Rev: IS 7: Deviance, Crime, Soc Control

DEFINITIONS OF DEVIANCE: DEVIANCE IS THAT BEHAVIOR OR CULTURAL ARTIFACT THAT IS DEFINED BY SOCIETY AS BEING OUTSIDE OF THE NORMAL RANGE, I.E. A VIOLATION OF NORMS / SOCIETY'S INFORMAL RULES

Deviance is behavior or ideology that does not conform to the prevailing norms of society

Deviance is defined as the recognized violation of cultural norms

The functionalist perspective in deviance & social control is best represented by Emile Durkheim & Talcott Parsons

One category of deviance is crime, the violation of a society's formally enacted criminal law

What all deviant actions or attitudes have in common is some element of difference that causes us to regard another person as an "outsider"

Not all deviance involves action or even choice

Dev is the violation of norms & expectations

Dev is the violation of norms accepted by either a significant number of people in a community or society, or those w/ the power to enforce them

Just as there are important differences among situations in which norms are appropriate, there are also important differences about the relative seriousness of types of norm or law violating behavior

Deviance, like conformity, is shaped by society

The concept of deviance has TWELVE qualities / social foundations

1. DEVIANCE IS DEFINED BY SOCIETY

Deviance / norms are created or defined by society, i.e. a general consensus

Thus, what is deviant is NOT a property inherent in the thing or act

2. DEVIANCE IS NON-CONFORMITY

Deviance does not conform to expectations & norms that exist w/in a society

Deviance varies according to cultural norms

3. GROUP INTERESTS DEFINE DEVIANCE

Group interests play important role in defining deviance

4. POWERFUL GROUPS DEFINE DEVIANCE

Large or powerful segments of society determine norms & thus determine what is or is not deviant

Both norms & the way people define them involve social power

People at the bottom of the socio economic scale are most often labeled as deviant, because the powerful in society determine what is deviant

Link

However "deviant" something may be, unless the powerful disapprove, it is not deviant

Thus a behavior participated in by all or a majority of people can still be considered deviant

For conflict theorists, deviance is defined & enforced in a way that perpetuates the dominance of elites over the less powerful or powerless

Studies of the sociology of rule making show that what is defined as deviant is the outcome of a political process

Group interests play an important role in defining what behaviors are considered deviant or normal

Conflict theorists agree that a disharmony of interests exists in modern society

From the conflict perspective, norms don't involve agreement among a majority of people, norms reflect the interests of people w/ enough power to enforce norms

POWER INFLUENCES SOCIAL NORMS

Soc norms are strongly influenced by the divisions of power

The grp w/ the most power can define the norms

The dominant group tries to enforce its norms, but not everyone agrees w/ the dominant grp

The existence of power points to the existence of inequality

Some grps may follow norms & values even though they don't agree w/ them

For some grps, norms & values are not in their best interest

Conflict & inequality are created when grps follow norms & values even through they don't agree or when those norms & values are not in their best interest

5. DEFINITIONS OF DEVIANCE VARY BY WHO DOES THE ACT

Observations of social interaction reveal that definitions of deviance tend to vary according to who performs the act

6. MOST PEOPLE VIOLATE RULES

Few people are arrested & processed as criminals, self report surveys reveal most people violate rules

7. THE EFFECT OF DEVIANCE IS OFTEN MAGNIFIED BY THE LABELING EFFECT WHERE PEOPLE ARE MORE IMPACTED BY THE LABEL OF BEING DEVIANT THAT THEY ARE BY THE PERFORMANCE OF THE DEVIANT ACT

People become deviant as others define them that way

See Also: Durkheim

Where soc control fails, we see deviance, collective behavior, soc mvmts, crime, alienation, other social problems, & other forms social behavior that are outside the norm

Link

Examples of Deviance as a violation of social norms

A. FOLKWAYS ARE THE MOST INFORMAL OF NORMS

Examples of folkways include manners, etiquette, customs, normal behavior, etc.

B. MORES ARE SERIOUS NORMS THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE WRITTEN INTO LAW

Examples of a more include flag burning, questioning someone's religion or politics, etc.

C. LAWS ARE A TYPE OF NORM W/ THE SUPPORT OF THE STATE / GOVT SANCTION W/ EITHER CRIMINAL OR CIVIL PUNISHMENT

i. Criminal law is law which the state will prosecute
The body of rules or principles prescribed by authority or established by custom, which a state, community, society, or the like recognizes as binding

ii. Civil law is law which allows one citizen to prosecute ( sue ) another

SOCIAL CONTROL INCLUDES ALL PROCESSES USED TO MINIMIZE DEVIANCE FROM SOCIAL NORMS; E.G., CULTURE, NORMS, SOCIALIZATION, LAW, ETC.

Social control includes all social processes used to minimize deviance from social norms; e.g., culture, norms, socialization, law, etc.

There are TWO Types of Social Control

FORMAL OR DIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL IS REGULATION THROUGH THE ENFORCEMENT OF NORMATIVE STANDARDS

It is often done by a person(s) w/ authority & responsibility

Formal con is defined by legal sanctions & enforced by instits such as the police, the courts, & the various local, state, & fed legislatures

The formal enforcement of norms is done through the threat of & implementation of rewards or punishments by those who represent an org or instit or the whole society

The formal agents of socialization act on the basis of rules & laws most of which are written

See Also: Formal or Direct Social Control

INFORMAL OR INDIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL IS REGULATION THROUGH IDEOLOGICAL OR CULTURAL MANIPULATION

It is often done by surrogate human authority such as rules, customs, laws, even machines

Indirect social control is accomplished through socialization

Indirect social control is the most powerful type of social control

At the heart of informal social controls are relationships w/ significant others (SOs)

Review: For Mead, SOs are people whose affection & approval are very important

SOs will reward, punish, or use other methods of socialization to enforce the norms of society

Link

Examples of direct & indirect control

Sanctions are rewards for conforming behavior & punishments for nonconforming behavior

There are FOUR Types of Sanctions

1. A FORMAL POSITIVE SANCTION IS A FORMAL REWARD

A formal positive sanction is a formal reward, etc. is applied by a socially recognized actor ( person, organization, institution, etc. ) empowered to give that reward

Formal Positive Sanction are well defined & can only be applied by people w/ proper institutional credentials

Link

Examples of Formal Positive Sanctions

2. AN INFORMAL POSITIVE SANCTION IN AN INFORMAL REWARD

An informal positive sanction is an informal reward, etc. by almost any actor ( person, organization, etc. )

The Functions of Positive Social Control Methods are social control, inducement, & reward

Link

Examples of Informal Positive Sanctions

3. A FORMAL NEGATIVE SANCTION IS A FORMAL PUNISHMENT

A formal negative sanction is a formal punishment, etc. by a socially recognized actor ( person, organization, institution, etc. ) empowered to give that punishment

Formal sanctions are well defined and can only be applied by people with proper institutional credentials

Link

Examples of Formal Negative Sanctions

4. AN INFORMAL NEGATIVE SANCTION IS AN INFORMAL PUNISHMENT

An informal negative sanction is an informal punishment, etc. by almost any actor ( person, organization, etc. )

The functions of negative social control methods are social control, deterrence, & punishment

Link

Examples of Informal Negative Sanctions

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Chart of Examples of FOUR Types of Social Control

For Durkheim, the positive consequences of deviance and social control include increased solidarity

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Chart of Examples of FOUR Types of Social Control

Formal

Informal

Positive

Formal Positive
Pay, grades, awards

Informal Positive
Tip, praise, smile, inclusion

Negative

Formal Negative
Fine, pay cut, bad grade, note in a file,
Excommunication from a religious organization, expulsion from high school, & criminal punishment

Informal Negative
No tip, criticism, scowl, ostracism

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Examples of Deviance & Norms
Men w/ long hair, women in pants Dress
Norms:
Folkways: dressed in casual clothes for formal occasion
Mores: no shirt in dept. store
Laws:
Criminal: no shirt, no shoes in food store
Civil: copying super model's look

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Civil law
Body of law proper to the city as distinct from that common to all nations
Also, the whole system of Roman law
Hence the body of private law developed from Roman law
Law pertaining to the citizen as an individual

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Examples of direct & indirect control

Factory Work:
Supervisor harangues or beats workers to work faster
Supervisor issues penalties
Computer measures output w/ pay proportional to this output
Elementary school: Teacher constantly making sure child turns in work
College: Prof establishes goals. It's up to the student to achieve them

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Examples of Formal Positive Sanctions

A raise
An awards dinner
A certificate of achievement
A reward

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Examples of Informal Positive Sanctions

Giving an "atta boy"
Taking someone out to lunch for a reward
A pat on the back
A big thank you

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Examples of Formal Negative Sanctions

Bad Grades
Expulsion from High School
Prison
A ticket

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Examples of Informal Negative Sanctions

Taking someone to the woodshed
A talking to
A frown
Ostracism

Internal
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Outline on Crime

External
Links

- Project: Preventing Mass Shootings & Gun Violence

Link

- Project: Types of Crime

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- Project: Video: Profiling & the Types & Causes of Crime

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- Video: Profiling

Link

CRIME IS A DEVIANT ACT THAT VIOLATES THE LAW

Crime refers to deviance as determined by the powers in society, which is a violation of the law, which is formalized, codified, norms enforced by the govt

When people break laws & commit crimes they are being deviant & unlawful

Since crimes are deviant, they can still be participated in by a majority of people

Crimes against the person involve direct violence or the threat of violence against others

Link

THE ELEVEN TYPES OF CRIME INCLUDE:

1. VIOLENT
2. PROPERTY
3. JUVENILE
4. NON VIOLENT
5. VICTIMLESS
6. HATE
7. TREASON

8. TERRORISM
9. WAR / CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY
10. STREET
11. WHITE COLLAR
12. SEX CRIME (child & adult)
13. FAMILY CRIME

1. VIOLENT CRIME IS PHYSICALLY FORCEFUL & / OR HARMS ANOTHER PERSON

Violent crime includes murder, assault, robbery, rape, abuse, etc.

2. PROPERTY CRIME MAY OR MAY NOT BE PHYSICALLY FORCEFUL & IS DIRECTED AGAINST PROPERTY OR WEALTH

Crimes against property involve theft of property belonging to others

Property crime includes burglary, larceny, fraud, etc.

3. JUVENILE CRIME IS ANY CRIME CARRIED OUT BY A PERSON NOT CONSIDERED TO BE AN ADULT; ADULT STATUS IS DEFINED DIFFERENTLY BY MANY STATES RANGING FROM AGE 12 TO AGE 16

Juvenile crime ( & other protected individuals ) denotes that, generally, individuals who are under the age of ten cannot be convicted of crimes

Those who have been declared mentally insane & the severally retarded also cannot be convicted of crimes

4. NON VIOLENT CRIME GENERALLY INCLUDES ANY TYPE OF CRIME THAT IS NOT VIOLENT INCLUDING PROPERTY, VICTIMLESS & OTHER TYPES OF CRIME

Non violent crime includes violations of social norms such as speeding, littering, etc.

5. VICTIMLESS CRIME INCLUDES CRIMINAL OR ILLEGAL ACTS IN WHICH ALL PARTICIPANTS ARE CONSENTING ADULTS

Victimless crimes are violations of law in which there are no readily apparent victims

Illegal acts in which all participants are consenting adults

Examples of victimless crimes include sex crimes, drug use, illegal gambling, sports such as cock fighting

The classic definition of victimless crime assumes, "There is never a victim" in sex crimes, drug use, etc.

A re examination of consent indicates that people consent under pressure

"Victimless" crime often does have a victim, but at some level, the harm is self inflicted

Conflict theory holds that victimless crimes are criminal only because politically powerful people / groups find them undesirable or offensive

Functionalist theory holds that social need, not societal power, underlies the labeling of victimless behaviors as criminals

6. HATE CRIME INCLUDES ACTS DESIGN TO INJURE OR TERRORIZE A SPECIFIC GROUP OF PEOPLE BASED ON RACE, ETHNICITY, ETC.

Hate crimes were first designated as such in the US during the 1990s

Hate crimes are the newest type of crime to be recognized

Hate crimes were designated so that the fed govt could bolster local investigation & prosecution & to punish crimes which have a terror aspect

7. TREASON IS THE BETRAYAL OF ONE'S COUNTRY

Treason often includes any attempt to overthrow the govt of one's country

Typical types of treason include spying or selling of secret info

Treason committed & apprehended during times of war is punishable by summary execution, though this rarely happens in the West today

8. TERRORISM INCLUDES THE SYSTEMIC USE OF TERROR, VIOLENCE OR INTIMIDATION TO ACHIEVE AN END, USUALLY BY ONE NATIONAL GROUP AGAINST ANOTHER

Terrorism, like war, has evolved over the centuries

The earliest forms of terrorism included assassination, poisoning of water supplies, & spreading disease

As soon as gun powder bombs were available, there were terrorist bombings

9. WAR CRIMES & CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY INCLUDES CRIMES AS DETERMINED BY THE CUSTOMS OF WARFARE, TODAY, ESP THE GENEVA CONVENTION & OTHER TREATIES

War crimes & crimes against humanity includes any or various crimes committed during a war & considered to be in violation of the customs of warfare, usually as described by the Geneva Convention

Examples: mistreatment of prisoners of war, genocide, use of chemical or biological weapons, etc.

A war crime committed & apprehended during times of war is punishable by summary execution, though this rarely happens

10. STREET CRIME INCLUDES VIOLENT OFFENSES & PROPERTY OFFENSES USUALLY CARRIED OUT BY LOWER & MIDDLE CLASS PEOPLE

Street crime appears to be the most common, but it does less monetary & human damage that white collar crime, where one crime can affect millions of people

Examples: burglary

11. WHITE COLLAR CRIME INCLUDES NO VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS USUALLY CARRIED OUT BY UPPER MIDDLE & UPPER CLASS PEOPLE

White collar crime, a.k.a. corporate crime, is the most damaging in terms of money & human damage

Conflict theory holds that the laws that exist, the laws that are enforced, & the methods, targets, & harshness of enforcement all function to protect the interests of the ruling classes

It has been established that vagrancy law were enacted to serve the interests of economic elites

12. SEX CRIME INCLUDES CHILD SEX ABUSE (PEDOPHILIA) AS WELL AS SEX CRIMES AGAINSTS ADULTS INCLUDING RAPE, SEXUAL ASSAULT, ETC.

13. FAMILY CRIME INCLUDES CHILD, ADULT, ELDER, ETC ABUSE OF ASSAULT, NEGLECT, & TORMENT AS WELL AS CRIMES AROUND CHILD CUSTODY, CRIMES OF PASISON, ETC.

WHILE A PROFILE DELINEATES ONLY THE 'MOST COMMON' QUALS OF A PERSON, THE PROFILE OF A VICTIM DELINEATES THAT CRIME AFFECTS YOUNG, LOWER CLASS MALES

Socio economic status, race, age, & gender are the greatest predictors of victimization

Given these three factors, who is mostly likely to be a victim in our society ? ? ?

The poor, male, non white, young are the mostly likely to be a victim in our society

18 - 24 yr. olds are most likely to be victims

Although white females & elderly people express the greatest fear of crime, they have relatively low levels of victimization

Thus those that fear crime the most are the least likely to be victimized: middle class, old, female, white

While only half of street crime is reported to police, even less non street crime is reported to police

Murder & assault are generally planned & intended, but many crimes are a spur of the moment event

A PROFILE OF A CRIMINAL IS ALSO A YOUNG, LOWER CLASS MALE IN THAT MOST CRIMES ARE CRIMES OF OPPORTUNITY

It is very difficult to describe the typical criminal because there is wide variability, stereotypes mislead, & the reporting of various types of crime mystify the true nature of crime

More street crime is committed by members of the lower class, while more non street crime is committed by members of the middle & upper classes

The Street Criminal: A Profile

Gender: The vast majority of all types of crime are committed by men

Men are arrested more than twice as often as women for property crimes

In the case of violent crimes, the disparity btwn the criminality of women & men is even greater, w/ men committing 5 times as many violent crimes as women

Age: Official crime rates rise sharply during adolescence & peak in the late teens, falling thereafter

Social class: Street crime is more widespread among people of lower social position. however, the link btwn class & crime is more complicated than it appears on the surface

Race & ethnicity: Both race & ethnicity are strongly correlated to crime rates, although the reasons are many & complex

In 2000, there are 1.3 mm Americans in prison

In 2002, there are 2.2 mm Americans in prison

Organizational dynamic: Recall that Etzioni described prisons as being coercive organizations. As prisons become for profits business, they become utilitarian organizations

	THE PERSUASIVENESS OF CRIME IS THAT WE HAVE ONE OF THE MOST CRIMINAL NATIONS IN THE WORLD
	How much crime is there? Bureau of Justice Tables
	Criminal statistics show crime rising btwn 1960 & 1990, & then declining through 2004
	Victimization surveys may provide more accurate data on the nature & amount of crime because in many ways they are more accurate
	The US property crime rate is 4.59 % or 4,593 property offenses per 100,000
	The US sexual assault/rape crime rate is .072 % or 72 rapes per 100,000 women
	The violent crime rate is .685 % or 685 violent crimes per 100,000 people
	In regard to crime statistics, w/ the exception of murder, only about half of all incidents of street crimes are reported to police
	What is the UCR?	Link
	FBI Universal Crime Reports http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm	Link
	UCR 1995 Report	Link
	Bureau Justice: Violent Crime Rates	Link
	Bureau Justice: Property Crime Rates	Link
	Bureau Justice: Reported Crime	Link
	Bureau Justice: Homicide by Age of Victim	Link
	Statistics 1980 - 1999	Link
	Crime in Virginia, 1999	Link
	Crime in all US states, 1999	Link
	Crime in major US cities, 1999	Link
	By world standards, the US crime rate is high because our culture has an emphasis on individual economic success
	By world standards, the US crime rate is high because of the number of guns available

External
Links

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Outline on White Collar Crime

External
Links

- Video: Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room

Link

- Project: Video: Enron: Intersections of Corporate & Political Crime; Causes of Crime

Link

WHITE COLLAR CRIMES (aka corporate crime ) ARE USUALLY NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS CARRIED OUT BY UPPER MIDDLE & UPPER CLASS MEMBERS OF THE COMMUNITY

The term "white collar crime" was coined by the criminologist Sutherland

White collar crimes account for larger economic losses & in some cases, greater human misery than street crimes

Conservative estimated of cost of consumer fraud alone are 5 times higher than combined economic costs of all street crimes

There are SIX basic types of white collar crime

1. PETTY WHITE COLLAR CRIME INCLUDES LESS SERIOUS NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS BY LOWER STATUS INDIVIDUALS IN AN ORG

Petty white collar crime includes nonviolent offenses carried out by people of relatively low social status who attempt to gain through deceit

Examples of petty white collar crime include the "larceny of time," which is the most common, & employee theft, which is a major concern to companies

2. WHITE COLLAR CRIME INCLUDES SERIOUS NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS BY HIGHER STATUS INDIVIDUALS IN AN ORG

White collar crimes are usually non violent illegal acts carried out by "respectable" individuals, e.g. usually upper middle & upper class individuals in the community

Examples: Computer theft, income tax evasion, & credit card fraud

3. CORPORATE CRIME INCLUDES SERIOUS NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS BY THE HIGHEST STATUS INDIVIDUALS IN AN ORG

Corporate crime is the deliberate decisions by corporate personnel that result in actions that violate law

Examples: Enron, Microsoft, Tyco 2002: Hasbro toys fined $7 mm for fixing toy prices

White collar / corporate crimes account for larger economic losses &, in some cases, greater human misery than street crimes

4. ORGANIZED CRIME MAY INCLUDE VIOLENT, NON-VIOLENT, VICTIMLESS, ETC. TYPES OF CRIME CARRIED OUT BY A COMMUNITY OF PEOPLE WHO ARE OFTEN RELATED ETHNICALLY OR BY HERITAGE

Organized crime is carried out by organizations who exist mainly for the purpose of conducting illegal activity

Historically, organized crime has been dominated by immigrant & working class ethnic groups

Examples of types of org crime: drugs, prostitution, gambling, protection, money laundering, racketeering

5. POLITICAL CRIME IS THE ABUSE OF A GOVT OR POLITICAL OFFICE OR POSITION, OR A CRIME CARRIED OUT TO GAIN OFFICE OR POLITICAL INFLUENCE

A great deal of political crime is aimed at preventing or controlling dissent

Note: Not all crimes carried out by politicians or govt officials in office are political crimes

The most infamous recent examples of political crime include Watergate, Iran Contra, White Water Monicagate

6. OTHER TYPES OF CRIME MAY BE WHITE COLLAR OR STREET

- War crimes, crimes against humanity

- Hate crimes

- Terrorism

External
Links

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Outline on Crime & Racism

External
Links

WHILE MANY BELIEVE THAT RACE IS A PRIMARY PROFILE FACTOR OF CRIMINALS, THIS IS SPURIOUS, & THE CONTROLLING FACTOR IS POVERTY / CLASS / ALIENATION

What people consider deviant or criminal reflects the relative power & privilege of different categories of people

It is a commonly held prejudice in US society that race & crime are related

Stereotypically, people in the US believe that non whites are more likely to be criminal

The incidence of crime is best explained by socio-economic status, gender, age, & not race

Regardless of Race, equal numbers of people in each income bracket are likely to be criminal

Poor whites are just as likely to be [street] criminal as any other race

It is stereotypical / prejudice to see the poor as having greater rates of crime because we typically exclude non street crime

People in the Upper income brackets commit hidden, unreported, & unprosecuted crime, while those in the lower classes commit approximately the same amount but are more engaged by the law

The study, the Saints & Sinners, examined high school preppies & troublemakers & found that while they took part in the same amount of crime, the Sinners were socially viewed as more troublesome, & were engaged w/ by the law more

For many business people, White Collar Crime is "just business"

RACISM MAKES THE RACE PROFILE OF CRIMINALS APPEAR WORSE THAN IT IS BECAUSE A RELATIVELY SMALL AMT OF RACISM AT EACH LEVEL OF THE CJS RESULTS IN A LARGE OVERALL RACIST EFFECT

Racism's influence throughout the Criminal Justice System results in injustices

The effects of racism in the Criminal Justice System compound over time, at various levels of the CJS, resulting in a 30 % increase incarceration

Organizational Dynamics can result in a small amount of racism, operating at many levels w/in an organization, creating a net effect of a large amount of racism

A small amount of racism operating at many levels w/in an organization can create a net effect of a large amount of racism

Link

Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination

The Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination shows that a small amt of discrimination can have a large effect because it gets magnified, or compounded at each stage of the CJS

Profiling is the process of determining suspects based on psychological & social evidence as well as evidence from the scene

Racial Profiling is profiling where race is wrongly considered to be a major indicator of crime or criminal intent

An example of racial profiling is that the NJ HP gave many more tickets to Blacks, who research showed, did not speed any more than others

Police corruption often is combined w/ aspects of racism

The term hate crime refers to a criminal act against a person or a person's property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias

Race as well as gender is an important variable affecting deviant labeling & other aspects of deviant behavior

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Racism's effects throughout the CJS
In the CJS, non whites are more likely to:
- be scrutinized as suspect
- be arrested if discovered
- spend time btwn arrest & trial in jail
- go to trial
- be found guilty
- serve time
- be incarcerated for longer sentences

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Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination

No Discrimination

+ 2 % Discrimination

Cases

% implicated

Cases

% implicated

5,000

20 %

"Suspicious looking" (non profiled)

5,000

22 %

1,000

30 %

Number pulled over

1,110

32 %

300

83 %

arrested

352

85 %

250

50 %

prosecuted

299

52 %

125

80 %

guilty

156

82 %

100

80 %

serve time

128

82 %

longer sentence

104

Discrimination of 2% results 24 extra in jail: about 30%

early parole

The Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination shows that a small amt of discrimination can have a large effect because it gets magnified, or compounded at each stage of the CJS

External
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Outline on Police Corruption

External
Links

IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT OVERALL POLICE IN THE US ARE EXTREMELY JUST & LAW ABIDING, THERE IS A CASE OF ABUSE BY POLICE EVERY YEAR OR SO THAT GAINS NATL ATTN

When informed on the level of police corruption or excessive violence, most people believe that there are simply too many cases of police corruption to accept

Because of the respect society has for the police because of the sacrifices they make, it is difficult to face up to some bad officers

While there are cases of police brutality in nearly every major city, the vast majority of police follow the law, do their job, & are not racist

With regards to police corruption, a few bad cops are poisoning the well

CINCINNATI

In Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1999, a black was man killed by police for traffic violation

NYC: DIALLO

The Diallo Case occurred in 1999 when in NYC, an unarmed innocent African immigrant, Amadou Diallo, was shot by police

The police had fired 41 bullets at the young, unarmed, innocent, African immigrant

When 19 hit their mark, Amadou Diallo dies

- Supplement: Time: Cops, Brutality, & Race

Link

The LA Corruption Case occurred from 1999 - 2000 when in LA the LAPD was discovered fixing cases against minority defendants

When an LAPD cop is caught, he blows the whistle on widespread corruption, testifying that the LAPD regularly fixed cases

- Supplement: CNN: Attorneys: The L.A. police scandal could affect more than 3,000 cases, freeing both innocent & guilty parties

Link

- Supplement: Time: The Motives Behind the LAPD's Mea Culpa

Link

NYC: LOUIMA

In NYC in 1997, a Haitian immigrant, Louima, was sodomized by police & had to be hospitalized

In the Louima case, a NYC policeman was sentenced to 30 years for torture

- Supplement: CNN: NYC Police Corruption

Link

LA: RODNEY KING

In 1994 in LA, a black man named Rodney King, was beaten unconscious by police before a video camera

The police were acquitted by a jury in a local court

The LA Riot resulted from the acquittal of the police for the beating of Rodney King

Several of the police were later found guilty by a Federal Court of the violation of Rodney King's civil rights

MIAMI

Miami Police racism has been well documented w/ national attention to abuses in 1980 & 1989

In the 1990s, after a lengthy investigation, the NJ HP was found to have given a lot more tickets to Blacks, though they did not speed any more than others

DWB is jargon which developed in the Black community & has spread to the general culture which recognizes the existence police prejudice

Internal
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Outline on the Causes of Crime

External
Links

- Project: Causes of Crime: Theory & Reality

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- Project: Labeling Theory

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- Project: Video: Profiling & the Types & Causes of Crime

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- Video: Profiling

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There are FOUR major explanations of crime including classic criminology explanations of crime, biological explanations of crime, psychological explanations of crime, & social explanations of crime

I. CLASSIC CRIMINOLOGY WAS FRAMED IN THE IDEOLOGY OF CLASSIC CAPITALISM WHICH HOLDS A RADICAL VIEW OF INDIVIDUALISM: PEOPLE ARE TOTALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR OWN ACTS; SOCIAL FACTORS DO NOT EXIST

1. Criminal behavior represents rational decisions made by free willed individuals

2. Critique: Research holds that severe punishment should deter people from criminal acts, but certainty of punishment is more effective as a deterrent than severity

Violent crimes or crimes of passion involve little calculation. They are crimes of frustration, not rationality

Fear of disapproval by significant others, rather than fear of formal sanctions, is also effective in deterring crime

II. BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME VALIDATED THE IDEA THAT FACTORS OTHER THAN INDIVIDUALIST FREE WILL MIGHT SHAPE CRIMINALS, THOUGH EARLY BIO EXPLANATIONS WERE BOGUS

Early interest in criminality focused on biological causes; witness the work of Lombroso, Sheldon, & the Gluecks

1. LOMBROSO HELD THAT CRIMINALS WERE ATAVISTIC, I.E. EVOLUTIONARY THROW-BACKS

Lombroso's theory of atavism held that criminals were atavistic

Atavistic means throw back; prehuman characteristics

Studied skull anomalies among Italian criminals & soldiers

Lombroso believed physiological abnormalities were more common among criminals than non criminals

By the end of the 1800s, Social Darwinism influenced criminology & all spheres of life

During the 1800s & early 1900s, the belief that people were born as criminals was widespread

2. SHELDON'S BODY TYPE THEORY HELD THAT EVIDENCE OF CRIMINALS ATAVISM COULD BE SEEN IN THEIR STOUT 'CAVE-MAN LIKE' BODY TYPE

Sheldon's body type theory correlated body type to criminal behavior

Sheldon believed that the mesomorph physique caused juvenile delinquency

Critique: Just because two things appear together does not mean one caused the other. During Sheldon's time, those w/ the mesomorph physique were immigrants from E. Europe & the Mediterranean & it is likely that the disadvantage they experienced contributed to their criminality

3. XYY THEORY HOLDS THAT AN EXTRA Y OR MALE CHROMOSOME MAKES MEN MORE AGGRESSIVE / CRIMINAL

XYY theory or "super male" theory holds that the extra male, Y chromosome made criminals more violent

This theory does not explain the existence of crime in society because the XYY chromosome occurs in less than 1% of criminal population

4. GENETIC EXPLANATIONS HOLD THAT VARIOUS GENETIC QUALS / ABNORMALITIES ENHANCE CRIMINALITY

1 genetic marker explains 90% of all crime. Should we get rid of it?

Will we see other markers as we unravel the genetic code? If we show relationship btwn a genetic code & criminal behavior, what should we do?

Most scientists believe that no gene will "cause crime", but some characteristics may make one more prone to crime, given the right environmental conditions

An example of a genetically linked characteristic that may, under the right conditions, lead to a propensity toward crime is that a greater need or tolerance for excitement or danger may make one seek the thrill of crime

5. OTHER BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS INCLUDE HORMONES, BRAIN DAMAGE, CHEMICAL IMBALANCES, FETAL ALCOHOL / DRUG SYNDROME, & MORE

Physical differences make one susceptible to social factors

Genetics & biological factors are likely to make a person susceptible to criminal behavior because of social factors in the environment

Example: brain damage = low intelligence = poverty = crime

Biological explanations have served political agendas

We attribute many social problems to natural causes rather than politically created conditions

Many biological theories are being used to develop chemical control instead of than treatments for criminal & social psychological problems

A frequent criticism of the biological theories of crime is that they offer a very limited explanation of crime

III. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME

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A. PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS HOLD THAT A MALFUNCTION OF / OR TRAUMA TO THE PSYCHE CAN ENHANCE CRIMINALITY

Psychoanalytic explanations of crime hold that a lack of balance between id & ego causes high instinctual drives or an egomaniac which may lead to crime

The psychoanalytic explanation holds that criminals w/ high instinctual drives or an egomaniac kill for the thrill or for some purpose that is greater than life

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B. SOCIOPATHS ARE THOSE WHO FEEL NO GUILT & THEREFORE BECOME CRIMINAL BECAUSE THEY FEEL NO REMORSE & / OR THEY SEEK THE FEELING OF GUILT

Sociopathic theory holds that sociopaths have no superego & therefore no guilt

Critique: Good at explaining bizarre crimes

A frequent criticism of the psychological theories of crime is that most serious crimes are committed by people who are psychologically normal

Psychological explanations have a low prediction rates & cannot predict recidivism or run of the mill crimes

Criminals do have a higher level of mental illness. Why?

Criminals have a higher level of mental illness because of horrible prison conditions which are more mental than physical punishment

Criminals have a higher level of mental illness because of physical & mental abuse in prison, including rape, assault, isolation

Psychological analysis is more useful in dealing w/ 'ordinary' criminals in that Reckless & Dinitz's containment theory suggests that strong moral standards & positive self image can keep boys from becoming delinquent

IV. SOCIAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLD THAT VARIOUS SOCIAL FACTORS / CONDITIONS CONTRIBUTE TO THE LEVEL OF CRIME IN A SOCIETY

A. CONFLICT THEORY EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME ALL HOLD THAT CRIME IS A DIRECT RESULT OF AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM THAT OFFERS LITTLE SOCIAL MOBILITY, I.E. A CHANCE TO GET AHEAD

Conflict theory holds that the laws, the methods of enforcement, the targets of enforcement, & the harshness of enforcement, all function to protect the interests of the ruling class

1. THE STARVATION EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT CRIME IS CAUSED BY POVERTY

The old economic view, the starvation variation holds that crime is caused by poverty

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2. THE ACHIEVEMENT EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT PEOPLE BECOME CRIMINAL BECAUSE THEY DID NOT ACHIEVE WHAT THEY BELIEVE THEY RIGHTLY DESERVE

The new economic view, the achievement variation holds that if a person has not achieved they what believe they deserve or is fair for their level of sacrifice, they are more likely to term to crime

Conflict theory holds that criminals are likely to be someone who tried to get ahead & failed

3. THE IDEOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT THE DIRECT CAUSES OF CRIME & THE CJS ITSELF ARE PURPOSEFULLY IGNORED BY THE RULING CLASS TO ENHANCE CRIME & KEEP PEOPLE FOCUSED ON SECURITY RATHER THAN THE ROOT OF THEIR PROBLEM: ECONOMIC DOMINATION

The ideological explanation of crime may be said to be based on the principle of divide & conquer

Crime is a direct result of an ideological system (in support of an econ system) that uses poverty & the resultant crime to keep society focused on crime rather than the dominant structure of power

The ideological explanation of crimes holds that the justice system protects the interest of the ruling class

4. THE CULTURE OF POVERTY EXPLANATION HOLDS THAT PEOPLE DEVELOP A SUBCULTURE WHICH SUPPORTS CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

The culture of poverty explanation holds that criminal believes that ‘I cannot get ahead.’

Note, cultural explanations are also discussed below, here the COP explanation is seen as being an economic based theory since the social system creates an economy that prevents social mobility & a welfare system based on "band aids"

5. VICTIMLESS CRIMES ARE ILLEGAL ACTS IN WHICH THE ONLY VICTIMS ARE THE OFFENDERS

Victimless crimes are established for social control over morality & other social relationship & are applied mostly to the lower classes

Victimless crimes are criminal only because politically powerful people or groups find them undesirable, offensive or suit ideological control drugs, prostitution, homosexuality

Meda Chesney-Lind, a female criminologist, argues that current theories in crime & deviance do not adequately reflect the experience of women

Conflict theorists believe the social order reflects the suppression of competing interests

The definitions of deviance justify the dominance by the elites

There is an absence of restrictions against elite deviance

The small amount of street crime keeps the focus off of elite deviance

It is easier & more acceptable for upper class people to be deviant/ engage in victimless crimes

Elite deviance is seen as "eccentricity"
Elites have the resources to make deviance seem more acceptable
Elites have the resources to prevent being caught or to get away with deviance

	B. FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLD THAT WEAKNESS IN SOCIAL MORALITY / IDEOLOGY IS A PRIMARY FACTOR IN AFFECTING SOCIETAL LEVELS OF CRIME
	See Durkheim on Crime
	See Merton on Crime
	C. SUBCULTURAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLD THAT A CULTURE OF CRIME IS BASED ON CRIMINAL KNOWLEDGE, BELIEF IN THE LEGITIMACY OF CRIME, VALUES THAT SUPPORT CRIME & OPPOSE WORK / MAINSTREAM VALUES, & NORMS THAT SUPPORT BREAKING THE LAW
	1. THE LOWER CLASS CULTURE EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLDS THAT BECAUSE OF A NUMBER OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOWER CLASS, I.E. FRUSTRATION, ENTITLEMENT, POVERTY, CULTURE, ETC., THE LOWER CLASS IS MORE LIKELY TO BE CRIMINAL
	holds that people react to anomie, shared frustration, & resentment by forming subcultures that turn middle class values upside down
	Lower class people have their own subculture just as every class has its own subculture
	2. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLDS THAT DEVIANT BEHAVIOR IS LEARNED THROUGH INTIMATE PERSONAL GROUPS
	Sutherland's differential association theory suggests that all deviance is learned in groups
	Differential association means you have different associations, i.e. relationships w/ others & as an explanation of crime, the implication is that one associates w/ those w/ whom one can learn criminal behavior, or similar behavior
	Deviant behavior is learned through intimate personal groups
	Lower class males develop male identities through peer group association in gangs
	Lower class culture encourages: - toughness - smartness - excitement - fate - autonomy - machismo
	Machismo is an exaggerated sense of maleness that encourages delinquent behavior
	3. SUBCULTURE OF VIOLENCE EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLDS THAT THE PRACTICE OF VIOLENCE BECOMES INTEGRATED INTO A CULTURE, MAKING PEOPLE MORE LIKELY TO BE CRIMINAL
	Subculture of violence explanations of crime holds that lower class culture places more value on masculine honor than on human life
	Example: Lower class males respond violently to trivial remarks & insults that are commonly disregarded in middle class culture
	4. CORPORATE CULTURE EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME ARE SEEN IN THAT PEOPLE FEEL ENTITLED TO UPPER CLASS BENEFITS & FEEL THEY ARE ABOVE THE LAW
	Corporate culture explanations of crime include, "Everybody does it." "You have to do it to make a profit." "I am not responsible; I only follow orders." "I am not hurting anyone"
	The explanations of corporate culture as a cause of crime are similar to the lower class subculture explanations, but applied to upper class
	Labeling theory holds that the chance of engaging in deviant or criminal behavior increases when one is labeled as a deviant or criminal
	Hirschi's control theory holds that social bonds serve to both make one deviant if one bonds to deviant groups, or not, if one bonds to non deviant grps

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Examples of Psychoanalytic Criminals
Natural Born Killers
Timothy McVeigh
Most of Batman's foes: Riddler, Penguin

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Examples of Sociopathic Criminals
Normal range of guilt:
     kill bug,
     run over dog
     hurt child
     kill adult
Hannibal in Silence of the Lambs
Jeffrey Dalmer

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Examples of Achievement Explanation of Crime
worker stealing at wk
Mid level worker embezzling at the bank
Hi level manager embezzling, or killing partner

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Outline on Hirschi's Social Control Theory

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- Supplement: Hirschi's Social Control Theory & Drug Abuse

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INTRO: SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY HOLDS THAT PEOPLE ARE CONTROLLED BECAUSE THEY HAVE INTERNALIZED THE NORMS ( RULES ) OF SOCIETY

Social control theory ( SCT ) states that social control depends on imagining the consequences of one's behavior

SCT was derived from functionalist theories of crime & fits into the positivist school, neo classical school, &, later, right realism

Hirschi challenged Sutherland & Cressey's differential association theory on the impact of delinquent peers on delinquency

FOUR TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROLS INCLUDE CONTROLS BASED IN:
a. ATTACHMENT TO PARENTS & OTHER SOs
b. COMMITMENT TO MAINSTREAM NORMS
c. INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIALLY APPROVED ACTIVITIES
d. BELIEFS EMBRACED BY MOST OF SOCIETY

Hirschi asserts that conformity arises from four types of social controls: which he called attachment, commitment, involvement, & belief

a. The social control of attachment refers to attachment to parents, peers, or school

People w/ strong & stable attachments to others w/in society are presumed to be less likely to violate societal norms

b. The social control of commitment refers to commitment to conventional lines of action

A person who has invested time, energy, & resources into conforming to social norms & expectations by, for example, pursuing educational goals is less likely to deviate than someone who has not made such an investment

c. The social control of involvement refers to involvement in conventional activities

A person who is actively engaged in conventional endeavors by, for example, pursuing employment simply has less time & opportunity to engage in deviance

d. The social control of belief refers to belief in a common value

Belief refers to a person's level of belief in the moral validity of shared social values & norms

In American society, certain values such as industrious conduct are espoused as norms & persons who strongly believe in the these norms are less likely to deviate from them

Those who question or challenge the norms have a greater propensity to behave in a deviant manner

SCT holds that the process of socialization & social learning builds self control & reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial

The stronger one's attachment, commitment, involvement & beliefs in harmony w/ those of society, the less the chance of becoming a deviant

SOCIAL BONDS ACT AS SOCIAL CONTROLS BECAUSE TO MAINTAIN BONDS ONE MUST FOLLOW GENERAL SOCIETAL ATTACHMENTS, COMMITMENTS, ACTIVITIES, & BELIEFS

Persons will engage in delinquent behavior when their "social bond" to society is weakened

The social controls of attachment, commitment, involvement, & belief are constructed through direct, indirect, internal, & need satisfaction bonds

Direct bonds are estbed when punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, & compliance is rewarded by parents, family, & authority figures

Indirect bonds are estbed when one refrains from delinquency through the conscience or superego

Internal bonds are estbed when one identifies w/ those who influence behavior because his or her delinquent act might cause pain & disappointment to parents & others w/ whom he or she has close relationships

Needs satisfaction bonds are estbed when an individual's needs are met & there is no point in criminal activity

Hirschi demonstrated that delinquent peers would have no direct effect on delinquency when social bonds inhibiting delinquency were taken onto account

Unattached youth drifted together into delinquent groups because weak social bonds failed to prevent both association w/ delinquents & delinquency itself

The groups that could strengthen the bonds were family, school, peers, religious institutions, etc.

CRITIQUE: SCT DOES NOT EXAMINE HOW SO MANY PEOPLE FAIL TO ATTACH & SACRIFICE SOCIAL BONDS FOR A LIFE OF CRIME / DEVIANCE

Many of the conclusions are intuitively convincing, e.g. that individuals will not engage in crime if they think that this will sacrifice the affection or respect of significant others, or cause them to lose employment or their autonomy if they face imprisonment

SCT is an advance from differential association theory in that it applies the ideas of soc control & bonding to grps beyond peers

While in general, people are controlled by attachment, commitments, activities, & beliefs, these social practices fail in many circumstances

While social bonds are important, SCT does not explain by so many people fail to bond & why bonds break

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An Overview of Emile Durkheim 1858 - 1917

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- Project: Theory & Your Project

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- Biography & Major Works

INTRODUCTION: Durkheim, who is considered to be a 'father of sociology,' saw Rousseau as the father of sociology. Saint Simon, Comte, Tocqueville & Spencer all utilized sociological concepts & some form of the scientific method, but Durkheim was first to make sociology a scientific discipline

SUMMARY: For Durkheim, one of the main problem for the social sciences, which he answers w/ his theory, was 'What creates social order?'
During the modern era, there is a problem w/ maintaining social order
Durkheim makes SEVENTEEN major points
1. Society & social behavior could & should be studied scientifically
2. Social facts are observable 'phenomena' that allow the study of society
3. Social cohesion is the force that unites a society, creating congruity, consistency, etc.
4. Mechanical solidarity is the type of cohesion based on traditional relationships
5. Organic solidarity is the type of cohesion based on self determination
6. The division of labor is the basis of organic solidarity today, in that every member participates in it & every member benefits from it
7. Collective consciousness consists of the knowledge, beliefs, values & norms that we hold in common
8. The cult of the individual represents society's unprecedented hi level of individualism
9. Anomie is the social condition of a weakened or absent common morality
10. Integration is the process of bringing new individuals & social phenomena into society
11. Regulation is the process of controlling, directing, or ruling society
12. Common morality consists of the beliefs, values, & norms that we hold in common
13. Religion is a primary type of traditional cohesion
14. Durkheim opposed political socialism, but believed in a greater level of cohesion or cooperation in society
15. Occupational associations are optimal institutions for achieving social reform
16. Modern society was displacing traditional society & mech solidarity was dissolving, but organic solidarity is slow to develop
17. Organic solidarity is not totally in effect, therefore there is a great risk of anomie & social instability

	DURKHEIM IS A PROGRESSIVE FUNCTIONALIST: I.E. ADVOCATED CHANGE & FOCUSED ON REGULATORY & INTEGRATORY PROCESSES
	Saint Simon was the most influential social theorist on Durkheim's thinking
	Durkheim built on Saint Simon's work of sociology as a 'science,' social evolution, etc.
	Durkheim is usually categorized as a functionalist because many of his ideas have been utilized by that discipline
	Functionalism is usually considered to be conservative, especially when compared to conflict theory
	Durkheim is a progressive functionalist
	Durkheim believed that contemporary philosophy should be constructive & organizational, NOT critical
	Contrary to what is taught by many sociologists, Durkheim was not a conservative; Durkheim was a progressive thinker who had a deep interest in socialism & social change
	Durkheim is less interested in economics than Marx or Weber, but like Marx & Weber, Durkheim was very interested in the industrial revolution & urbanization
	For Durkheim, one of the main problem for the social sciences, which he answers w/ his theory, was 'What creates Social Order?'
	Many issues that Durkheim studied stem from his concern w/ the inevitable results of the development of modern society
	There are SEVENTEEN fundamental principles of Durkheim's theory
	1. SOCIETY COULD & SHOULD BE STUDIED SCIENTIFICALLY
	Society & social behavior can be studied scientifically
	Durkheim was first to make sociology a scientific discipline
	Durkheim believed that society made individuals not vice versa
	2. SOCIAL FACTS ARE OBSERVABLE 'PHENOMENA' THAT ALLOW THE STUDY OF SOCIETY
	Social facts include relationships, institutions, groups, statistical patterns, as well as more abstract concepts like culture & social structure
	Durkheim conceived the idea that there were such things as 'social facts' that were observable 'things' that enabled the study of society
	Durkheim's famous 1st principle of sociology was to 'study social facts as things'
	When Durkheim advocated study social facts as things he was advocating that social life can be analyzed as rigorously as object or events in nature
	3. SOCIAL COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT UNITES A SOCIETY, CREATING CONGRUITY, CONSISTENCY, ETC.
	Cohesion is necessary in both pre industrial & industrial society
	The social forces, the cohesion that holds pre industrial & industrial societies together are different
	4. MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY IS A TYPE OF COHESION BASED ON TRADITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
	Mechanical solidarity is the type of cohesion in pre industrial society
	Cohesion is based on tradition culture
	Mechanical solidarity is based on a relatively narrow division of labor, which creates relatively high level of independence combined w/ nearly all relationships being primary
	5. ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS A TYPE OF COHESION BASED ON SELF DETERMINATION
	Organic solidarity is the type of cohesion in industrial society
	Cohesion is based on mutual interdependence
	Organic Solidarity is based on a very broad division of labor, which creates relatively high level of mutual interdependence combined w/ nearly all relationships being secondary
	Durkheim considered organic solidarity to be the cement of a society
	Much of Durkheim's theory was based on his conception of organic solidarity
	6. THE DIVISION OF LABOR IS THE BASIS OF ORGANIC SOLIDARITY TODAY, IN THAT EVERY MEMBER PARTICIPATES IN IT & EVERY MEMBER BENEFITS FROM IT
	The division of labor is the primary type of mutual interdependence in society today
	Durkheim elaborated on Saint Simon's scheme of the new industrial class to develop his ideas on the division of labor
	The division of labor resulted in development of modern society ( see below )
	Durkheim perceived the ideas behind the industrial system as possessing an inherent unity
	7. THE COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS CONSISTS OF THE KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES & NORMS THAT WE HOLD IN COMMON
	Collective consciousness is our strongly held common morality
	8. THE CULT OF THE INDIVIDUAL REPRESENTS SOCIETY'S UNPRECEDENTED HIGH LEVEL OF INDIVIDUALISM
	The cult of the individual is strongly held individual morality
	Individualism is the opposite of collective consciousness
	Individualism increases chance of suicide
	The cult of the individual was a source of societal disorganization
	9. ANOMIE IS A WEAKENED OR ABSENT COMMON MORALITY
	Anomie is a condition of normlessness in society
	Durkheim coined term anomie
	Individuals are confronted w/ anomie when they are faced w/ insufficient moral constraints
	For Durkheim, anomie is the social condition of a weakened or absent common morality which leads to deviance, crime & possibly even social chaos / revolution
	Modern society has made old morality obsolete, but new morality is in flux & thus weak or absent
	Compared to the absolute power of "the old morality" people in modern era do not have a clear concept of what is & is not proper & acceptable behavior
	10. INTEGRATION IS THE PROCESS OF BRINGING NEW INDIVIDUALS & SOCIAL PHENOMENA INTO SOCIETY
	Society is becoming more integrated as it develops internalized social control
	Integration is the degree in which collective sentiments are shared; i.e. degree to which people feel part of social groups
	11. REGULATION IS THE PROCESS OF CONTROLLING, DIRECTING, OR RULING SOCIETY
	Regulation is externalized social control
	Regulation is the degree of external constraints on people
	W/o regulation, a person experiences anomie
	12. COMMON MORALITY CONSISTS OF THE BELIEFS, VALUES, & NORMS THAT WE HOLD IN COMMON
	Common morality decreased during the modern era
	There is a problem w/ maintaining social order
	Disorder was viewed, generally, as an automatic consequence of an economic system in which every individual pursues his/her own interest unless such a system had a common morality of organic solidarity, the division of labor, etc.
	See Also: Durkheim on Crime
	13. RELIGION IS A PRIMARY TYPE OF TRADITIONAL COHESION
	The source of religion is society's shared sentiments
	The nature of society's religions were also affected by the transition from mechanical solidarity to [ traditional solidarity ] organic solidarity [ rational solidarity ]
	14. DURKHEIM OPPOSED POLITICAL SOCIALISM, BUT BELIEVED IN A GREATER LEVEL OF COHESION OR COOPERATION IN SOCIETY
	Durkheim's studies of socialism were to be an "analysis of the causes of an idea."
	Durkheim used the concept of socialism to emphasize or highlight his theoretical scheme
	While Durkheim was not a socialist in Marxist sense, he, like Weber, is having a debate w/ 'the ghost of Marx'
	One cannot say merely that Durkheim opposed Marxism because he accepted many basics & rejected many others
	Durkheim especially opposed any revolutionary doctrine, which he feared would only result in anarchy & moral disruption
	Durkheim also refused to recognize the class character of society as being center of conflict in society, but did recognize that equalization of classes was necessary
	In essence, Durkheim synthesized works of St. Simon & Marx
	15. OCCUPATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS ARE OPTIMAL INSTITUTIONS FOR ACHIEVING SOCIAL REFORM
	Occupation associations (OAs) are similar to business unions, but have much more authority in the workplace & in society
	OAs are organizations of professionals in a particular field who organize to advance their own interests & the interests of society
	Today one of our most powerful OAs is the American Medical Assoc (AMA) which regulates doctors, the healthcare field for the benefit of themselves, the patient, & society as a whole
	16. MODERN SOCIETY WAS DISPLACING TRADITIONAL SOCIETY & MECH SOLIDARITY WAS DISSOLVING, BUT ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS SLOW TO DEVELOP
	Durkheim viewed the development of the modern era with hope, but later became disillusioned
	The development of modernity was especially dangerous because it broke down traditional society, which was held together by mechanical solidarity
	Durkheim believes that modern society is not fully developed, which is a position which Habermas now embraces
	17. ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS NOT TOTALLY IN EFFECT, THEREFORE THERE IS A GREAT RISK OF ANOMIE & SOCIAL INSTABILITY
	Because of the transition from tradl soc to mod soc, i.e. the trans from mechanical to organic solidarity, & because societies change at different rates, & because some societies have lost tradl soc but have not adopted mod soc values, we are experiencing a crisis or breakdown
	At the personal & social level the crisis of the transition from tradl to mod society is experienced as anomie, i.e. an absence of a common morality
	For the most part Durkheim did support the development of modernity, but after "the Great War" his son was killed & he had great doubts that modern society could ever function as well as traditional society

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Emile Durkheim
1858 - 1917
Born in France
Resided in Germany
Son died in The Great War
( known today as WW I )
Deeply hurt Durkheim,
Became cynical about society & died soon after

DURKHEIM, Emile (1858-1917). A pioneer social scientist, Emile Durkheim established sociology as a separate discipline, or field of study. He was the first to subject the specific events of everyday life to close sociological study and to determine specific scientific methods of examination.
   Emile Durkheim was born on April 15, 1858, in Epinal, France. He studied philosophy at the prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris. Upon graduation in 1882 he taught in secondary schools until 1887, when he was appointed to a lectureship especially founded for him at the University of Bordeaux. This was the first course of social science officially provided in a French university.
   Durkheim's first book, 'The Division of Labor in Society', published in 1893, focused on the problems of new technology and the mechanization of work. This division of labor, according to Durkheim, made workers both more alien to one another, as their jobs were different, and more dependent on one another, as none any longer built the whole of a product. The methods to be used to examine society in this new discipline Durkheim laid out in 'The Rules of Sociological Method' (1895).
   His classic 'Suicide' (1897) examines the ties that bind individuals to the society in which they live, and their breakdown. Suicide appeared to be more frequent in societies where individuals are less a part of the life around them, as in modern industrial societies. He distinguished three types of suicide: In egoistic suicide the individual shuts himself off from other human beings. Anomic suicide comes from the belief that the world has fallen apart around one. Altruistic suicide springs from great loyalty to a cause.
   In 1902 Durkheim was appointed to the University of Paris, becoming a full professor in 1906. He taught there until his death on Nov. 15, 1917.

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Major Works of Durkheim
Suicide
The Division of Labor in Society
The Rules of Sociological Method
The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, 1915

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Durkheim on Social Order & Deviance

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- Video: Durkheim on Deviance 1:35

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- Project: Durkheim on Deviance, Social Control, & Social Order

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SOCIAL ORDER IS NOT AUTOMATIC; IT MUST BE MAINTAINED THROUGH A NUMBER OF SOCIAL PROCESSES WHICH ARE ACTIVE EACH & EVERY DAY

The key insight of the structural functional approach is that deviance is a necessary element of social organization, especially in establishing social order

Durkheim believed that a major sociological question was the question of social order, which considers how society might establish & maintain social stability & cohesiveness

Dev behavior keeps society stable by estbing boundaries, the boundaries btwn normalcy & dev

Dev beh establishes boundaries btwn rewarded behavior & punished beh

For Durkheim, some amt of dev is a normal part of social organization

For Durkheim, social control can help maintain norm violating w/in some limits but it cannot eliminate it

If dev were eliminated, society would be less stable

Regardless of what we do in the name of social control, there will always be some deviance

For Durkheim, there is nothing abnormal about deviance in the sense that deviance is found in every society

Deviance performs essential social control functions for society

THE FUNCTION OF DEVIANCE, BROADLY SPEAKING, IS TO HIGHLIGHT WHAT IS 'NORMAL,' I.E. SOCIAL ORDER, W/ WHAT IS ABNORMAL / DEVIANT / CHAOS

A function of deviance is that:

a. it affirms cultural values & norms

b. responding to it clarifies moral boundaries

c. responding to it brings people together

d. it encourages social change

The kind of deviance people generate depends on the moral issues they seek to clarify

	IN COMPARING DURKHEIM W/ OTHER THEORISTS ON SOCIAL ORDER, THERE IS A RANGE OF PROCESSES MAINTAINING IT, INCLUDING: SOCIAL APPROVAL, FORCE, CIVIC PARTICIPATION, ECON INCENTIVES, ETC.
	In relation to the nature of social order, Durkheim contrasts his own view to Hobbes, the utilitarians, St. Simon, & Comte
	Hobbes believed that social order is result of fear of a Leviathan, a central power
	St. Simon & Comte both advocated a Hobbesean solution to problem of order
	In relation to the social order, many social theorists w/ Hobbesean leanings believe that because of industrial development, conflicts of interest, urbanization, etc., society is tearing at the very social fabric that holds it together
	For the many social theorists w/ Hobbesean leanings concerned w/ maintaining the social order, the solution was often state imposed social peace
	Utilitarians such as JS Mill & Harriet Taylor were diametrically opposed to the Hobbesean state
	Utilitarians believed that central authority must be eliminated
	For Durkheim, social order & harmony resulted from the division of labor
	Order was an automatic consequence of economic system where every individual pursues their own interests
	The modern era is characterized by laissez faire capitalism wherein the economy works best when left alone & will create the "greatest good of the greatest number"
	See Also: false/class consciousness, ideology, interests
	Durkheim recognized the successes & the failures of the utilitarian position

	THE SOCIAL ORDER IS BASED ON MECHANICAL OR ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
	Durkheim developed the concepts of mechanical & organic solidarity to denote the "social glue" which held the respective traditional & modern social fabrics together
	See Also: Mechanical & Organic Solidarity
	For Durkheim, the problem of social order occurs primarily when, during the process of modernization, mechanical solidarity breaks down, & is not yet replaced w/ organic solidarity
	The problem of social order may also occur when a given traditional or modern society becomes so stressed that solidarity is weakened or destroyed
	Anomie, deviance & crime exist in all societies as they change at the margins & for boundary maintenance, etc., but they become social problems when solidarity breaks down
	Deviance is so crucial to social order that societies lacking a given amount of it would redefine acceptable behavior to create deviance
	Regarding deviance & dysfunctions, Durkheim believed that deviance, beyond a certain level, threatens the social order and can be dysfunctional
	For Durkheim, high levels of immigration may be a major social problem, but not because of economic or job issues
	Immigration is a major problem in our modern society because immigrants do not know the norms & laws of this country & therefore are a source of social instability
	The instability fostered by immigration can be functional if it is limited & the society can absorb & integrate the new culture
	The instability inherent in immigration can undermine the old order creating conflict, instability, anomie, crime, deviance, etc.

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Outline on Durkheim on Crime

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- Project: Public Punishment

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DURKHEIM & MANY FUNCTIONALISTS HOLD THE CONTROVERSIAL POSITION THAT CRIME IS FUNCTIONAL FOR SOCIETY

Durkheim viewed a limited amount of crime as functional for society, however if crime became too pervasive, this was a symptom of anomie & the breakdown of the social order

Durkheim believed that an affinity for crime was the result of social forces

Durkheim, as he often did, developed his own position in direct opposition to other prevailing ideas of his time (late 1800s)

Durkheim directly refuted the positions that an affinity for crime was the result of something that is in individuals' psychological or physiological makeup

1. DURKHEIM'S ANOMIC EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT THE BREAKDOWN OF NORMS CAUSES CRIME

Durkheim developed the concept of anomie, which is a condition of normlessness in society

In a society, w/in the normal range of anomie we find that there are always some people who are outside the system

In a society, outside of the normal range of anomie we find that people engage in more deviant behavior, crime, riot, revolution, etc.

Anomie occurs at some normal level in society, but becomes socially pathological when the social order breaks down & anomie becomes widespread creating waves of deviance, crime, chaos, etc.