, religion... esp. by peripheral countries

The DT is perhaps humanities greatest chance for voluntary zero pop growth (ZPG) & responsible econ dev

The DT can be seen in most western nations that have either ZPG or even negative population growth (NPG)

The DT & ZPG can be seen in the US (however our pop is growth, but solely due to immigration), the UK, Fr, & Ger

The DT & ZPG can be seen in Italy & Ireland which have falling populations

The poorer a nation, the less developed it is, the more likely it is to have a pop explosion

It is clear that at least some of the effect ot the DT is due to the acceptance of Western values related to the empowerment of women ,& men & women co deciding family size, career choices, etc.

Societies w/ pop explosions generally maintain tradl values where the larger the family, the higher status of both the mother & the father, where the children give the parents old age security, where large numbers of children are a asset as a wkforce, where patriarchy / men rule the family w/ nearly absolute authority

With econ dev, the DT, & western values, people eschew tradl values & large families convey no status, children are a liability / cost, where children do not serve as a wkforce, & where patriarchy does not rule, rather men & women co rule

This combination of econ dev, the DT, & western value is a method that is extremely difficult to implement, but it can be effective in a few generations

	8. POPULATION MOVEMENT IS AFFECTED BY PUSH & PULL FACTORS
	Push factors, i.e. those factors pushing a population out of an area include war, econ dislocation, ecological deterioration, political persecution, religious persecution, etc.
	Pull factors, i.e. those factors pulling a population to an area include econ opportunity, political freedom, religious freedom, peace, family, a good env, etc.
	In 1987, 32 mm people migrated In 1993, 42 mm people migrated In 2000, 177 mm people migrated In 2005, 191 mm people migrated In the last 50 yrs more people migrated than in all of history
	The UN World Migrant Stock http://esa.un.org/migration/index.asp?panel=1	Link
	9. VOLUNTARY MIGRATION OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE MIGRATE AS RESULT OF THEIR OWN DECISION
	Voluntary migration occurs when people migrate as a result of their own decision & not because of severe push or pull factors
	In practice, it is difficult to differentiate btwn voluntary & forced migration because we often maintain our belief in free will when social factors are severely impacting our decision
	While it may appear to many that the mvmt of people from rural to urban areas in the US was voluntary migration, one must consider that ag econ conditions made it impossible for many to earn even a subsistence living
	In the big picture, most people do not migrate voluntarily
	An example of voluntary migration is when Europeans guest workers migrate to the US & vice versa
	10. FORCED MIGRATION OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE MIGRATE AGAINST THEIR WILL
	Forced migration occurs when people migrate against their will as a result of severe push or pull factors
	Of the nearly 200 mm people who migrate each yr, most are forced to move
	In the 17th & 18th centuries, over 10 mm people were forced into slavery as a result of the world slave trade
	After WW1, 700 K Armenians were deported out of the Ottoman Empire after WW1
	There was a large migration of Jews before, during, after WW2 both to Palestine, to estb Israel & to escape the Nazi holocaust
	Many people migrate to seek political asylum, i.e. escape political persecution
	The US has accepted people, notably, from Vietnam & SE Asia, & now, the Mid East
	In the 1990s in Sudan the civil war, war, genocide & ecocide forced millions of its own citizens into internal & external migration & also accepted .75 mm immigrants from other countries
	The Palestinians have emigrated from their homeland, which is now Israel since 1948 Arab Israeli war, to a variety of Arab & African nations as well as the West Bank & Gaza Strip which are regions of Palestine
	Ecomigration is the mvmt of populations caused by the degradation of land, water, etc.
	11. INTERNAL VOLUNTARY MIGRATION OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE MIGRATE W/IN A NATION AS A RESULT OF THEIR OWN DECISION
	Rural to urban migration is often cited as an example of internal voluntary migration, & indeed while many people choose the glamour & indl lifestyle of the city, many are forced into urbanization because of specific ag econ policies which drove people off the land
	A common example of internal voluntary migration is the migration of people from the Eastern seaboard to interior to real their goal of becoming self sufficient farmers
	From the post Civil War era until the 1960s, Blacks migrates out of the rural South to cities in South, North, & West
	After WW 2, middle & upper class people migrated out of the city to the suburban migration
	At the beginning of the post indl era, circa 1980, displaced indl wkrs & others migrated from the rustbelt to the sunbelt
	12. INTERNAL FORCED MIGRATION OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE MIGRATE AGAINST THEIR WILL
	Internal forced migration occurs when people migrate win a nation against their will as a result of severe push or pull factors
	An example of internal forced migration in the US is the Trail of Tears which occurred when 16,000 Cherokees were forced to march from the Southeast to OK as a result of the Indian removal act of 1830
	An example of internal forced migration is the forced mvmt of Native American to Reservations
	An example of internal forced migration in China in the 1960s & 1970s was the relocation of 15 peasants & intelligentsia to rural communes for Maoist re education

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Chart on Historical

The Chart on Historical World Population Growth shows that pop growth was slow until 1000 AD, increased steadily until the indl age, when it 'exploded'

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Outline on Demography

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DEMOGRAPHY IS THE STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULATIONS

The roots of demography are 'demo' which means "people" & 'graphy' which means "the study of"

Demography is the systematic study of the size, composition, & distribution of human populations

Demographers are population experts who study such characteristics as age, number, distribution, & sex of people in an area

Information about a population comes from a census or national sample survey

Most nations conduct censuses, usually once every 10 yrs

POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS IMPACT SOCIAL PATTERNS

Population characteristics determine the general social patterns of a group of people living w/in a certain geographical area

Demographers also study population change, which is the result of births, deaths, movement of people, & changes in population characteristics

Demographers compile & analyze various statistics, including people's ages, birth & death rates, marriage rates, ethnic backgrounds, & migration patterns

People in govt, business, & other fields use demographic methods to study aspects of a society or econ

Businesses want to know such demographics or demographic data, as the age, sex, income level, life style, location, & consumer habits of people in potential mkts for their products

DEMOGRAPHICS ARE USED FOR POLICY / SOCIAL RESEARCH, BUSINESS RESEARCH, ETC.

Demography is used by the social sciences, mkting, govt analysis to develop policy, politics, urban planning & more

In addition, public health agencies study the number of cases of certain diseases to plan immunization & prevention campaigns

Many demographic studies explain the effects of social conditions on the size & composition of a population

the total number of deaths in the United States in a given year may be subtracted from the total number of live births to obtain the natural increase of population during that year

For example, several studies of the 1900s found a direct correspondence btwn the growth of science, medicine, & industry & a decline in the death rate

Demographics refers to such information as the age, race, sex, education, income, location, & hobbies of a group

Magazines may also be grouped by the demographics or psychographics of their readership

Rolling Stone appeals to an audience that is mainly male & white, has an average age in the mid 20s, & enjoys rock music

Psychographics refers to people's attitudes & personality traits

Rolling Stone attracts readers who identify w/ young people & who have liberal political or social views

Human ecology deals mainly w/ the structure of urban environments & their patterns of settlement & growth

Studies in human ecology explain why & how cities & other communities grow & change

Demography is used by the social sciences, mkting, govt analysis to develop policy, politics, urban planning & more

The Table on Common Examples of Demographic Measures catalogues many social & physical dimensions of the demographic characteristics of populations

An analysis comparing demographic qualities can yield both individual & social profiles

Common profiles include the ave demog quals of people who commit crime, the ave demog quals of people who commit suicide, the ave demog quals of people who volunteer

VITAL STATISTICS RECORD THE MOST BASIC HUMAN EVENTS SUCH AS BIRTH, MARRIAGE, DEATH, ETC.

Vital statistics are a record of the most basic human events, including birth, marriage, divorce, sickness, & death

Vital statistics are tabulated at the state & fed levels

The national Vital Statistics Division of the National Center for Health Statistics tabulates, analyzes, & publishes national data, & it is an agency of the US Dept of Health & Human Services

Vital statistics indicate some of the changes occurring in the population of a country, state or province, or local community

Vital stats are gathered from birth & death certificates, marriage licenses & divorce records, disease reports, & other official records

Govt officials collect reports of the individual events, tabulate & analyze them, & publish vital statistics reports yearly

A crude rate is the number of events happening during a period of time, measured in proportion to the size of the total population

The crude birth rate in the US in the early 1990s was about 16 births for every 1,000 people, & the rate was about 10 in Germany, 14 in Canada, & 45 in Nigeria

Another kind of rate, called a specific rate, is the number of events in a certain part of the population

A part of the population may be defined according to such factors as age, gender, & ethnicity

Statisticians often combine info from vital statistics & other sources to come up w/ specific rates, where for example, they may use death certificates, census data, & special sample surveys to determine the specific rate for lung cancer deaths among white female cigarette smokers btwn the ages of 45 & 64

In the US, state laws regulate registration of most vital events

Physicians or hospital attendants file birth certificates w/ local registrars (official recorders)

Physicians or coroners return death certificates to funeral directors, who file them w/ local registrars

The local registrars send birth & death certificates to a county or state registrar

After a marriage ceremony, the presiding official sends the record certifying the marriage to the license clerk & The licensing office then sends the record to the state registrar

Attorneys file divorce records w/ the clerk of the court that grants the divorce, & the court clerk reports the divorce to the state registrar

Doctors must report certain diseases to local or state health depts

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The Table on Common Examples of Demographic Measures

Population Level
What are the income levels in the US? the world?
What are the marriage levels? What age? income? rel?
Ave family size?
Who lives in what regions?
What is their education level?
How many in military?
How many own computers?

The Table on Common Examples of Demographic Measures catalogues many social & physical dimensions of the demographic characteristics of populations

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Outline on Population Charts

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The Table on the Population Clock, 2000 shows the estimated number of people in the world at this moment

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The Table on the World Population Clock Projection, 2001 shows the estimated number of people in the world at this moment

Link

The Table on the Monthly World Population Figures, 2001 shows that, at current rates of growth, we add about 217,000 people per day, which equals about 6.5 mm people per month, or 78 mm people per yr

The figures for the numbers of people added per day will slowly increase because of 'geometric growth,' i.e. that 6.1 bb people can have more babies than 6.0 bb people

Link

The Chart on the World Population from 1950 - 2050 shows that our 6 bb pop today is estimated to grow steadily to 9 bb by 2050

Link

The Chart on Projected Pop in Millions to the Year 2150 shows that most estimates expect world pop to level off at 10 or 12 bb by 2075

Link

The Chart on the Annual World Population Change from 1950 - 2050 shows that the rate of pop change is steadily decreasing

In the year 2000, we are adding about 78 mm people per yr, but by the yr 2010, it is est that only 70 mm people will be added, & by 2050 only 40 mm

Link

The Chart on World Population Growth Rate: 1950-2050 shows that the growth rate of the pop is decreasing

The world's pop growth rate has declined from a peak of 2.2 to 1.3 today, & is estimated to decline from there to 0.5 by 2050

The decline of the pop growth rate is the cause for the decline in the absolute numbers of people add from a peak of 87 mm people added per mo in 1990 to 78 mm people added per mo in 2000

The decline in the growth rate & the decline in absolute growth will ultimately result in, if the trends continue, the stabilization of the the world pop at around 10 -12 bb

Link

The Table on the Number of Years to Add 1 Billion People demonstrates that while it took all of human history to reach 1 bb people, w/ current growth rates it only takes 12 yrs to add 1 bb people

The Table on the Number of Yrs to Add 1 bb People shows the power of geometric growth in that it took all of human history to add the 1st bb people, but it now only takes 11 yrs to add a billion people

- Supplement: Top 5 Nations comprise about half of the world's population

Link

In 2000, 5 nations comprise about half of the world's pop, including China, India, the US, Indonesia, & Brazil

In 2000, the 5 nations that made up half the world's pop include China w/ 1.25 bb, India w/ 1 bb, the US w/ 273 mm, Indonesia w/ 212 mm, & Brazil w/ 168 mm

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Table on the Population Clock, 2000
The population clock shows the estimated number of people in the world at this moment

www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/popclockw Link

Note the number on the clock, then hit the "Reload" or "Refresh" button of your browser to see how many people have been added since you started to read this.

The Table on the Population Clock, 2000 shows the estimated number of people in the world at this moment

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Table on World Population Clock Projection, 2001

According to the International Programs Center, Link
U.S. Bureau of the Census,
the total population of the World,
projected to 2/5/01 at 21:04:57 GMT
(2/5/01 at 4:04:57 PM EST) is

6,126,682,946

The Table on the Population Clock, 2000 shows the estimated number of people in the world at this moment

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Table on Monthly World Population Figures

07/01/00
08/01/00
09/01/00
10/01/00
11/01/00
12/01/00
01/01/01
02/01/01
03/01/01
04/01/01
05/01/01
06/01/01
07/01/01

6,080,141,683
6,086,703,395
6,093,265,108
6,099,615,153
6,106,176,866
6,112,526,910
6,119,088,623
6,125,650,336
6,131,577,044
6,138,138,757
6,144,488,802
6,151,050,515
6,157,400,560

Table on the Monthly World Population Figures, 2001 shows that, at current rates of growth, we add about 217,000 people per day, which equals about 6.5 mm people per month, or 78 mm people per yr

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Chart on

The Chart on World Pop shows that our 6 bb pop today is estimated to grow steadily to 9 bb by 2050

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Chart on the Projected Population in Millions to the Year 2150

The Chart on Projected Pop shows that most estimates expect world pop to level off at 10 or 12 bb by 2075

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Chart on

The Chart on the Annual World Population Change from 1950 - 2050 shows that the rate of pop change is steadily decreasing

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Chart on

The Chart on World Pop Growth Rate shows that because the rate of growth of pop is declining, the pop level growth will slow

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Table on the Number of Years to Add 1 Billion People

The Table on the Number of Yrs to Add 1 bb People demonstrates that while it took all of human history to reach 1 bb people, w/ current growth rates it only takes 12 yrs to add 1 bb people

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Outline on Population Figures

External Links

2000

2010

The percentages of various populations in the year are listed below

Asians

Europeans

North & South America

Africans

Oceana

100

TOTAL

Female

Male

Non Christian

Christian

Heterosexual

Homosexual

Possess 59% of the entire world's wealth, all from the US

live in substandard housing

unable to read

suffer from malnutrition

near death

near birth

have a college education

own a computer

Link

The Table on Area Population Yearly Growth shows that only Europe has stable population & that the lessor developed nations have the highest growth rates

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Table on Area Population Yearly Growth, estimated for the yr 2000

World	6,141,537,000	1.4%
Africa	824,767,000	2.5%
Asia	3,747,277,000	1.5%
Australia	19,222,000	0.7%
Europe	707,818,000	-0.1%
North America	480,633,000	0.6%
Pacific Islands (including New Zealand)	14,860,000	1.1%
South America	346,960,000	1.8%

The Table on Area Population Yearly Growth shows that only Europe has stable population & that the lessor developed nations have the highest growth rates

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Outline on The Effects of Population Growth

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POPULATION GROWTH TODAY GENERALLY HAS A GREAT PHYSICAL & SOCIAL IMPACT

While population growth in & of itself may have little effect, in practice because of high population levels, the soc & physical effects are great today

Thus it is population growth in a stressed society, or a society w/ a historically high population that has the greatest effect

Because the world today has experienced nearly a millennia of rapid pop growth, pop growth today is having major effects

THE EFFECTS OF POP GROWTH OCCUR IN A 'CAUSAL CHAIN OF EVENTS'

Ultimately, many human social character are effected by population growth

Nearly all social problems are impacted by, & to some extent impact, population growth

The Chart on the Effects of Pop Growth shows that pop growth & numerous other variables interact, i.e. are mutually reinforcing, to cause conflict & other negative social effects

Population growth creates increased needs which leads to increased consumption

The consumption which is created by pop growth depletes resources which causes envl destruction

Both the depletion of resources & envl destruction lead to scarcity & poverty

Scarcity & poverty lead to discrimination, including the violation of human rights, etc., migration, & conflict, including war

A MAJOR EFFECT OF POP GROWTH IS PRESSURE ON FOOD PRODUCTION, & FOOD SHORTAGES / FAMINE

Many scientists believe disastrous shortages of food & other necessities can be avoided only by halting pop growth

Many scientists, economists, & other experts fear that food production cannot keep pace w/ the pop for long

Many scientists believe the world already is or will soon become overpopulated, that is, it will have more people than it can support at an acceptable standard of living

Link

One of the earliest theorists on population was the British economist Thomas Robert Malthus who wrote in the late 1700s

Malthus stated that pop tends to increase beyond the limit of the earth's ability to support it

Malthus predicted that famine, war, & other disasters would become common unless people cut the growth rate

Many people disputed Malthus' views, & many still oppose his ideas today

Opponents of Malthusian theory point out that since Malthus made his gloomy forecast, world pop has grown by more than 4 billion

More people are living longer & healthier lives than ever before

Many experts believe it is technologically possible to increase world food production by more than 1.7 % yearly & thus to keep ahead of pop growth

During the 1960s improved farming methods & new high yield crop varieties helped many poor countries increase their food production by about 25 %

This effort to increase food production proved to be so successful that it has been called the Green Revolution

Some people believe that the problem is not too many people, as Malthus claimed there were, but too much inequality

They think that starvation & poverty could be overcome w/ a more equal distribution of existing resources

Many people have more than enough to eat, but many others go hungry

THE 'CAUSAL CHAIN OF EVENTS' LINKING POPULATION TO SCARCITY
& SOCIAL PROBLEMS APPEARS INDIRECT, BUT IS DIRECT

The causal chain of pop growth depicts that declining resources cause scarcity & poverty which then cause discrimination, migration & conflict

The effects of pop growth may be divided into two categories: those effects of scarcity & those effects that are reactions to scarcity

Scarcity effects include lack of the human basic necessities such as food, clothing, & shelter, & today also includes such needs as education, healthcare, & more

The effects of scarcity include many social ills including domestic violence, crime, drug use, & more

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Chart on the Effects of Population Growth Ultimately the effects of population growth include:

The Chart on the Effects of Pop Growth shows that pop growth & numerous other variables interact, i.e. are mutually reinforcing, to cause conflict & other negative social effects

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Outline on Thomas Robert Malthus 1766 - 1834

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- Biography & Major Works

INTRODUCTION

Malthus was an English economist

Malthus is best known for his Essay on the Principle of Population, 1798

MALTHUS BELIEVED THAT POP GROWTH WOULD OUTPACE FOOD PRODUCTION GROWTH

Malthus' main idea in the Essay on the Principle of Population is that population tends to increase more rapidly than food supplies

Malthus' theory is that population increases faster than food production, therefore populations, including humans, will regulate themselves or "crash" via starvation

Malthus argued that populations tend to increase faster than food supplies

To date we have increased food production more rapidly

Theoretically, there are limits to the planet & so the question arises: 'When will population outgrow the planet?'

When he wrote in the early 1800s, Malthus thought we had a half a century until famine would limit population

Malthus believed that wars & disease would have to kill off the extra population, unless people limited the number of their children

Malthus' theory proposes that at some point, population will regulate itself through the cruel process of famine, war, etc.

Malthus' theory believed is was not moral to regulate fertility rates, but it was moral to let famine & poverty limit population

MALTHUS BROUGHT BOTH ECON PROGRESS & DYSTOPIA UNDER EXAMINATION

Malthus contradicted the belief prevailing in the early 19th C, esp Godwin & Rousseau, that a societies' fertility would lead to economic progress

Today this traditional debate continues, do you see storm clouds or rainbows in the future?

POPULATION CONTROL & SOCIAL POLICY HAS ALWAYS BEEN LINKED

Malthus' theory was often used as an argument against efforts to better condition of the poor

To reduce births, Malthus recommended that young men & women postpone marriage

Malthus wanted "natural selection" to reduce the population

Under Malthus' vision of natural selection, the strong would survive, the weak would starve, & the population would be limited

During Malthus' time, social science was just beginning

During Malthus' time, charity outside of religion was developed

For Malthus, poverty & distress are unavoidable because pop increases faster than means of subsistence

As checks on population growth, Malthus accepted only war, famine, & disease, but later added moral restraint, as well

WHILE THERE IS CERTAINLY POP STRESS IN MANY NATIONS, THE 'POP BOMB' HAS NOT GONE OFF, YET

Malthus' prediction failed to come true in the 1800s

Some social scientists believe that the population explosion a dud

Malthus & population explosion theory has not held much currency because population levels have not come up to the levels expected & while thousands of people starve to death each day, global or continental famine has not occurred

Improved methods of agriculture provided enough food for most people

The population bomb has not exploded because of the demographic transition, cultural changes, new tech in food production & distribution, inexpensive & readily available birth control, abortion & other causes

But rapid population growth in the 1900's, especially in underdeveloped countries, led to renewed interest in Malthus' theories

Many conservationists warned that food production could not keep pace w/ population indefinitely

The neo Malthusians urged the use of birth control, though Malthus had rejected that solution

MALTHUS INFLUENCED DARWIN & MANY ECONOMISTS

Malthus' Essay suggested to Charles Darwin the relationship btwn progress & natural selection

Natural selection was a basic idea in Darwin's theory of evolution

Darwin used 3 principal sources in developing his theory, including:
a. his personal observations
b. the geological theory of the British scientist Sir Charles Lyell
c. the population theory of the British economist Thomas Robert Malthus

Three British economists of the late 1700s & the 1800s wrote particularly influential works

Thomas Robert Malthus challenged some of Smith's ideas but developed others further

Malthus warned that if populations continued to grow, nations someday would not be able to produce enough to feed all the people

David Ricardo produced strong arguments for free trade among nations

John Stuart Mill proposed that profits be divided more equally among employers & workers

Many people dispute Malthus's views pointing out that since Malthus made his gloomy forecast, world population has grown by more than 4 billion

People in the first world are living longer & healthier lives than ever before, but world wide, we really don't have the historical data to confirm this trend

Because we don't know if the non developed world is improving or sliding deeper into poverty, skeptics like post modernists & other w/ anti Western views can rationally deny that 'porgies' is being made

It appears in the first world as if Malthus is clearly wrong, but in the rest of the world Malthus appears to be correct

Many experts believe it is technologically possible to increase world food production by more than 1.7 % yearly & thus to keep ahead of population growth

During the 1960s, for example, improved farming methods & new high yield crop varieties helped many poor countries increase their food production by about 25 %

Link

The effort to increase food production proved so successful that it has been called the Green Revolution

Some people believe that the problem is not too many people, as Malthus claimed there were, but too much inequality

Those focused on inequality & stratification as the leading world problem think that starvation & poverty could be overcome w/ a more equal distribution of existing resources

We live in a world of contradiction where many people have more than enough to eat, but many others go hungry

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Thomas Robert Malthus

1766 - 1834
Malthus was a British economist who encouraged the 1st systematic demographic studies.

Malthus was born on Feb. 17, 1766, near Guildford in Surrey, England. He decided to be a clergyman, & graduated from Cambridge University. About 1796, he took a parish in Surrey. He became a professor of hist & political econ in the college of the East India Company in 1805, & held this post until his death

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Major Works of Thomas Robert Malthus

Malthus' main contribution to economics was his theory,
published in An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798)

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Outline on the Food Supply

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THE WORLD FOOD SUPPLY TODAY IS ADEQUATE, YET MANY PEOPLE GO HUNGRY

Food supply is the total amount of food available to all the people in the world

Because no one can live w/o food, & so the supply of food has always been one of the human race's chief concerns

The world's food supply varies from year to year because the production of crops & livestock varies

Some years, terrible losses result from such natural disasters as droughts & floods, or from insect infestations or animal diseases

The world's population grows every year, & so the worldwide demand for food also constantly increases

Food shortages & famines occur when the food supply falls short of the amount needed

The food supply varies not only from year to year but also from country to country

Most of the poor, less developed countries of Africa, Asia, & Latin America seldom have enough food for most of their people

Millions of people in these countries go hungry

During years of famine, millions may die of starvation

In almost all developed nations, on the other hand, the majority of people have an adequate diet

In nearly every nation, some people have more than enough to eat while others live in constant hunger

DEVELOPED NATIONS HAVE AN ADEQUATE DIET BECAUSE OF THE TEMPERATE CLIMATE, STRONG AG SYSTEMS, MODERN FERTILIZER & FARM MACHINES

Almost all the developed nations lie in the world's temperate regions, that is, between the tropics & the polar areas

The soil & climate in temperate regions are generally well suited for farming

the developed nations have money for agricultural research & so have been able to solve various problems associated w/ ag in temperate regions

Most farmers in the developed countries can afford the fertilizers & machines needed to produce large amounts of food

The developed countries have enough food because their population grows more slowly than their food supply

UNDEVELOPED NATIONS LIE NEAR OR IN THE TROPICS WHICH ARE NOT WELL SUITED FOR AG, THEY DO NOT HAVE MODERN AG SYSTEMS, FERTILIZER, NOR FARM MACHINES, & SOME LEADERS DO NOT SUPPORT AN ADEQUATE FOOD SUPPLY

Unlike the developed countries, most less developed countries lie in or near the tropics

The soil & climate in these regions are generally not so well suited to large scale food production as they are in temperate regions

The poorer nations do not have much money for research

The poorer nations have made relatively little progress in solving the problems of tropical agriculture

Farmers in the less developed countries cannot afford to buy the fertilizers & other materials they need to produce more food

The less developed countries have too little food chiefly because their population grows nearly as fast as, or faster than, their food supply

The governments of some of these countries may not support the idea that food ought to be widely available at a reasonable cost to al

THE EXPANSION OF THE FOOD SUPPLY IS "IN A RACE" W/ THE EXPANSION OF THE POPULATION, W/ FOOD SUPPLY, SO FAR, STAYING AHEAD

The world's population is increasing about 1.7 percent a year. Food production must grow at about the same rate to feed the increasing number of people

Many experts believe food production will fail to keep up w/ population growth unless the birth rate falls sharply

The theory that the growth of the food supply could not keep up w/ the growth of the population was first developed in detail by the British economist Thomas Robert Malthus in the late 1700s

World food production is increasing at a rate slightly higher than world population growth

Food production in Europe & many parts of Asia has increased faster than population growth, but in other regions, including Africa, population growth continues to increase at a faster rate than food production

In the past, population growth was controlled mainly by a high death rate

But since the early 1900s, improved living standards & medical advances have reduced the death rate in the majority of countries

Today, most people who agree w/ Malthus consider family planning to be the only practical method of reducing population growth

The world's food supply consists mainly of food produced during the current year

The food supply also includes reserves, also called stocks, left over from previous years

Food reserves are necessary to help prevent shortages after poor farming years

To build up reserves, the countries of the world overall must produce more food in a year than they consume

Few countries produce a surplus except for the US produces by far the largest surplus, & Argentina, Australia, Canada, & New Zealand also regularly produce a food surplus

Most countries produce either just enough food to meet their needs or not enough

If a country fails to produce enough food, it must import additional supplies or face a shortage

Most developed countries that do not produce sufficient food can afford to import the extra supplies they need & the UK & Japan are examples of such countries

less developed countries cannot afford to import all the food they need

Since the early 1950s, world food production has doubled, but so has the demand & as a result, many countries rely on food imports, chiefly from the US

MODERN AG TECHNIQUES ARE MORE HARMFUL TO THE ENV THAN TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES

Increased use of agricultural resources can help farmers produce more food

Modern farming techniques can also cause environmental problems

Increased use of nitrogen fertilizers sometimes creates a build up of nitrogen compounds in the soil & rain water eventually washes these compounds into rivers & streams, where they contribute to water pollution

AG PRODUCTION DEPENDS ON LAND, WATER (RAIN & IRRIGATION), CLIMATE, ENERGY, TECHNIQUES, DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS, FERTILIZER, EQUIPMENT, & MORE

The amount of food a nation produces depends partly on its ag resources, such as land & water & no country has an unlimited supply of these resources

The worldwide food supply is thus affected by (1) limited agricultural resources & (2) the ever increasing demand for food. The food supply within countries is also affected by problems of distribution

Farming requires various resources, especially land, water, energy, & fertilizer

Most of the world's good cropland is already in use, & most of the unused land lies in remote areas, far from markets & transportation

All crops require water to grow, but rainfall is distributed unevenly over the earth's surface & so some farmers can depend on rainfall for all the water they need. Other farmers must use irrigation water, if it is available, because the rainfall is too light or uncertain

But the supply of irrigation water is limited, & farmers in some countries use nearly all the available supply

Many farmers depend heavily on energy resources, particularly petroleum fuels, to operate tractors, irrigation pumps, & other equipment

They use fertilizers, especially nitrogen fertilizers, to enrich the soil, which at present, is mostly made from natural gas, but supplies of petroleum & natural gas are limited

farms will someday need other sources for energy & nitrogen fertilizers

Meanwhile, the energy needs of farmers have greatly increased

Since 1950, the amount of energy used to produce a ton of grain has more than doubled

In some countries, the energy used to produce fertilizer exceeds that used to operate tractors

In every country, the generally rising prices for energy & fertilizer add to the cost of food

THE GREEN REVOLUTION IMPROVED IRRIGATION, ENERGY, FERTILIZER, & GRAIN & LIVESTOCK VARIETIES

As part of what has come to be known as the green revolution, farmers have used two main methods of making their land more productive, including: (1) increasing their use of irrigation, energy, & fertilizer, & (2) improving varieties of grains & livestock, which produce higher crop & & larger amounts of livestock products

Farmers in developed countries have used both the methods of the Green Rev for many years

In the 1960s, farmers in some developing countries also adopted both methods to increase their production of wheat & rice

The development of high yield varieties of rice & wheat made the Green Rev possible, but the revolution also required greater use of irrigation water, energy, & fertilizer

Many farmers got the water from wells & installed electric or diesel powered pumps to bring the water to the surface

To get the highest yields, farmers had to enrich their soil w/ fertilizers

During the 1960's, these methods helped such countries as India & Mexico double their wheat production

The Green Revolution can continue to make farmland more productive by for example, if farmers in the tropics have enough water, fertilizer, & other essential resources, they can grow two or three crops a year on the same land, instead of one crop

The Green Revs ability to increase the food supply is limited & many farmers in less developed countries cannot afford the additional resources that the Green Revolution requires

The greater use of these resources makes land more productive only up to a point

Most farmers in the US, for example, use 7 to 10 times as much fertilizer on each unit of land as do most farmers in less developed countries, but US grain yields are only about twice as large as those in less developed countries

AG CORPS HAVE BOTH HELPED & HINDERED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOOD SUPPLY, ESP IN DEVELOPING NATIONS

Generally ag corps such as Archer Daniels Midland, Cargil, & others are known to develop tech & techniques that favor large, mechanized, energy, fertilizer, & herbicide centered farming practices

Large ag corps do not generally pursue tech & techniques useful to small farmers or less developed ag systems

Large ag corps & large farmers generally absorb / buy out small farmers that use tradl or less mechanized ag methods

Internal
Links

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Outline on Agricultural Societies

External
Links

Agriculture is the science, art & business directed at the cultivation of crops & raising livestock for sustenance & profit

Agriculture established a 2 way relationship btwn people & the environment, which did not exist as strongly in pre agricultural society

For ag to be successful, while people take from the env, they must also give back to it & nurture it

How does ag change the env?
No peeking!

Ag affect the env by the:
- removal of natural cover
- drying up wetlands
- fencing in areas
- planting a mono-culture, limiting ecological diversity
- domination of domestic specie
- use of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, & genetic engineering
- etc.

See Also: Rousseau

The Hobbes - Rousseau debate is essentially about 'What was the nature of prehistoric woman & man?' 'What was the nature of prehistoric society?'

Observers continue to ask today, "Who is more accurate in depicting the H-G Era, Hobbes or Rousseau?" because the H-G life has many noble & wonderful qualities that keep people in touch w/ the Earth & other people, but it is a difficult life

There was a high level of cooperation w/in tribes

"Work" in H-G society was hunting & gathering & you shared all your production

There were no markets & there was minimal trading among tribes

In viewing H-G society as more cooperative, Rousseau was more accurate than Hobbes

Hunting & gathering had to be cooperative in order to function

Because of limited specialization & isolation from other societies, H-G societies had high levels of consensus

Ownership was communal because subsistence level production meant that everything had to be shared

In H-G society, people have more free time than do modern, industrial people

People spend their free time relaxing, & partying in communal festival & rituals

Conflict btwn tribes was limited due to isolation & due to the fact that there was little to gain because all production was at the subsistence level, yielding no surplus to be gained through conquest

Conflict was limited to struggles over turf & women

Primitive weapons disallowed dominance by one or a few

All types of relationships, economic, familial, etc. were essentially egalitarian in the H-G Era

Egalitarian relationships were upset / abandoned w/ the development of agriculture, causing for the first time, class conflict

Gender differentiation existed in H-G society, but there was total equality

In H-G society, racial differentiation was recognized only in the context of tribal ("nationalistic") differentiation & therefore was not a basis for inequality/discrimination

HEARTH AREAS ARE THE 'CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION'

The transition from H-G to Pre Empire Era (aka "civilization") occurred in different "hearth areas" at different times

During the Proto Neolithic or Early Stone Age:, circa 9000 to 7000 BC, the transition to an agricultural econ begins in the mid east & other hearth areas

Hearth areas are settings where new practices developed, & then spread to other areas

( Hearth areas may be thought of as "proto cores" visa vie World Systems Theory )

There are SIX major hearth areas which were found in Africa, the mid east, the Indian subcontinent, south Asia, China, & the America

1. Africa: In Africa, hearth areas of civilization developed along the Nile River & south, & along Mediterranean on the African north coast

2. Middle East: In the mid east, in what is now called the Fertile Crescent: hearth areas of civilization developed in Iran & Iraq, Jordan & Israel, Turkey

3. Indian Subcontinent: In the Indian subcontinent, a hearth areas of civilization developed along the Indus & Ganges Rivers

4. South Asia: In So Asia, hearth areas of civilization developed in Assam, Bangladesh, Burma, & India

5. China: In China, hearth areas of civilization developed along the coast & major rivers, esp the Huang & Yangtze Rivers River

6. Americas: In the Americas, hearth areas of civilization developed in Central Am & in So America in the Andes Mtns

From a historical perspective, the hearth areas developed relatively simultaneously

Agricultural practices were first developed in the major hearth areas

Hunter gatherer, nomadic societies still exist on every continent today, but the numbers of such societies are dwindling rapidly

Modern H-G societies exist today in thinly populated, remote tropical areas, some arctic regions, some desert areas, & some plains areas

The next historic stage is Pre Empire Era 10 K BC to 3 K BC
- New Stone Age continues
- "Civilization" & history begin
- 1st widespread ag develops
- 1st permanent villages develop

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Table Summarizing a Socio Historical Overview

Historic Period

Approximate Time Period

1. Geologic Era

5 bb BP - 5 mm BP

2. Pre Human Evolution

5 mm BP - 1.5 mm BP

3. Hunter Gatherer Society

1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC

4. Pre Empire Civilization

10 K BC - 3 K BC

5. Early Empires Era

3 K BC - 200 BC

6. Roman Era

200 BC - 500 AD

7. Middle Ages

500 - 1300

8. Early Industrial Age

1300 - 1700

9. Industrial Age

1700 - present

10. Global Capitalism

1910 - present

11. Post-Industrial Society

1970 - present

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Chart on the Characteristics of the Hunter -Gatherer Stratification System

Type of
System

Ranks
(Mobility)

Method of
Placement

Legitimization
(ideology)

Basis of
Ranking

Level of
Equality

Primitive
( Hunter Gatherer)

open

achievement

tradition

status

highest equality

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Chart on the Characteristics of the Types of the Stratification Systems

Type of
System

Ranks
(Mobility)

Method of
Placement

Legitimization
(ideology)

Basis of
Ranking

Level of
Equality

Primitive
( Hunter Gatherer)

open

achievement

tradition

status

highest equality

Slavery

generally closed

ascription

legal/racism

economic (class)

hi inequality

Caste

closed

ascription

religion

status

hi inequality

Feudal

generally closed

generally ascription

legal/religious

economic

highest inequality

Class

open

mostly achievement

legal

economic/
bureaucratic (power)

low to medium

Post-industrial

open

mostly achievement

legal

economic/
bureaucratic (power)

low to high

Internal
Links

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Outline on the Pre Empire Era 10K BC - 3K BC

External
Links

- Video: The Rise of Man: Sapiens & the Beginning of Agriculture 3:52

Link

The Pre Empire Era runs from approximately 10 K BC to 3 K BC

During the Pre Empire Era FOUR milestones were crossed for humanity which included
   a. the 1st development of agriculture
   b. agriculture becomes widespread
   c. the beginning of "civilization"
   d. the 1st permanent villages

The Pre Empire Era includes what is commonly known as the New or Early Stone Age c. 9 K - 7 K BC aka the Proto Neolithic Era

Link

The Chart on the Characteristics of the Pre Empire Stratification System shows that the pre empire era had a high level of inequality

During the Pre Empire Era, inequality/stratification begins as humanity develops the capacity to produce a surplus

Link

The transition from H-G society to pre empire "civilization" is characterized by the scattered development of ag of the late H-G Era to where Pre Empire Society had widespread agriculture

Pre Empire Society was based on agriculture

With the transition to agriculture, we see "mini systems" develop in the hearth areas

Mini systems develop w/ FIVE common traits
a. a single cultural base
b. a single social economy
c. are essentially self sufficient
d. much trade w/in their system
e. even some trade outside their system, i.e. w/ neighboring mini systems

Hearth areas are settings where new practices develop, & then spread to other areas

In terms of the World Systems Theory, hearth areas may be thought of as "proto cores" areas

Link

There are SIX major hearth areas
1. Africa: Nile River & south, & along Mediterranean on the African north coast
2. Middle East: Fertile Crescent: Iran & Iraq, Jordan & Israel, Turkey
3. Indian Subcontinent: Indus & Ganges Rivers
4. South Asia: Assam, Bangladesh, Burma, India
5. China: along the coast & major rivers: Huang & Yangtze Rivers River
6. Americas: Central & So America (Andes Mtns)

From a historical perspective, the major hearth areas developed relatively simultaneously

The rudiments of civilization developed in all the hearth areas w/in a few thousand years, & following that, fundamental advancements in civilization (i.e. the dev of irrigation, techniques of ag, construction, engineering, smelting, etc.) occurred relatively simultaneously in a historical sense, but over relatively long periods from a human perspective

Link

Agriculture in the Pre Empire Era was based on widespread domestication of plants & animals

Agriculture has gone through FOUR "revolutions" or major stages

The first agricultural revolution occurs as societies domesticated plants & animals

Marx holds that during the pre empire era, the "exploitation of man by man" first developed

During the pre empire era, the "exploitation of the Earth by man" first developed

While environmental degradation & species extinctions at the hands of hunters had begun in H-G Era, the hearth areas sometimes experienced environmental collapse as a result of ag practices

The replacement of a hunting & gathering form of economy w/ an agricultural economy resulted in people being able to produce surpluses

In H-G Society, no surplus was produced, therefore no one could exploit another by taking their surplus

The fact that a person could produce more than they could consume allowed others to "exploit" them, i.e. take their surplus or "enslave" them, i.e. make them create a surplus for another

During the Pre Empire Era, people gain wealth by creating it themselves or taking it from others

Thus as humanities' ability to create a surplus appeared, so too did the ability to exploit, enslave, etc. another, heralding the end of relative equality in human relations

Link

The first non production wkrs emerge in the form of priests, soldiers, artisans, etc.

But the social relationships surrounding any form of exploitation are different in each era

blank

During the Pre Empire Era, patriarchal gender relations first developed

See also: Morgan: The Origin of Patriarchy

See also: Marx & Engels: Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State, "The Historic Defeat of Women"

During the pre empire era, slavery first developed but was not based on race as it is in the modern era

The next era is the Early Empire Era which runs 3 K BC to 200 BC

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Chart on the Characteristics of the Pre Empire Stratification System

Type of
System

Ranks
(Mobility)

Method of
Placement

Legitimization
(ideology)

Basis of
Ranking

Level of
Equality

Slavery

generally closed

ascription

legal/racism

economic (class)

hi inequality

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"Civilization" emerges: (13,000 BP)
Increase in population & last ice age forced change
15,000 BP ag develops
Development of animal husbandry & ag allowed villages to emerge
World population /\ from 10 to 300 mm
Uruk: first known city: S. Mesopotamia: 5,500 BP: 20,000 people; slavery, armies, administration
By 5,000 BP ag, irrigation established, digging stick -> plow
5,500 BP writing develops

From Marx & Engels on the Origin of the Family, Private Property, & the State

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Agriculture in the Pre Empire Era was based on widespread domestication of plants & animals

In later H-G society, home sapiens (1/2 mm yrs ago), began to understand basic agriculture concepts
In P-E society, such agriculture knowledge was well known,
& more deeply understood
- Male role in procreation
- Seasonal cycles (develop early calendars)
- Fertility cycles in humans & animals
- Role of seeds
- Methods for domestication of animals

Widespread agriculture of domesticated plants: wheat, rice, etc.
Widespread husbandry of domesticated animals: cattle, etc.

Agriculture has gone through many "revolutions" or major stages Link

The First Agricultural Revolution occurs as societies domesticate plants & animals Link

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Non production workers emerged:
Artisans, crafts workers, traders
Religious & political leaders gained power
Burial practices & housing structures became common; began to show inequality
Status, wealth, power, inequality, exploitation begin because one person could produce more than he/she could consume
(Big argument over who developed husbandry & ag: M or W. But what would it prove?)
During civilization: the strongest/smartest have always dominated
M ruled other M & W

From Marx & Engels on the Origin of the Family, Private Property, & the State

Internal
Links

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Outline on the Four Agricultural Revolutions

External
Links

Like any social system, agriculture has evolved

To an extent, viewing agriculture as going through revolutions is misleading because agriculture has changed but there are still vestiges of all phases

Overall, agriculture has evolved from predominantly subsistence practices to predominantly capital intensive, market oriented practices

There have been FOUR Agricultural Revolutions or phases

History in general & the development of ag in particular have proceeded w/ alternating cycles of long periods of gradual change & short explosive periods of radical change

a. The Beginnings & Spread of Ag: pre 10K bc to 1900s

Agriculture began w/ simple tools such as a planting stick

The wood plow was introduced shortly before the birth of Christ

b. Subsistence Ag to Market Ag 1650 to present

Highly labor intensive until mechanization began in mid 1800s

c. The Industrialization of Ag

The metal plow lead the industrialization of ag

d. The Globalization of Ag

Link

Chart on the Qualities of the FOUR Agricultural Revolutions

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Chart on the Qualities of FOUR Agricultural Revolutions

Knox

Top

1st Ag Rev:
Beginnings & Spread

2nd Ag Rev:
Subsistence to Market

3rd Ag Rev:
Industrialization

4th Ag Rev:
Globalization

Time span

circa pre 10K BC
to 20th C

circa 1650
to present

circa 1928
to present

circa late 1970s
to present

Types of ag

Subsistence

Commercial development in the frame of family farms

Commercial development in the frame of corporations

Commercial development in the frame of global corporations

Climax

Neolithic to
Mid Ages in Europe

18th C England
19th - 20th C
European colonies

Present day
Industrialized nations

Present day
in industrialized nations
& developing nations

Location

Europe
SE Asia

W Europe
No Am

USSR
E Europe
No Am
Europe

Almost entire planet

Innovation

Subsistence
& domestic
food production
Selection & taming of species

Surplus production technology &
financial
returns

Lowest cost
production
methods

Establish world
markets &
patterns of
consumption

Conditions
of change

Replaces H-G

Establishes mercantilist outlook
Industrial Revolution ag demands met

Establish corporate & collective ag
& the Ag Ind Complex
(AIC)

AIC goes global

Effect on
society

Ag society proliferates

Ag develops as a separate area of economy
Family farm becomes the norm

Focus on profit replaces ag way of life

Globalization establishes profit at the expense of the local economy & environment

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Outline on the First Agricultural Revolution: Beginnings & Early Spread

External
Links

THE FIRST AG REV WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING CIVILIZATION

The 1st Ag Rev: Beginnings & Early Spread, ran approximately pre 15 K BC to the 20th C

HG soc began experiments that developed the technology of ag

FOR CIVILIZATION TO FORM, HUMANKIND NEEDED TO ACCUMMULATE KNOWLEDGE OF HUSBANDRY, AG, FIRE, CONSTRUCTION, ETC.

As sufficient knowledge accumulated, subsistence, sedentary & nomadic agriculture became possible

The accummulation of knowledge related to animal husbandry, ag, & more, allowed people to live in villages

The 1st Ag Rev was founded on the development of domestication of animals & seeds

The use of plows & draft animals was developed soon after Ag was 1st established

It is widely believed that people 1st domestication wheat & goats, followed by rice, sheep, etc.

These domestications developed during the HG Era

Seed based agriculture occurred during roughly the same period in several regions around the world

THE FIRST AG REV ESTABLISHED HEARTH SOCIETIES IN MANY AREAS

The first ag rev created broad belt of cultivated land from SW Asia to Greece in the west into Turkey & Iran in the east as well as parts of Central & South America, Northern China, NE India & East Africa

The 1st agricultural revolution established village life

The domestication of plants & animals allowed for FOUR societal innovations, including:
      a. settled ways of life
      b. village construction
      c. exploitation & war
      d. the creation of new types of social, cultural, econ & political relationships, as compared to HG soc

The domestication of plants & animals diffused outward from the hearth areas

The 1st Ag Rev was important in the establishing of the hearths of civilization: e.g. in the fertile flood plains of the Tigris & Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, Indus & Ganges rivers, the Huang river, etc.

There are SEVEN Qualities of the 1st Agricultural Revolution: Beginnings & Spread

a. Time span circa Pre 15 k BC to 20th C

b. Climax Neolithic Age to the Mid Ages in Europe

c. Location No Africa, Mid East, China, SE Asia, Europe

d. Innovation Initial selection & domestication of key species of plants & animals

e. Conditions of change Replaces H-G methods of production

f. Effect on society Agricultural society proliferates

g. Types of agriculture Subsistence

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Outline on the Second Agricultural Revolution: Subsistence to Market

External
Links

THE SECOND AG REV DID NOT OCCUR UNTIL THE MID AGES & WAS THE RESULT OF NEW AG TECH & PRACTICES ESP FERTILIZER & CROP ROTATION

The 2nd Ag Rev: Subsistence to Market runs from approximately 1650 to the present

There is much debate over the timing & location of the 2nd Ag Rev

The 2nd Ag Rev did not occur everywhere at the same time, & thus there is disagreement over what happened when & where

And there is disagreement over the essential causative factors

Subsistence, peasant agriculture was prevalent at beginning of the 2nd ag revolution

The partial development of the mkt econ in ag was established

THE TENURE (LAND OWNERSHIP) SYSTEM WAS TRANSITIONING FROM FEUDALISM TO CAPITALISM

Under the previous land tenure sys, the lords owned all the land, but during this era, it transitioned to the small family farm

Some "freemen" came to own land

The exploitation of the new world allowed private middle class ownership

Communal farms were replaced by enclosed, individual farms worked by tenants, renters, or yo men farmers

THERE ARE FOUR OUTCOMES OF THE 2ND AG REV INCLUDING: INCREASED OUTPUT, AG INNOVATIONS, FERT & FIELD DRAINAGE, & RAPID POP GROWTH

a. An important result was a great increase in the outputs of crops & livestock

b. An important result was the development of innovation, esp the yoke & the domesticated horse

c. An important result was the development of fertilizers & field drainage

d. An important result was rapid population growth

The Apex of 2nd Ag Rev & Industrial Rev coincide both geologically ( location ) & time wise: in western Europe

The Ag Rev needed the rise of industrialized manufacturing sector both to create the technology of agriculture & to provide a market for ag goods

FOUR IMPROVEMENTS IN TECH OCCURRED DURING THE 2ND AG REV INCLUDING: AG MACHINES, TRANSPORT, FERTILIZER, & ROTATION

a. The manufacturing of agricultural machines was an important tech improvement of the 2nd ag rev

b. Transportation tech was an important tech improvement of the 2nd ag rev

c. Fertilizer, both natural & processed, was an important tech improvement of the 2nd ag rev

d. Agricultural practices, esp crop & field rotation were an important tech improvement of the 2nd ag rev

THE SECOND AG REV CHANGED SOCIETY BY DIFFUSING TECH, ESTB CAPITALISM, ESTB THE SMALL FARM, GROWING DEPENDENCE ON MFR, ESTB INTL SYS, & POP GROWTH

a. The second ag rev changed society by diffusing the new ag tech via European colonization around the world

b. The second ag rev changed society by allowing / enhancing the dominance of capitalism

c. The second ag rev changed society by establishing the small farm an important form for innovation & ownership

d. The second ag rev changed society by creating an ag sys that was dependent on the manufacturing sector for farm inputs such as equip, fertilizer, & more

e. The second ag rev changed society by establishing a nascent international system of trade for ag products

f. The second ag rev changed society because the new, more efficient ag allowed for rapid pop growth in the country & the city

SEVEN QUALITIES OF THE 2ND AG REV: SUBSISTENCE TO MKTS

a. Time span circa 1650 to present

b. Climax The climax / height of the 2nd ag rev occurred during the 18th C in Europe & the 19th & 20th Cs in the European colonies

c. Location W Europe & No. America

d. Innovation Surplus production technology created a surplus of food & ag markets that created financial returns for food

e. Conditions of change A mercantilist outlook was established, & the ag demands of Industrial Rev were met

f. Effect on society Ag developed as a separate area of the economy & the family farm becomes the norm

g. Types of agriculture Commercial development in the frame of the family farm became an engine of entrepreneurialism & innovation

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Outline on Outline on the Third Agricultural Revolution: Industrialization

External
Links

THE THIRD AG REV BEGAN MODERN FARMING & HI LEVELS OF MECHANIZATION & HI ENERGY USE IN PRODUCTION & PROCESSING

The 3rd ag rev ran from approximately from 1928 to the present & has created the ag industrial complex (AIC), ie a large, integrated ag sys from field, to industry, to the retailers

The 3rd ag rev emanates mostly from the New World & occurred in 20th C

The 3rd ag rev has allowed Earth's population to continue to sky rocket, esp as these ag techniques, which dramatically increase food production, have spread to the semi periphery & periphery

The 3rd ag rev requires tremendous inputs, & thus resource consumption in ag itself, ag mfr, ag processing, ag transport, & more requires large amts of energy that some experts believe is impractical as a global model, & unsustainable

Each of its 3 important developmental phases originated in No America

These processes completely industrialized the agricultural process

The industrialization of ag has not occurred uniformly nor universally throughout the globe

There are SIX Major Sectors of industrial ag, including:

     1. production
     2. storage
     3. processing

4. distribution
5. marketing
6. retailing

Ag has thus become linked to service sector

THE PHASES OF THE 3RD AG REV ARE MECHANIZATION, CHEM FARMING, & FOOD MANUFACTURING

Mechanization & chem farming affect ag inputs

The food manufacturing phase affects ag outputs

A. MECHANIZATION REPLACED HUMAN & ANIMAL LABOR IN AG, & CREATED A LARGE INDL MFR SECTOR

Mechanization in ag replace human & animal labor w/ tractors, plows, discs, sprayers, planters, cultivators, combines, trucks, grain dryers, etc.

Farm machinery became widely used around the 1920s

By the late 1940s, machinery had replaced human & animal labor

In Europe, mechanization didn't spread until after WW2

B. CHEM FARMING, ESP FERT, HERBICIDES & INSECTICIDES, INCREASED AG OUTPUTS & CREATED A LARGE CHEM MFR SECTOR

Chemical farming includes the application of:
      a. inorganic fertilizers
      b. herbicides
      c. fungicides
      d. pesticides & more

Chem farming became widespread in the 50s in US as major chem & ag corps developed new productions from liquid nitrogen fert to the herbicide Atrazine

Chem farming diffused to Europe in the 60s

Chem farming diffused to periphery in the 70s

Chem farming established the tech groundwork for the development of hybrid seeds & biotech methods

C. FOOD MANUFACTURING INCREASES THE VALUE & TRANSPORTABILITY OF FOOD & IN MANY WAYS CHANGES WHAT WE EAT & HOW WE EAT IT

Food manufacturing has used the manufacturing processes to increase the value of food by simplifying preparation & making it more convenient

The food manufacturing sector grew rapidly in the 1960s

The growth of food conglomerates: RJR Nabisco, etc., have been significant & set the stage for the next Ag Rev: Globalization

In many ways food mfr changes what we eat & how we eat it both at home & eating out in that prepared meals are common, & the variety of meals available has increased

Food mfr, including transport, refrigeration & freezing has made food from the entire globe available to anyone

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE 3RD AG REV ARE SIGNIFICANT

Industrialization has affected all 3 phases of the 3rd ag rev

Ag industrialization has moved the farm from being centerpiece of ag production to become 1 part of an integrated, multilevel (vertically organized) industrial process

The amt of energy required in today's ag sys is very large

Large scale ag farming can deplete the soil & harm indigenous species

Large scale ag farming consumes vast amt of water & many predict that aquifers will be drained in this century

Chem use in ag has been linked to increased cancer rates

The food produced by the ag industrial complex (AIC) is not healthy & has been linked to obesity, heart disease, cancer, birth defects, & more

Many experts believe the AIC & the present form of farming cannot be sustained

Alternatives to the AIC are being developed as some farmers develop new ag techniques that use less energy & chems

"Locavores," ie those who eat only locally grown food, demonstrate that this practice dramatically reduces the energy needed in the ag sysbecause transport is one of the largest inputs in the AIC

Without the increases in food output produced by the 3rd ag rev, the world's continued population explosion would have reached the tipping point of mass famine

The food output of the 3rd ag rev has allowed the world's pop to continue to growth rapidly

SEVEN QUALITIES OF THE 3RD AG REV: INDUSTRIALIZATION

a. Time span circa 1928 to present

b. Climax Present day

c. Location No America, Europe, USSR, E Europe

d. Innovation Lowest cost production methods crowd out healthy, humane ag sys

e. Conditions of change Ind ag established corporate & collective ag & the ag industrial complex (AIC)

f. Effect on society The focus on profit replaces the ag way of life

g. Types of agriculture Ag is commercially developed in the framework of corporation expansion & profit mandates

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Outline on the Fourth Agricultural Revolution: Globalization

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THE 4TH AG REV: GLOBALIZATION, HAS TIED OVER 2/3s OF THE WORLD'S PEOPLE TO THE MULTI TIERED INTERDEPENDENT SYS & THEREFORE SUCCESSES & FAILURES IN ANY PART OF THE SYS REVERBERATE THROUGHOUT

The 4th Ag Rev: Globalization, runs approximately from the late 1970s to the present

The ag system is presently incorporated into the world capitalist economic system

Modern ag uses global economic & regulatory practices

The 3rd & 4th Ag Rev's eliminated old forms of ag & integrated new forms into global econ systems

Examples include the decline of traditional ag practices: shifting cultivation & the decline of the family farm

GLOBALIZATION HAS WIELDED IT'S IMPACT ON THE AG SYS THROUGH MKTS, CORPS, GOVTS, & WORLD GOVERNANCE ORGS

The scope & org of ag is now global because of the dev of trans national ag conglomerates

The forces of globalization of ag include

1. technology
2. econ systems
3. political sys

4. culture
5. pop growth

& have all become global in scope

THERE ARE THREE WORLD INSTITS WHICH IMPACT THE GLOBALIZATION OF AG, INCLUDING THOSE THAT REGULATE TRADE, FINANCE, & CORPS

1. Intl trade is regulated by the World Trade Org (WTO), the General Agreement on Trade & Tariffs (GATT), the Intl Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank (WB), the European Union (EU), the Assoc of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), & others

The World Bank (WB), the Food & Ag Organization ( FAO ) & many other global orgs have been involved in ag development in the periphery for 5 decades

The WB & the FAO try to improve the capacity of the ag sector in peripheral nations

Often despite intentions to improve development, intl development dislocates the local population

2. Intl finance is loosely "regulated" by the world stock markets, & futures / commodity mkts such as the Chicago Mercantile Exchange

3. Many transnational global corps, such as Dole, ADM, Monsanto, John Deere, etc., have more econ power than many semi peripheral & peripheral nations

Kenya & Brasilia, Brazil are TWO Examples of international development:

In Kenya, the World Bank financed livestock production which displaced traditional pastoralism which meant the loss of livelihood for thousands of people

The World Bank financed the development of Brasilia & a major highway from the coast to Brasilia

The dev of Brasilia & the accompanying hwy sys opened rain forest to destructive development & displaced indigenous peoples to urban slums

THE GLOBAL AG SYS IS INTERNALLY INTERDEPENDENT W/ THE INSTITS IN AG, &
EXTERNALLY INTERDEPENDENT W/ MFR, CHEMS, MKTING, ETC.

The global ag sys is so greatly internally & externally dependent in that all parts of the ag system are linked w/ each other as well as w/ global orgs not in the ag sys (such as banking, transport, etc.) that many analysts now refer to it as an ag industrial complex (AIC)

The AIC is externally dependent in that the ag sector is linked w/ other sectors, such as industrial, chem, govt, etc. sectors

Changes in the wider economy affect all sectors of economy including agriculture

An example of the interdepence of the AIC can be seen in that:

1. production surpluses or shortages in any area, affect many other areas

2. soil erosion affects many areas of the global & this run off impacts many other areas

3. food price stability or instability is now a worldwide phenomenon, not a local one

4. ag practices in one area impact the water quality & water availability in many areas

	NATIONS ATTEMPT TO REG THE AIC & MAINTAIN PRODUCTION VIA SUBSIDIES, PROD REGS, ECON DEV & FINANCING
	Nations attempt to regulate the AIC & maintain production, consumption, corporate profits through:
	1. production subsidies which increase production
	2. consumer subsidies which increase consumption
	3. production & processing regulations which standardize many features of the ag sys such as quality, grading, etc.
	4. through ag econ dev, ie trying to foster the transition to mod, mechanized, chem farming in semi peripheral & peripheral nations
	5. through ag finance intervention, loaning money to those who need it to further ag dev or just to buy food
	NATIONS SUBSIDIZE AG THROUGH THE PROGRAMS OF DIRECT LIMITING PMTS, TARGETED EXPANSION PMTS, BUYING AG SURPLUS, PRICE CEILINGS & FLOORS, & CROP INSURANCE
	1. Direct limiting pmts are used to encourage farmers not to grow certain crops such as dairy
	2. Targeted expansion pmts pay farmers to grow certain crops such as corn
	3. Buying ag surplus crops is a mkt based program where the govt enters the mkt & buys what it believes to be excess livestock, produce (milk, etc.)
	4. Price ceilings & floors are targets set by the govt to keep below an upper level, the ceiling, & above a lower limit, the floor
	5. Crop insurance is a self financing sys where if farmers want, they can buy insurance in case of catastrophic crop or herd failure, though farmers receiving any govt pmts must have crop insurance
	One major problem w/ ag subsidies is that the system is continually plagued by over production
	One major problem w/ ag subsidies is that fixing prices is a disincentive for producers to lower production levels

	IT IS IRONIC THAT OVER PRODUCTION HAMPERS AG DEV IN MANY AREAS, & YET NEARLY 1 BB PEOPLE GLOBALLY ARE MALNOURISHED
	The "great irony of the agricultural industrial complex" is that 30 mm Americans are hungry each day (about 8 %) & globally, thousands die each day from malnutrition yet the core countries ag systems are plagued by over-production
	The great irony is one of the arguments of the post modernists & the anti globalization forces that rationality & the present system cannot stand
	Because of over production in the US, the govt must dispose it
	It "dumps" or sells below cost in peripheral nations & in US
	This harms local production because it drives prices down
	There are TWO reasons for state intervention
	1. Correct wider economic problems
	Governments intervene routinely in one economic sector or another to correct wider problems of inflation or depression
	In the 1920s & 30s the govt attempted to address the problem of economic depression by reducing overproduction
	2. Protect consumer interest
	Govt support of ag leads to hi prices for consumers
	Govt therefore subsidizes the price of food in the "free market" for consumers to keep the work force well fed & to avoid bread riots
	Govt created FDA at turn of century after Upton Sinclair wrote "The Jungle"
	Core govts frequently intervene in peripheral nations
	Food & ag development aid are distributed as both rewards & punishments
	1980s: Reagan threatens an ag embargo against the SU; the US wouldn't sell them grain

	SUCCESSFUL AG DEV IN THE PERIPHERY DEPENDS ON LOCAL AG SYS, SMALL PROJECTS, CULTURAL SENSITIVITY, ECON & POL SENSITIVITY, & PROFITABLE PROJECTS
	1. Successful ag dev in the periphery depends on having ag systems that are operated on the local scale & levels
	2. Successful ag dev in the periphery depends on developing small projects that are sensitive to local social factors & successful / profitable
	3. Successful ag dev in the periphery depends on sensitivity to local cultural & social conditions, esp gender
	4. Successful ag dev in the periphery depends on sensitivity to local econ & political conditions, esp inequality, exploitation, & authoritarianism
	5. Successful ag dev in the periphery depends on income generating projects, eg setting up small ag coops for production of poultry, veggies, handicrafts, etc.
	Helping another country or another person is perhaps the most difficult task in life
	Local production becomes insufficient when dominated by production for the global mkt
	Food aid harms local production
	Food aid keeps countries dependent & sometimes even destroys the local mkts by flooding them w/ free food
	Oxfam is a charity that gives aid in growing crops & raising stock rather than just giving food
	Food & food aid can become a potent weapon of war as seen historically as well as in recent conflicts in the Sudan in 90s & 2000s, & in Ethiopia in the 2000s, & w/ our conflict w/ No Korea from the 90s up to & including today
	The Chart on Major Donors & Recipients of Food Aid demonstrates that the core nations & some semi peripheral nations are able to produce enough of a food surplus to donate some to semi peripheral & peripheral nations
	SEVEN QUALITIES OF THE 4TH AG REV: GLOBALIZATION
	a. Time span circa the late 1970s to the Present
	b. Climax Present day
	c. Location Almost entire planet
	d. Innovation Establish global markets & patterns of consumption
	e. Conditions of change AIC goes global
	f. Effect on society Globalization establishes profit at the expense of the local environment
	g. Types of agriculture Commercial development in the frame of global corporation

The Chart on Major Donors & Recipients of Food Aid 1988-1989
Major Donors	Major Recipients
US	Bangladesh
W Germany	China
Australia	Dominican Republic
Japan	Egypt
Italy	El Salvador
Argentina	Ethiopia
Saudi Arabia	Guatemala
Austria	Jamaica
France	Kenya
Denmark	Malawi
Switzerland	Mexico
The Netherlands	Morocco
European Community	Mozambique
Ireland	Pakistan
Belgium & Luxembourg	Peru
Canada	Philippines
Spain	Sri Lanka
Sweden	Sudan
Greece	Tunisia
Norway	Vietnam
Finland
UK
The Chart on Major Donors & Recipients of Food Aid demonstrates that the core nations & some semi peripheral nations are able to produce enough of a food surplus to donate some to semi peripheral & peripheral nations

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Outline on Commercial Agriculture: The Agri Food System

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COMMERCIAL AG, THE SELLING OF AG PRODUCE FOR PROFIT, IS A MODERN INSTIT, OCCURRING EN MASS SINCE THE 1700s

Farmers engaged in commercial ag in the 20th C, produced crops & animals primarily for sale rather than for direct consumption

Commercial ag created mechanical, industrial ag as we know it today, ie the agricultural industrial complex (AIC)

There are THREE prominent & nested forces in commercial agriculture, including:
     A. agribusiness
     B. govt policies / subsidies
     C. food chains
     D. the integration of ag w/ the manufacturing, service, finance & trade sectors of the econ

A. AGRIBUSINESS PRIMARILY CONSISTS OF THE AG INDL COMPLEX (AIC), INCLUDING THE CORP FARMS, GOVT POLICIES/SUBSIDIES, MFR, SERVICE, FINANCE, TRADE SECTORS THAT SUPPORT IT

Agribusiness, aka the corporate farm, or the factory farm is a system of econ & political relationships that organizes food production from the development of seeds to retailing & consumption

Transnational corps ( TNC ) are the major players in the system of agribusiness

TNCs can negotiate the complexities of production & distribution in many locales

B. THE GOVT POLICIES / SUBSIDIES THAT SUPPORT THE AIC VARY AMONG NATIONS, & THE GLOBAL REG AGENCIES, BUT ATTEMPT TO SECURE A FOOD SUPPLY AS WELL AS A VALUABLE EXPORT COMMODITY

National ag policies general have some role in regulating / legitimizing commercial ag; many such policies which serve to preserve the status quo & hurt local ag dev projects

Every global regulatory agency from the IMF to the WTO generally reflect the overarching support for commercial ag at the expense of local ag dev

C. FOOD CHAINS HIGHLIGHT THE MANY LINKAGES / INTERDEPENDENCIES AMONG THE ACTORS IN THE AIC WHICH MAKE IT AT ONCE GLOBAL & EFFICIENT, BUT ALSO VULNERABLE TO DISRUPTION, ENERGY INTENSIVE, ETC.

Food chains are made up of 4 central & connected sectors w/ 4 contextual elements acting as external mediating forces

The FOUR central sectors in the food chain include:
1. inputs 3. outputs
2. production 4. distribution

The FOUR mediating forces in the food chain include:
1. States 3. physical environment
2. Intl trade 4. credit & finance system

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The Chart on the Food Supply System indicates that the food chain today consists of ag inputs, farms, processing, distribution, & consumption practices, each of which has its own structural & envl factors affecting it

	D. COMMERCIAL AG INTEGRATION IS VITAL TO IT'S SUCCESS
	By their very nature, agribusiness & the food chain components are highly integrated into a world system
	The nature of the integration of Commercial Ag is shaped by THREE Factors: a. govt policies b. corporate influence c. social systems (traditions, expectations, etc.)
	Social & technical change in global ag has resulted in restructuring
	Ag has experienced the same political & economic forces that affect globalization in all economic sectors
	By their very nature, agribusiness & the food chain components are highly integrated into a world system
	Globalization has affected ag as it has become more industrialized & commercialized
	This system of the globalization of ag creates conflict & competition w/in nations & between nations
	Commercial agriculture's human impact is seen in EIGHT groupings
	The struggle to maintain control over production & a way of life affects many different types of people around the world: 1. women 5. tribes 2. men 6. family farms 3. landowners 7. corps 4. peasant 8. govts

	THERE ARE SEVERAL FOOD CHAINS FOR BEEF PRODUCTION INCLUDING NAT GRASS, CLEARED GRASS, FODDER, GRAIN SYSTEMS
	There are FOUR forms of food chains for beef production, including the: A. natural grass based system B. cleared grass based where grazing occurs on cleared land C. fodder based system where fodder is grown by farmers to feed the livestock D. grain based system where both fodder & grain are grown by farmers to feed the livestock
	A. AIC BEEF PRODUCTION: A NATURAL GRASS BASED SYS IS WHERE GRAZING OCCURS ON NATURAL GRASSLANDS
	Cattle production in Amazon & Mexico using the nat grass based sys
	Processing of grass fed beef from the Amazon & Mexico occurs along the US & Mexican border
	Grass fed beef from the Amazon & Mexico produces frozen hamburgers for grocery stores in the core nations, McDonalds, & other fast food outlets worldwide
	AIC Beef Production has displaced local agriculture in many regions, including: Amazon periphery Mexico semi periphery US core
Link	The Chart on New Zealand Grassland Based Beef Production indicates that a long & integrated food chain is little different from a grain based food chain other than the lower cost of grass as feed
Link	The Chart on US, European Commercial Grain Based Beef Production indicates that a long & integrated food chain is little different from a grass based food chain other than the higher cost of grain as feed
	Grazing is more economical, environmental, & ethical
	World puts over 100 mm tons of grain into meat production / year
	20 lbs grain --> 1 lbs meat
	Takes 110x H20 for lb of meat / lb of grain
	Over half of H20 used in US is used in meat industry, most of it for irrigation of fodder
	1 acre = 165 lbs beef or 20,000 lbs potatoes
	Grazing: Major reason for cutting rain forest
	Ethical treatment of animals

	COMMERCIAL AG DEV ALONG THE GAMBIA RIVER HAD PROBLEMS OF INTEGRATING AGRIBUSINESS, MKTS, & CULTURAL FACTORS
	The Gambia River is located in Senegal, Africa which is near the western horn of Africa
	The govt, w/ help of international development agencies, began a program to grow rice along banks of the river
	Senegal wanted to reduce their dependency on imported rice
	The govt & international development agencies distributed rice seed, fertilizer, pesticide, etc. to 2000 peasants in 70 villages
	The society had to restructure labor, land, & crop rights
	Women were not free to work when they were the most needed in the field
	Women wanted to control their own time & labor to produce rice for both family & the mkt
	M & W disagreed over who controlled the land & crops & so the project failed
	COMMERCIAL AG'S HUMAN IMPACT IS SEEN IN EIGHT GROUPINGS
	The struggle to maintain control over production & a way of life affects many different types of people around the world: 1. women 5. tribes 2. men 6. family farms 3. landowners 7. corps 4. peasant 8. govts

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Chart on the Food Supply System

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The Food Chain

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Agricultural Inputs Fertilizer
Biotech
Factories & machinery
Agri chemicals
Advisory Services
Energy

State Farm Policies Influence on inputs
Influence on prices
Influence on farm structure
Fiscal policy
Land inheritance
Environment

Environment Space
Biological time
Soil
Topography
Climate

Farm Production Farm size
Enterprise type
Farmland
Farm labor
Land tenure

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Product Processing Washing & grading
Freezing & packing
Transforming
Slaughtering & jointing

Intl Food Trade
Exports & Imports Competitive products
Noncomp prods
Export subsidies
Food aid

Credit / Finance Ag markets
Mortgages
Clearing banks
Pension funds
Credit corps

Food Distribution Wholesalers
Retailers
Catering

blank

Food Consumption Population & growth
Dietary preferences
Purchasing power
Household structure
Employment

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Chart on New Zealand Grassland Based Beef Production

New Zealand govt Overseas govts

Finance

Industrial
inputs:
seeds, sprays
fertilizer

Grass-
land
livestock
farming

Truck

Freeze
works

Shipping

Truck

Food
manufacturing

Super
markets

Fast food

service

industry

service

industry

service

industry

service

The Chart on New Zealand Grassland Based Beef Production indicates that a long & integrated food chain is little different from a grain based food chain other than the lower cost of grass as feed

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Chart on US, European Commercial Grain Based Beef Production

US govt US, EC or peripheral govt

Finance

Indust
inputs:
seeds
sprays
fertilizer

Grain
Farming:
wheat, corn
soybeans
Beef raising

Truck

Feedlots

Truck

Meat
packers

Truck

Food
mfr

Super
mkts

Fast
Food

service

industry

service

industry

service

industry

service

The Chart on US, European Commercial Grain Based Beef Production indicates that a long & integrated food chain is little different from a grass based food chain other than the higher cost of grain as feed

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Outline on the US Farm Crisis

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- Supplement: USA Today: Will family farms die like Mom & Pop stores?

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THE ORIGINS OF THE FARM CRISIS GO BACK TO THE NEW DEAL, FARM SUPPORT PROGRAMS, BANKING PRACTICES, & THE OPEC OIL CRISIS

The role of govt in ag is such that the farm economy is one of most controlled in US

Since FDR, the US govt
- limits prod by paying farmers not to grow crops
- sets price ceilings & floors
- buys & sells crops to attain these price controls
- sells crop insurance

The farm crisis resulted in the call for return to free mkt

THE GOVT PASSED THE FARM BILL IN THE 90s TO FADE OUT GOVT REGS OF FARMING, BUT THE REGS / SUPPORTS ARE STILL IN PLACE

The govt passed the farm bill in 90s to fade out govt regulation

But minor crises have periodically returned, so Congress has passed several one time supplements

See Also: The Green Revolution

BANKRUPTCY FOR FARMERS IS UNIQUE BECAUSE THEY CAN LOSE EVERYTHING

As land values fell, Farmers could not liquidate & pay off debt

Many farmers had to sell several acreages to pay off one acreage, & eventually lost it all

But farm bankruptcy is unique in that it allows for the sale of all personal possessions

Normal bankruptcy allows retention of necessities which often includes 1 home, 1 car, some cash, & normal personal possessions

THE EFFECTS OF THE CRISIS DECIMATED THE FAMILY FARM & THE RURAL LIFESTYLE

The Farm Crisis hit:
- mid sized farmers
- farmers w/ income of $40,000 to $200,00 in sales
- young farmers needing to go into debt
- farmers in IL, IA, KS, MI, MO, NE, ND, SD

The crisis sank many small towns based on farm econ, thus affecting schools, churches, etc.

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Example: Lexington, NE

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Example: Yankton, SD

European farmers were also in crisis

On March 4, 1985 farmers staged one of the first protests of the Farm Crisis

Farmers marched on Washington DC 7 drove a tractor convoy down Penn Ave

In their protest, the farmers placed 250 white crosses on Washington Mall representing the number of farmers bankrupting each day

On May 7, 1985 many stars supported farmers including Jessica Lange, Jane Fonda, Sissy Spacek who spoke before US House of Rep & all had movies about farm crisis

Farm Aid Concerts began on September 22, 1985 when Willie Nelson began a series of Farm Aid Concerts to raise awareness about loss of family farm & raise $$ for farmers

AS FAMILY FARMS FADED, CORP FARMS GREW

While the corp farm will inevitably be more efficient, it is based on poor environmental practices & is more subject to control, control of food

Countries that have experienced food shortages believe that family farm provide a more secure food supply for THREE reasons, in that family farms:

a. are not limited by profitability, they will raise food regardless of the profitability

b. cannot manipulate supply or price

c. are decentralized & therefore less susceptible to system collapse, diseases, etc.

Europe, Japan, & China support family farms

SU/ Russia, US support the corporate farm

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Lexington, NE Farm Crisis

Farms failing
Community tension & conflict
Meat packing identified as alternative
State tax abatements & other incentives to IBP, a giant food conglomerate
IBP opened in '92 w/ 2000 wkrs
Most wkrs are immigrants, actively recruited by the corp: Mexican & Central Am
This created social & econ problems
Ethnic tension & resentment
Housing crunch
Had to build homeless shelter
Developed highest crime rate in NE

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Yankton, SD Farm Crisis

60s: Young man decides to start farming
Buys land, expands slowly over 10 yrs adding 80 acres every few yrs
Land costs, ag costs, crop prices relatively stable
70s: bankers come around w/ cheap loans
Farm advisors claim: increase your acreage or die
Mid age man quadruples the size of his farm to 3000 ac
Prices fall, banks call some loans
Prices of land falls so cannot sell land to pay debt
Goes bankrupt
Ends up w/ same acreage as before expansion but in debt greater than the value of the land

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Outline on the Green Revolution in Agriculture

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THE GREEN REV ATTEMPTED TO DECREASE THE INPUTS NEEDED FOR AG, & INCREASE THE OUTPUTS OF AG

Farmers have two main methods of making their land more productive, including:
a. increasing their use of irrigation, energy, & fertilizer
b. improving varieties of grains & livestock, which produce higher crop yields & larger amounts of livestock products

Farmers in developed countries have used both methods of increasing inputs & varieties of outputs for many years

In the 1960's, farmers in some developing countries also adopted both methods of input & variety modification to increase their production of wheat & rice

The effort to develop ag inputs & outputs proved so successful that it has become known as the Green Revolution

THE GREEN REV HYBRIDIZED FLORA & FAUNA IN AN ATTEMPT TO REDUCE COSTS & INCREASE YIELDS

The Green Rev in ag focused on plant & livestock breeding

In the early 1900s, plant breeders in the US developed a hybrid corn that produced unusually high yields

Various corn hybrids became commercially available in the 1920s

By the early 1960's, more than 95 % of all US corn acreage was planted w/ hybrid seed

Average corn yields in the US increased dramatically as a result of hybridization via the Green Rev

Average corn yield nearly doubled btwn the early 1920s & the early 1960s, & they have continued to increase significantly since that time

During the 1960s, scientists introduced varieties of wheat & rice that gave much higher yields than earlier varieties

The new varieties of wheat & rice were intended mainly to help various poor nations, such as India & Mexico, increase their food supply

The effort to increase the yields of basic cereal crops proved so successful that it has been called the Green Revolution

Link

BORLAUG SUCCESSFULLY HYBRIDIZED WHEAT & RICE, INCREASING YIELDS AROUND THE WORLD

Norman Ernest Borlaug, (pronounced BAWR lawg) (1914 - ) was an American ag scientist who received the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize for developing new varieties of wheat

Borlaug was born in Cresco, Iowa

In 1944, the Rockefeller Foundation sent Borlaug to Mexico to develop wheat that would produce large amounts of grain in tropical regions

By the 1950s, his varieties had greatly increased Mexican harvests

In the 1960s, high yield varieties of wheat developed by Borlaug were introduced into India, Pakistan, & other countries

These wheats changed some nations from grain importers into grain exporters & reduced the danger of famine

The improvement in the world's food supply that resulted from such Borlaug & others' varieties of crops is sometimes called the Green Revolution

MANY OF THE HYBRIDS REQUIRED MORE INPUTS TO PRODUCE MORE YIELDS

The development of high yield varieties of rice & wheat made the Green Revolution possible

But the Green Rev also required greater use of irrigation water, energy, & fertilizer

Many farmers got the water from wells & installed electric or diesel powered pumps to bring the water to the surface

To get the highest yields, farmers had to enrich their soil w/ fertilizers

During the 1960's, these methods helped such countries as India & Mexico double their wheat production

WHILE THE GREEN REV BENEFITED ALL, IT WAS NOT AS SUCCESSFUL IN DEVELOPING NATIONS BECAUSE OF THE INCREASED INPUTS REQUIRED

The Green Revolution can continue to make farmland more productive

For example, if farmers in the tropics have enough water, fertilizer, & other essential resources, they can grow two or three crops a year on the same land, instead of one crop

But the Green Revolution's ability to increase the food supply is limited

Many farmers in less developed countries cannot afford the additional resources that the Green Revolution requires

But in any case, greater use of these resources makes land more productive only up to a point

Most farmers in the US, for example, use 7 to 10 times as much fertilizer on each unit of land as do most farmers in less developed countries

Despite using a proportionally higher level of fertilizer, but U.S. grain yields are only about twice as large as those in less developed countries

THROUGH HYBRIDIZATION, SCIENTISTS CONTINUE ATTEMPTS TO INCREASE THE NUTRITIONAL VALUES OF AG OUTPUTS

The best hope for making farmland more productive lies w/ ag research

For example, research scientists are working to develop varieties of grain that not only produce higher yields but also have other improved characteristics

A hybridized grain might supply a more complete combination of amino acids, make more efficient use of water & fertilizer, & provide better resistance to insects & disease

But it is extremely difficult to develop a plant variety that has so many different characteristics

The necessary research therefore takes much time & money

THE TENSION OF THE EFFICIENCY OF SMALL & LARGE SCALE FARMING CONTINUES

In some instances, developing countries have benefited from the intro of large scale ag

The practice of large scale farming has often been promoted as a way to generate income through export of the crops

Large scale farming uses more energy than small scale farming, however, to produce the same amount of food

Small scale farming is now encouraged over large scale farming to increase food supplies for local people in less developed countries

COMPARING THE GREEN & BIO REVS SHOWS THAT EACH HAS MAJOR IMPACTS & THE BIO REV IS A 'NATURAL SCIENTIFIC' CONTINUATION OF THE GREEN REV

Link

The Table: The Bio Revolution Compared w/ the Green Revolution demonstrates that the Green Rev is in many ways a precursor to the Bio Rev & thus while they have many similarities such as modifying varieties of flora & fauna, they also have many different processes & outcomes

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Dr. Norman E. Borlaug receives the Congressional Gold Medal in 2007.
Burlaug, a 1970 Nobel Laureate, was honored for his work in the 'Green Revolution,' saving millions of lives from famine in India, Mexico, & the Middle East.

Table: The Bio Revolution Compared w/ the Green Revolution
Characteristics	Green Revolution	Bio Revolution
Crops affected	Wheat, rice, maize	Possibly all crops veggies, fruits, exports, specialty
Other sectors affected	None	Pesticides, animals, drugs, food, energy, mining, warfare
Territories affected	Some developed nations	Global
Development of technology & dissemination	Mostly public or quasi public: Intl Ag Research Ctrs (IARCs) R&D in $$ mm	Private sector, especially transnational corporations R&D in $$ bb
Proprietary considerations	Plant breeders' rights & patents not relevant	Genes, cells, plants, animals, held to be patentable No total ownership yet
Capital costs of research	Low	Hi for many techniques Discovering more low cost technologies
Access to info	Relatively easy due to policy of IARCs	Restricted due to privatization
Research skills required	Conventional breeding & ag science	Molecular & cell biology plus conventional methods
Crop vulnerability	Hi yield varieties are uniform & have hi vulnerability	Exact genetic copies even more vulnerable to monoculture diseases
Side effects	Monoculture problems Chemicals Displacement Environmental degradation	Crop substitution replacing 3rd World exports Herbicide tolerance More chemicals Engineered organisms might affect environment Displacement increases
The Table: The Bio Revolution Compared w/ the Green Revolution demonstrates that the Green Rev is in many ways a precursor to the Bio Rev & thus while they have many similarities such as modifying varieties of flora & fauna, they also have many different processes & outcomes

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Outline on Biotechnology in Agriculture

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BIOTECHNOLOGY IS THE MANAGING OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS FOR HUMAN BENEFIT

The best known form of biotechnology is genetic engineering, which involves altering the genes of a living organism

Examples of biotechnology include cell cultures, which are growths of animal or plant cells in the laboratory, & monoclonal antibodies, which are specialized protein molecules

Biotechnology has important applications in medicine, ag, industry, & other fields

Genetically altered microbes can manufacture a wide range of products, including human protein drugs, animal growth hormones, & raw materials for industrial chemicals

Biotechnology consists of the techniques that use living organisms or parts of organisms to:
- make or modify products ( plants & animals )
- improve plants & animals
- develop microorganisms for specific uses

There are FOUR fundamental biotechnological methods, including:
         a. natural selection
         b. hybridization involves selective out breeding
         c. creating pure breeds involves selective in breeding
         d. genetic engineering

Genetic engineers involves gene splicing which creates transgenic organisms

Genetic engineers involves cloning which creates exact copies of organisms

Biotechnology is an emerging technology

Biotechnology involves both the use of technology to solve medical problems and the use of biological science to aid in industrial processes

Recent advances in genetic research have changed the ways in which people fight disease & hunger

The manipulation of the chemical info contained in cells has resulted in the creation of cells that make insulin & plastics, & plants that are more resistant to disease & yield larger amounts of food

Biotechnology assumes a belief in the superiority of science & technology

There is the assumption that biotechnological side effects can be controlled

Researchers such as Jeremy Rifkin challenge this

Biotechnology reduces ag costs

Biotechnology is used as resource management technique: replaces natural resources w/ manufactured ones

There have been many fruits of biotech, including:
       - corn & soybeans which are more disease resistance
       - rice w/ increased levels of vitamin A
       - develop bacteria which limit frost damage to strawberries
       - trees such as the douglas fir which grow fast & big
       - trout which grow fast, but which are not approved for production, yet
       - oil eating bacteria
       - laundry detergent enzymes
       - medicine such as insulin, growth hormones, & more

It is now technologically possible to clone complex life forms, though cloning processes are not currently widely used in ag production

Scientists have successfully cloned sheep, pigs for organ harvesting, cats, dogs, & more

Japanese scientists cloned humans in the late 90s, but none of the fetuses were brought to term, & no living human is known to be a clone at this time

THERE ARE DANGERS INHERENT IN THE USE OF BIOTECH IN AG INCLUDING: DISEASE, ESCAPE, COSTS/STRAT, PATENTS / OWNERSHIP, & LABOR DISPLACEMENT

Biotechnology has generated public concern, particularly about the ethics and safety of certain uses of genetic engineering

In the US, a number of fed agencies regulate biotechnological research & its products.

1. MANY HYBRIDS, CLONES, ETC. ARE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DISEASE, ETC.

The danger of mono cultures, i.e. the growing of large tracts of uniform crops or animals, is that they all have similar strengths & weaknesses & thus the entire population is susceptible to a given disease

In a mono cultural population, one disease, climate burble can decimate large tracts

Natural multi cultures are more resistant because they have a wide variety of strengths & weaknesses & thus a given disease will only impact a part of the population

2. MODIFIED LIFE FORMS MAY ESCAPE HUMAN CONTROL & RAVAGE NATURAL POPULATIONS OR THE ENV

Clones, hybrids, genetically modified life forms are a danger to the natural pop because like an invasive species, they may displace nat pops, which may be detrimental in & of itself, or they may convert the nat multi cultural pop to a mono cultural pop

Monsanto has engineered seeds that 'expire' in that they create plants that produce only sterile seeds

If Monsanto's expiring seeds escaped into the natural pop, they could sterilize that pop

Engineered, rapidly growing fish could escape & destroy natural pops

Hybridized 'farm fish' have already escaped during floods, & are negatively impacting natural pops of fish

3. MODIFIED LIFE FORMS, BECAUSE THE COST OF OWNERSHIP, PRODUCTION, & USE, MAY BE AVAILABLE TO SOME GRPS & NOT OTHERS, INCREASING THE LEVEL OF STRAT OF THE BASIC HUMAN NEED OF FOOD

Engineered ag has hi cost & powerful interests organize to sell these products, & in any mkt, some people may be priced out

Because only commercial farmers can afford them, this increases the gap btwn wealthy & poor ag regions

4. THE PATENTING/OWNERSHIP OF LIFE FORMS LIMITS ACCESS TO RESOURCES THAT WERE ONCE FREELY AVAILABLE TO ALL

Private ownership of biotech process is creating ownership of life & food to an extent never seen before

Ownership of life forms makes it possible for the world food supply to be controlled by corporations

5. EFFICIENCIES IN BIOTECH MAY SO REDUCE LABOR COSTS THAT TRADL AG PRACTICES MAY BE ELIMINATED, MAKING SOME NATIONS LESS SELF SUFFICIENT

The reduction of labor costs is an opportunity & a threat in any industry as the old ways are destroyed, sometimes there is a gap before new ways take hold

New, more efficient modes of production often make a society more dependent on global systems which sometimes becomes a liability when compared to locally self sufficient systems

The reduction of labor costs is an opportunity & a threat in any commercialization of ag

The reduction of labor costs allows the production of crops & animals in new areas, while reducing demand in traditional areas

The reduction of labor costs may displace traditional farmers & threaten local production

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Outline on Agriculture & the Environment

External
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Project: Chemicals, Energy & the Ethical Treatment of Animals

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AG & ENVIRONMENTALISM ARE RELATED THROUGH HUMAN PRACTICES WHICH IMPACT THE SOIL, CLIMATE, FLORA, FAUNA, WATER, & AIR

The relationship btwn the physical environment & agriculture relates primarily to the soil types, the climate: precipitation, temperature, etc., the terrain, & human's manipulation of these factors

There is a strong, 2 way relationship btwn agriculture & the physical environment
How does agriculture change the environment?

Ag involves the interaction of the biophysical & human systems

Ag is perhaps the most dependent on the environment

Extractive industries also depend on the environment

The management of the environment by farmers is always increasing

Ag tries to get around the limits of the physical environment by, for example, by irrigation, double cropping, wind breaks, terracing, etc.

Mechanized ag is an inefficient use of resources in SEVEN respects

1. Soil degradation is occurring on every continent w/ over one sixth of Earth's surface already impacted

2. Biotechnology can threaten the environment through FOUR avenues if not properly controlled

3. Unethical treatment of animals abounds in the commercial ag system

4. Agricultural chemicals are affecting the soil, the water, plants & animal, & thus people

5. The degradation & depletion of the fresh water supply is occurring because of irrigation, tillage practices, ag chemicals, etc.

6. Tillage of the wild spaces

7. Commercial ag utilizes a higher level of resources than traditional ag

1. SOIL DEGRADATION IS OCCURRING ON EVERY CONTINENT

Soil degradation is occurring on every continent with over one sixth of Earth's surface already impacted

Today erosion occurs at over 1000x the historic normal rate

In the 1930s the Dust Bowl occurred in the midwest of the US & nothing was done by the govt until the dust from the midwest blew into Washington, DC

In the 2000s the dust from the Gobi Bowl of China reach the west coast of the US

Soil is a fixed resource that cannot be readily replaced

It takes 100 to 500 yrs to produce one half inch of soil

55 thousand million tons of soil is lost each year

The causes of soil loss include tillage, overgrazing, changing/degrading water run off, irrigation & salinization, over cropping, lack of wind breaks, etc.

The Chart on global soil resource problems shows that there is a high level of soil degradation problems on every continent

The Chart on global soil resource problems shows that over one sixth of the Earth's soil has been destroyed w/ Europe having the highest destroyed % & No America the lowest destroyed %

DESERTIFICATION IS THE PROCESS OF RENDERING A REGION BARREN BY ENVL EXTREMES, ESP BY LOW RAINFALL & TILLAGE WHICH DESTROYS THE SOIL

Topsoil & vegetative loss is so extreme that it is permanent & nothing will grow there

Desertification as manifested by the lack of top soil & the lack of vegetation creates an eco zone that becomes hotter & dryer that the eco zone it replaced

The desertified eco zone exhibits the same processes that urban heat sinks create

Desertification affects water quality & quantity

Desertification is especially prevalent in the slashed & burned areas of the Amazon

In Africa the southern the edge of Sahara Desert is steadily increasing

In China, the Gobi desert in Asia has also been growing dramatically

TILLAGE DESTROYS HABITAT & WATERSHEDS

As pop increased & as soil degrades, more marginal areas are tilled

Tillage destroys natural areas, i.e. the remaining animal & plant habitats & water sheds

Furthermore, the marginal areas are more fragile & thus often become degraded themselves

The Dust Bowl of 1930s was a result of over cultivation of early industrialized farming methods

Erosion of soil continues in US & around the globe

We are losing tillable acres each day

Tropical soil is fragile

In tropical zones, soil depletion is common because of heavy rain & over production of crops

The development of tropical land occurs through FIVE steps including:

a. logging / deforesting the land

b. slashing & burning prepares the land for cultivation

Swidden is an area cleared for temporary cultivation by cutting & burning the vegetation

c. farming the land, usually to extent that it depletes the soil

d. abandoning the land for farming; developing grazing

e. abandoning the land for grazing & seeking new land:

In a decade, the fragile tropical soil becomes degraded

	2. BIOTECHNOLOGY CAN THREATEN THE ENV THROUGH ESCAPE , COMPETITION & DISPLACEMENT, MONO CULTURES, UNKNOWN OUTCOMES
	Biotechnology can threaten the environment if not properly controlled
	a. Biotech escape occurs when flora or fauna is designed to be produced in a controlled env, but escapes into the wider env
	b. Biotech competition & displacement occurs when a designed species out competes & thus displaces or destroys a native species
	c. Biotech monocultures, i.e. large populations of one type of species is more susceptible to disease & disruption than a multi culture / varied population
	d. Biotech unknown outcomes may create species w/ unknown & destructive properties leading to env disaster
	3. THE UNETHICAL TREATMENT OF ANIMALS OCCURS IN THE COMMERCIAL AG SYS
	Americans consume 3 bb birds / yr (12 / person)
	Americans consume 145 mm cattle, pigs, sheep, etc.
	80 % of animals are raised on 17 % of farms which are all large corporate farms
	98% of chickens & 70% of all animals are raised in a restricted environment
	Only 2 % of birds & 30 % of bovines are happy barnyard animals
	The living conditions for chickens & pigs are extreme
	Some pigs & chickens are driven insane by their confinement & treatment
	The ag industry diagnoses this as porcine stress syndrome
	Slaughter methods insure animals are stressed
	See also: Video: Temple Brandon
	Hunters know that animals that die under stress taste bad
	Many hunters will not eat stressed meat
	The cruelest animal treatment is in product testing & the medical industry
	There are regulations, but they allow for extreme cruelty, often allowing for any type of treatment as long as the animal is killed in the end
	4. AG CHEMS ARE IMPACTING THE SOIL, WATER, PLANTS, ANIMALS, & THUS PEOPLE Ag chems are affecting the soil, the water, plants, animals, & thus people
	You are what you eat: chems, etc, growth hormones, antibiotics, feed supplements: vitamins, minerals, etc., tranquilizers, other medicines
	Animals eat fodder that cannot be fed to humans because of the herbicides on it, but the irony is that the animals concentrate the trace elements in their meat
	Until the mad cow disease scare of the 2000s, animal fodder was supplemented w/ animal by products, & thus cattle, pigs, sheep, birds, etc. were 'cannibals'
	Pesticides have environmental costs
	Rachel Carson's Silent Spring demonstrated that DDT destroyed eggs & bones
	Carson predicted a silent spring, no bird songs, if DDT continued to be used
	Silent Spring was a cornerstone book for starting up the environmental movement
	DDT affected calcium uptake in all species including humans
	Wild bird egg shells were first to see severe impact
	US corps continue to manufacture & sell DDT to peripheral nations
	The circle of poison occurred w/ spraying insects, birds eat insects, people & other predators eat the birds
	DDT was once a common pesticide, but it was banned in US in 1972 because it causes calcium depletion, esp in birds
	People & other animals alive at that time still carry DDT & it metabolites in their bodies today
	US corps still sell it & many other banned chemical in semi & peripheral nations
	Pests grow resistance to pesticides & so it always take more or new pesticides
	Today non banned herbicides & pesticides are polluting ground water
	Many pesticides & herbicides are linked to cancer

	5. THE DEGRADATION & DEPLETION OF THE FRESH WATER SUPPLY OCCURS BECAUSE OF IRRIGATION, TILLAGE, AG CHEMS, FEEDLOT RUN OFF, & MORE The degradation & depletion of the fresh water supply occurs because of irrigation, tillage, ag chemicals, feedlot run off, & more
	Irrigation is steadily lowering water major aquifers in West: including the Ogallaha water shed which is in the midwest from ND to TX & the Idaho watershed which encompasses the Snake River Valley
	Over half of the water in the US is used to raise farm animals
	It takes 100 time water to raise beef as wheat in lbs
	The majority of US ground water sources are now polluted w/ nitrates & other chem residue from ag
	6. THE TILLAGE OF WILD SPACES DESTROYS THE NATURAL HABITAT the tillage of the wild spaces destroys the natural habitat
	Agriculture affects FIVE important facets of the wild spaces by: a. removing natural cover b. drying up wetlands c. fencing in areas d. creating a mono culture of plants & wildlife ( flora & fauna ) e. creating the domination / exploitation of domestic species
	7. COMMERCIAL AG UTILIZES HIGHER LEVELS OF RESOURCES THAN TRADL AG commercial ag utilizes a higher levels of resources than tradl ag	Link
	There are FOUR Methods to improve agriculture

	FOUR TACTICS HAVE BEEN USED TO IMPROVE AG'S IMPACT ON THE ENV INCLUDING DEBT SWAPS, INTER TILLAGE, RURAL RESETTLEMENT, & A GENDERED DIV OF LABOR
	A. A DEBT FOR NATURE SWAP IS WHERE DEBT IS ERASED IN EXCHANGED FOR ENVL PROTECTION OF SOME TYPE
	In one debt for nature swap conservation groups, such as World Wildlife fund paid off part of a country's debt & they estbed protected zones, a National Park
	Some nations & loan agencies have been friendly towards debt for nature swaps, others have seen it as the West imposing its values on the peripheral nations
	B. INTER TILLAGE IS GROWING SEVERAL CROPS / CROP ROTATION IN THE SAME SWIDDEN AREA
	Inter tillage is often staggered so that harvest can continue throughout the year
	Use of inter tillage w/ crop or land rotation is the most environmental ag practice
	Inter tillage requires no fertilizers, pesticides, or heavy equipment, but is labor intensive
	Inter tillage allows for food production throughout the year
	C. CENTRAL & SO AMERICAN GOVTS USE RURAL RESETTLEMENT TO RELIEVE URBAN POP PRESSURE Central & So American govts use rural resettlement relieve urban pop pressure
	Rural resettlement often uses improper cultivation techniques & thus depletes the soil
	In the Amazon, shifting cultivation w/ grazing has accelerated environmental degradation
	D. A GENDERED DIV OF LABOR IN SHIFTING CULTIVATION EMBRACES CUL TRADITIONS & ENVL PRACTICES
	Many modern ag practices fail because they upset tradl practices
	Gendering the div of labor give men & women a stack in the mod ag practices & the output
	In one practice, men slash & burn, & the women sow & harvest using inter tillage practices
	Women supplement traditional ag w/ craft production for tourists
	FOUR REASONS AREAS ARE FARMED W/ UNENVIRONMENTAL COMMERCIAL AG PRACTICES ARE CENTRALIZED CONTROL, EXTERNALIZATION OF COSTS, CORP PRACTICES, & SUBSIDIES
	a. Industrialization of ag results in the centralization of control which allows for the concentration of profits
	b. The externalization of costs is the term that economists use for costs that do not accrue to those making the costs
	In the case of commercial ag, costs are externalized, borne by the general public rather than by the producers
	An example of ag externalization of costs is when corp feedlots to not have to pay for manure run off control to prevent the pollution of water, & the public must therefore pay for extensive water treatment facilities
	c. Governments provide subsidies & economic development funds only for the furtherance of commercial ag, not environmental ag
	d. Corps practices support commercial ag because they support all of the factors leading to com ag, because it is the most profitable, & because they have the power to centralize in their own hands, they have the power to avoid costs through externalization, & they have the power to effectively lobby for subsidies for corp farms

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Chart on global soil resource problems
( in millions of hectares )

Region

Overgrazing

Deforestation

Ag
Mismanagement

Other

Total

Degraded
Area as % of Total Vegetated Land

Asia

197

298

204

746

20 %

Africa

243

121

494

22 %

So America

100

244

14 %

Europe

220

23 %

No America

158

8 %

Oceania

103

13%

World

679

579

552

155

1965

17 %

The Chart on global soil resource problems shows that there is a high level of soil degradation problems on every continent

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Outline on the Census

External
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- Project: Your Own Private, Fantasy Census

Link

A CENSUS IS A SURVEY OF A POPULATION ON ANY NUMBER OF CHARACTERISTICS

A census is a survey conducted by a national govt to gather info about the society that it governs

Censuses examine such aspects of a nation as population, housing, ag, & mfr

A population census determines the size of a population & such information as the age, employment, income, race, & sex of people

Other censuses gather such data as the quality of housing or transportation, the level of ag or indl production, or the form of org of local govts

About 90 % of the world's nations conduct a population census

Governmental administration of a census helps ensure that the census serves the entire society

CENSUS INFO IS USED BY THE GOVT & THE PRIVATE SECTOR FOR MANY PURPOSES

National, state or provincial, & local govts analyze census data to determine the extent of econ & soc problems

Census data also helps identify the resources available to solve econ & soc problems

Most nat govts publish census info to make it available to the public

Business executives use census statistics to help them plan company policies

Economists & sociologists apply census data to the analysis of economic & social conditions

Welfare agencies also use census info

THE US CENSUS IS THE MOST THOROUGH

The US collects more varied & complete census info than any other nation

The Bureau of the Census, an agency of the Dept of Commerce, conducts all US fed censuses

For the 2000 census, the bureau employed about 860,0000 temporary wkrs

Recruiting, training, & managing such a large staff is expensive

The total cost of the 2000 census ranged from $6 billion to $10 billion

THE MAKE - UP OF THE US CENSUS IS EVOLVING

The census is required by Fed Law to be taken every 10 yrs on the decade

Historically, the census has been a direct count, not a statistical estimate

For the 2000 census, there was much debate over this whether to count or estimate

The TWO primary uses of the Fed Census are:
a. to apportion seats in US House,
b. to distribute fed funds to states, counties, & cities

The US census decided not to list "mixed race" as a category in 2000, but they have included that category since then

WHILE THE US CENSUS IS THE MOST THOROUGH, IT STILL HAS LIMITATIONS

A limitation of the census is that the 10 yr period btwn censuses is too long in that too many changes occur

A limitation of the census is that the 10 yr period btwn censuses is too short in that it is expensive & takes 4 yrs before & 4 yrs after to complete

The US census records info on race & ethnicity, but this may mask more important identities which are ignored

The US census must do an actual count & not statistical sampling, each of which have strengths & weaknesses

Any census is fairly accurate at determining pop growth w/in a 10 yr period, but much beyond it is less accurate

Because those who study pop are most interested in 50, 100 yr & longer, they often create low, middle, & high estimates

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Outline on American Generations

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- Project: The Boomers & Gen X

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A GENERATION IS A GROUP OF PEOPLE CATEGORIZED AROUND TIME & / OR A HISTL EVENT

A generation is the whole body of individuals who are born around the same general period of time

Generations include those past, the last, declining, the present, rising, & the next generations

A generation is commonly accepted to last 30 yrs

30 yrs is the average difference of age btwn 1 generation of a family & the next

Adults in a gen usually dominate / lead other gens for the 30 yrs they are in their peak career period, i.e. from about 30 to 60 yrs. of age

There are many ways to categorize the American Generations

AMERICAN GENERATIONS

The Revolutionary War Generation

The Early Westward Expansion Generation

The Civil War Generation/ the Late Westward Expansion Generation

The Gay 90's Generation

The Depression Era Generation

The Greatest Generation

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The Baby Boomers

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Gen X

EACH GENERATION HAS A UNIQUE LIFESTYLE & WORLDVIEW

Generations always overlap, usually 3 or 4 gens at a time as seen in the simultaneous existence of Gen X, Boomers, the Greatest Gen, & the Depression Era Gen

Despite the fact that gens co-exist they frequently have different lifestyles & worldviews

While gens share some experiences, frequently what divides one gen from another is a central histl experience as seen in those who experienced WW 2 & those who experienced the Vietnam War

Central histl experiences as well as general, everyday experiences come to define a gen & create its worldview

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Outline on the Baby Boomers

External
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International Association of Baby Boomers http://www.boomersassoc.com/

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76 MM BABY BOOMERS WERE BORN IN ABOUT 2 DECADES AFTER WW2

The post war baby boom was born btwn 1946 & 1964 & on average will die circa 2026 to 2044, w/ an estimated average life of 80 yrs

The baby boom generation, aka the boomers, is the large group of people born in the US

During the period from 1946 to 1964 about 76 mm boomers were born

By contrast, births totaled about 50 mm during the same length of time before the baby boom & about 66 mm in the same period after it

The baby boom generation has had major effects on the economy, ed system, & other parts of American life

THE BOOMERS ARE UNIQUE BECAUSE THEY ARE LARGE, EDUCATED, & HAVE 'MIDDLE CLASS AFFLUENCE'

The boomers are presently the largest cohort & will remain so for the foreseeable future

The boomers are the most educated in history at this time

The boomers marry later, & more likely to divorce than WW2 generation, their parents

The boomers matured when the econ transitioned from a manufacturing economy to a service economy

The boomers are not as well off as their parents who had good times in the 50s

Female boomers have dramatically higher labor force participation

THE BOOMERS ARE THE CHILDREN OF THE WW2 / GREAT DEPRESSION GENS

The baby boom followed the hard times of the Great Depression, which lasted throughout the 1930s; & America's participation in WW2, from Dec 1941 to Aug 1945

The parents of the boomers were the WW2 generation which Tom Brokaw called 'The Greatest Generation'

The WW2 gen is often the grandparents of Gen X

Prior to, during, & after the war, many new couples were barely out of their teens

The number of marriages & births soared after the war

After WW2 there was a high rate of marriage overall, but not highest marriage rate

During this time, many Americans delayed marrying & having children because of the poor economy & the wartime conditions

The number of children per mother of boomers increased

For the WW2 gen, women married earlier than previous generations

The dominant US political & econ encouraged marriage/families

Social & cultural factors relating to business & religion encourage the WW2 gen to have large families

At the same time, numerous older married couples who had delayed having children began to have them when the war ended.

Thus, the postwar period featured increased births among both younger & older American couples

WARS CREATE BABY BOOMS

Historically, birth rates have increased for a short period following difficult economic times & wars

However, the increase that began in the US after WW2 continued far beyond the usual time

The economy was a key reason in that in the 1950s & early 1960s ranked among the most prosperous eras in US history

Many couples felt economically able to support children

The ownership of automobiles & of single family houses, chiefly in suburbs, soared

These developments encouraged a lifestyle that was favorable to raising children & enjoying family life together

THE EFFECTS OF THE BABY BOOMERS WILL BE THE GREATEST IN THE NEXT 30 YRS

The baby boom generation has had major effects on American society because of its size

Because there are so many boomers, businesses have created special advertising & mkting campaigns to gain them as customers

When the baby boomers were young, a "youth culture" in American life emphasized their music, styles & fads, & slang

The size of the baby boom generation has also led to problems

When the boomers reached school age, schools became overcrowded

Some schools expanded to two shifts a day, & some added temporary structures to accommodate all the pupils

When the boomers reached college age, American higher education had to expand

Larger enrollments, along w/ inflation & other factors, pushed college costs higher

At times, the baby boomers faced relatively high levels of unemployment because they had to compete w/ one another for jobs

Their economic prospects have not always been as good as those their parents experienced

Perhaps in response to poorer economic conditions, boomers have tended to delay marriage & to have small families

THE BOOMERS HAVE WITNESSED MAJOR CHANGES IN SOCIETY

The Defining Moments of the Baby Boomers include the:

Civil Rights Movement
The 60s
The Sexual Revolution
Vietnam

Women's Movement
Environmental Movement
Growth of Rock & Roll
Terrorism

THE BOOMERS WILL CONTINUE TO AFFECT AMERICAN LIFE

The educated workers of the boomers will stimulate the economy

The large size of the boomer gen has created a surplus of wkrs which has created a larger incidence of unemployment & underemployment

By 2030 there will be 65 mm Boomers over 65 yrs old

Aged boomers will overload the retirement & health care systems

When the generation reaches retirement age, its size will put a strain on programs designed to help senior citizens

Aged boomers will be a burden on Gen X unless Social Security & Health care systems are vastly improved now

The chief pension program, the Social Security system, provides money to retired people, using funds contributed by active workers

But w/o revisions in the system, Social Security's funds will run out when large numbers of boomers begin to retire

Aged boomers will sell homes & create surplus of home real estate

Aged boomers will transfer wealth to Gen X

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Outline on Gen X

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55 MM GEN Xers WERE BORN IN ABOUT 2 DECADES AFTER THE ONSET OF 'THE 60s'

Gen X was born btwn 1964 & 1980 & on average will die circa 2054 to 2070, w/ an estimated average life of 90 yrs

The Gen Xers grew up in smaller families than did their parents w/ the former growing up in, on average less than 2 child families, & the latter growing up in more than 3 child families

GEN Xers CONTINUE SOME OF THE TRENDS OF THE BOOMERS, & ALSO DIVERGE SOME

The number of births of Gen Xers has decline below the average boomer number of 4 mm / yr

The fertility rate of the boomers his a low of 1.7 children per woman of childbearing age

Because boomers, as compared to the WW2 gen, are more likely to stay single or divorced, they had smaller families

Boomers are more likely, as compared to the WW2 gen, to be a single parent w/ a single child

In boomer families of procreation, the mother is slightly more likely to work than the father, which is a complete reversal from their family or origin dynamics where few mothers worked

Because the boomers, as compared to the WW2 gen, are less well off, moving down from higher mid class to lower mid class, Gen Xers are growing up in more mid class families

DEMOGRAPHIC INFO SHOWS THAT GEN Xers ARE A SMALLER COHORT THAN THEIR PARENTS

- Supplement: The Gen X Webpage shows the unique socio histl existence, experiences, & issues of Gen X as they come to adulthood

Link

- Supplement: The 1970 Population Pyramid & Age Distribution Chart shows that the Gen Xers, i.e. those under 14 yrs of age are a smaller cohort than earlier generations

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- Supplement: The 1980 Population Pyramid & Age Distribution Chart shows that the Gen Xers, i.e. those under 14 yrs of age are experiencing a continuation of the trend of being a smaller cohort than earlier generations

Link

- Supplement: The 1990 Population Pyramid & Age Distribution Chart shows that the Gen Xers, i.e. those under 24 yrs of age are experiencing a continuation of the trend of being a smaller cohort than earlier generations, but the declining trend is beginning to abate in that those under 5 yrs of age are a larger cohort than those that preceded them

Link

- Supplement: The 1990 Bar Chart on 15-24 Year Olds, i.e. the Gen Xers, shows that the most common causes are injury, homicide, & suicide, all which are 'youthful causes of death' which will decline as 'senior causes of death' such as disease come into play

Link

GEN Xers CONTINUE SOME OF THE TRENDS OF THEIR PARENTS, & END OTHERS

Few Gen Xers are blue collar workers, & many are tech wkrs & service wkrs

In the long term, the level of income Gen Xers can expect to earn is uncertain, but they are doing slightly better than their parents, i.e. the boomers, at this stage of their life

They have surpassed the boomers to become the most highly educated generation in American history

Continuing the trend, Gen Xers are less likely to marry than boomers, who were less likely to marry than the WW2 gen

Reversing the trend, Gen Xers are less likely to divorce than boomers, who were more likely to divorce than the WW2 gen

Continuing the trend, Gen Xers have smaller families than boomers, who had smaller families than the WW2 gen

Gen Xers are more religious than their parents the boomers, & have returned to traditional religions

The Gen Xers experienced relative peace & prosperity, until 9 - 11, at which time they experienced the beginning of what may be the cold war on terrorism

PRESENTLY, 9 - 11 IS THE DEFINING MOMENT OF THE GEN Xers

Some of the early defining moments of the Gen Xers such as the breakup of the SU, the War in Somalia in early 1990s or the War in former Yugoslavia, late 1990s are important historically but do not rise to the level of WW2 or the events of the 1960s

The millennium milestone was a joyous event for the Gen Xers & all

The impact of Sept 11, 2001 will perhaps be the defining moment of Gen X w/ the wars in a Afghanistan & Iraq as perhaps greater importance

THE GEN Xers HAVE ONLY JUST BEGUN TO IMPACT WORLD HISTORY

In the future, there will be more jobs available when the boomers retire

The Gen Xers will pay more for Social Security, unless it is fixed now

The Gen Xers will be at center of generational equity debate since they will control the econ when the boomers retire

The Gen Xers are beginning to experience a new "Cold War" against Terrorism which may continue throughout their lives

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Outline on SIA Variable 1: Population

External
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- Project: SIA Variable 1: Population

Link

There are EIGHT Major SIA variables
1. Population characteristics
2. Community & institutional structure
3. Political & social resources
4. Individual & family factors
5. Community resources
6. Knowledge, Beliefs, Values, Norms, Attitudes, Opinions, Interests, Ideologies
7. Lifestyles
8. Economics

1. Population characteristics

In SIA, when examining population characteristics, the assessment shall determine, catalogue, & analyze the:

- stratification of the affected population

- current struc & org of affected population

- stability or change in the population

- number density, & distribution of residents & visitors including seasonal variations

- ethnic, racial, religious econ, soc groups, et al, & the distinctions among them

- wealth, poverty, employment, & income dist

- employment sectors in the affected area

- unemployment rate

- types of employed people ( particularly affected by the action under review )

- seasonal changes, or other kinds of influx & outflow

- age & sex of residents & visitors

- amount of immigration & the % of immigrants

- available human resources such as ed level, talents, skills, training & ed resources, etc.

- nature of each quality of population according to the various alternatives of the SIA project

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Outline on the Population Explosion & the Environment

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POPULATION GROWTH DIRECTLY IMPACTS THE ENV WHICH LEADS TO IMPACTS IN OTHER AREAS OF THE PHYS & SOC ENV

An analysis of the general effects of pop growth shows that it has both direct & indirect effects & that there is, in fact, a long causal chain of events from pop growth to many other effects

Link

The Chart on the Effects of Pop Growth shows that env destruction is one of the most central effects of pop growth & that it leads directly to social ills such as scarcity & poverty

Thus pop growth is a indirect cause of many physical & soc problems in the world today

Pop growth creates scarcity which creates poverty & want which leads to many soc ills such as crime & violence

One of the more direct, or immediate effects of pop growth is the impact on the env

POPULATION GROWTH INCREASES CONSUMPTION WHICH INCREASES IMPACT ON THE ENV

Many experts worry that people in rich & poor countries alike consume too much, destroy forests & soil, pollute the env, & damage prospects for human survival on Earth

The most immediate impact of pop on the env comes via the increased levels of consumption

Consumption increases in all areas including food, & the use of 'natural resources' from timber, to minerals, to fossil fuels

The direct negative effects of population on the env include air pollution, water pollution, etc., the production of haz mat, as well as simply changing the nature of ecozones so that they become unsustainable, e.g. CO2, urban sprawl, deforestation & replacement w/ monocultural flora such as food crops

POPULATION GROWTH IMPACTS FOOD PRODUCTION WHICH IMPACTS THE ENV

The earliest impact of pop growth on the env related to food production

Anthropological ecologists have found that hunter gatherers & ancient civilizations had significant impacts on their env

Hunter gatherers & ancient peoples' search for food caused or contributed to overgrazing which caused extreme changes in regional ecozones such as the Mideast or the UK

Hunter gatherers & ancient peoples' search for food caused or contributed to over hunting which caused the extinction of flora & fauna

Today the impact of ag is greater than it has ever been in that it contributes to deforestation around the world but esp in So Am & the So Pacific islands

The ecological effects of western patterns of meat production are well documented

Regions of forest around the world, but esp in So Am & the So Pacific islands are cut & transformed to crop land

The crop lands of So Am & the So Pacific islands cannot sustain this practice so they ransform it to grazing land

Both crop land & grazing land of deforested land is used for meat production

But much of the land cannot even maintain grazing & soon becomes depleted, some of it turning to desert

The meat finds its way to Western mkts, esp fast food

POPULATION PRESSURE IMPACTS THOSE AREAS WE TRY TO PRESERVE: NAT PARKS, WILDERENSSS, ETC.

One of the areas where pop effects on the env are notable, & even ironic, can be seen in the areas we have chosen to protect such as nat parks, wilderness areas, & other recreational areas

The world's nat parks have experienced dramatic growth in tourism during the 1900s

The increase in tourism is a result of both pop growth & the growth of leisure & disposable inc among that growing pop

Some popular parks are actually endangered by their admiring visitors, esp in the US, Japan, & other wealthy nations w/ large pops

Too many visitors can harm the natural envs that nat parks are set aside to protect

In some popular nat parks, for example, visitors' automobiles create traffic jams, kill wildlife, & pollute the air

In addition, overcrowded campgrounds increase the level of litter & destroy the unspoiled beauty of scenic areas

Overcrowding creates a difficult choice for park mgrs

Tourist spending demonstrates that park preservation has econ as well as spiritual value

In fact, income from tourists visiting the nat parks in Africa is vital to the economies of many nations there

Nevertheless, mgrs have had to limit the number of cars & campers, & to estb other restrictions to protect park resources for future generations

POPULATION GROWTH THREATENS NATIVE PEOPLES

If one considers people to be part to the env, then the preservation of native peoples is a concern

The peoples who live in & near nat parks are especially concerned about who benefits from tourism in the parks

In some countries, the benefits have gone to political officials who control the parks & to large foreign based corps

The original inhabitants may then see the parks as a foreign idea & one damaging to their lives

As a result, they may oppose the establishment & preservation of nat parks

Some park mgrs concerned for the rights of local peoples look to New Zealand & Australia for solutions

The Maori & the Aborigines support the creation of nat parks as a way to preserve their sacred places & tradl ways of life

The coop of the Aboriginal groups & the Australian Nat Park & Wildlife Service at Kakadu Nat Park, for example, may serve as a model for other nations

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Outline on Solutions to the Population Explosion

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- Project: Causes, Effects & Solutions of the Population Explosion

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POPULATION CAN BE REGULATED BY PERSONAL CHOICES

Pop can be voluntarily regulated on the personal level in by controlling fertility, consumption & raising awareness

There are, however, too many cases of forced pop control

In general, if the birth rate were reduced to the replacement level, an average of about 2.1 children per woman, then only enough people are born to replace those who die

To control ones own fertility a couple would either have 1 or 2 children, or be child free

The resulting condition of replacement level fertility is called zero population growth or ZPG

In the US & much of Euro, fertility is below replacement level & therefore their pops only increase through immigration, or they decline

But in many of the world's poorer countries, women have an average of as many as 7 or 8 children

In many other countries, birth rates have declined more slowly & are still far above replacement level

To lower the impact of pop growth, one must lower their own consumption, which would also reduce envl impact & other neg pop impacts

THE MOST EFFECTIVE POP CONTROL IS WHEN IT IS REGULATED BY SOCIETAL CHOICES, CONSISTENT W/ WESTERN VALUES, WHERE WOMEN HAVE A VOICE IN FAMILY PLANNING, & BOTH MEN & WOMEN PREFER SMALLER FAMILIES

The decisions that women & men make about having children are influenced by many other factors besides govt policies

These factors include their soc & econ circumstances, their ed, their need to have someone care for them in their old age, their feelings about the future, & their access to info & medical care

Population can be voluntarily regulated on the societal level in ways that are largely consistent w/ Western values, including:

1. tax incentives for fewer children
2. raise awareness: ed on pop growth
3. universal access to reproductive healthcare
4. invest in community healthcare
5. educate & empower women
6. raising women's status
7. authorizing the age of marriage

8. universal access to education
9. protection & enhancement of human rights
10. antipoverty efforts
11. envl protection & restoration efforts
12. economic development
13. increase factors leading to demographic trans
14. streamline adoption procedures

Help raise awareness by telling people your beliefs

As a result, future soc & econ changes will have important effects on birth rates & pop growth

POPULATION CAN BE REGULATED BY SOCIETAL CHOICES, INCONSISTENT W/ WESTERN VALUES

Population can be regulated on the societal level in ways that are largely inconsistent w/ Western values including:

1. mandatory limits on family size
2. mandatory birth control
3. tax penalties for children

4. forced abortions
5. infanticide
6. forced sterilization

	THE MOST EFFECTIVE PROCESS / METHOD OF POP CONTROL IS FOR PEOPLE TO VOLUNTARILY CHOOSE SMALLER FAMILIES, WHICH IS USUALLY DUE TO THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECON DEV, & WESTERN VALUES
	The demographic transition (DT) occurs when the birth rate falls below, or near, the death rate so that there is (nearly) zero pop growth (ZPG)
	The DT occurs because people in societies where they see econ dev, & where women have a voice in family size, people see no advantage is a large family, & see advantages in small families
	Econ dev provides jobs & lifestyles, as opposed to tradl ag jobs & lifestyles, that do not require large families
	Under tradl ag practices large families were an advantage as a wkforce, but in mod societies, because the children do not work, children are a financial liability
	Under tradl ag practice large families were an advantage because when the parents became old, the grown children would care for them
	In mod societies, the parents are expected to care for themselves & not be burden for the grown children, though this often does not happen
	Under tradl ag practices, the male parent has nearly absolute authority in the family, & so only he makes the family planning decisons & large families give both him & his wife a higher status
	In mod societies, men & women decide together on the family size, & there is no status atributed to large families
	The tradl values of large families as a wkforce, as a hedge against old age, as a patriarchal status symbol are replaced by Western values of small families where the children do not work, where parents provide for themselves in old age, & where men & women co decide on family size, & small, successful families are a status symbol
	Western nations such as the US, Canada, the UK & more have either ZPG, or pop growth due only to immigration
	Developing nations such as Somalia, Mexico, Thailand, & more still have pop explosions
	Pop planners see the primary hope for planetary ZPG, a sustainable world pop, as the development of the DT, econ dev, & Western values related to family size throughout the world
	While the DT & econ dev has occurred as a natural or unguided process in many nations, as of yet govts, non govt orgs (NGOs), interest grps, dev agencies, etc. have not been all that successful in implementing the DT, econ dev, & Western values
	Thus the race to control pop depends on both the natural, unguided dev of the DT, econ dev, & Western values, as well as the dev / implementation of these factors in peripheral & semi peripheral nations by govt, aid agencies, NGOs, interest grps & others
	THE MOST DIRECT METHOD TO LIMIT POPULATION GROWTH IS BIRTH CONTROL
	Many people object to birth control on moral grounds, claiming that abstinence is the only moral birth control practice
	Critics of the abstinence only approach claim that it is not at all effective
	The govts of many countries have promoted birth control programs in efforts to reduce the birth rate
	China, for example, has persuaded millions of couples to have only one child
	In China & some other nations, there are cases of forced birth control, sterilization, abortion, the taking of children of families who have had too many, & other authoritarian birth control practices
	The US has refused to fund voluntary birth control practices either in the US or anywhere around the world

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