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Review Notes on  IS  Lecture 6:  Deviance, Crime, & Social Control 
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 DEVIANCE  
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          Functionalism on Deviance  
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          Conflict Theory on Deviance  
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          Social Control  
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 CRIME  
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          White Collar Crime  
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          Crime & Racism  
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          Police Corruption  
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 CAUSES OF CRIME  
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          Hirschi's Social Control Theory  
  FUNCTIONALISM ON DEVIANCE & CRIME  
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          An Overview of Durkheim  
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          Durkheim on Social Order & Deviance  
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          Durkheim on Crime  
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          Merton's Revision of Anomie  
  SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM ON DEVIANCE & CRIME  
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          Labeling Theory  
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          Deviant Subcultures  
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 CONFLICT THEORY ON CRIME  
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 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM  

 
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Outline on  Deviance
External
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 - Video:  Deviance     2:15 
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 - Video:  Conflict Theory on Deviance    1:30 
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 - Video:  Soc Change, Ruling Class, Deviance      3:47 
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  - Video:  Functionalism & Other Theories on Deviance    10:02 
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 -  Project:  The Qualities of Your Deviance 
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  -  Project:  Video: Durkheim on Deviance 
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  DEFINITIONS OF DEVIANCE: DEVIANCE IS THAT BEHAVIOR OR CULTURAL ARTIFACT THAT IS DEFINED BY SOCIETY AS BEING OUTSIDE OF THE NORMAL RANGE, I.E. A VIOLATION OF NORMS / SOCIETY'S INFORMAL RULES   
 
 Deviance is behavior or ideology that does not conform to the prevailing norms of society   
  Deviance is defined as the recognized violation of cultural norms   
 
 The functionalist perspective in deviance & social control is best represented by Emile Durkheim & Talcott Parsons 
 
  One category of deviance is crime, the violation of a society's formally enacted criminal law   
  What all deviant actions or attitudes have in common is some element of difference that causes us to regard another person as an "outsider"   
  Not all deviance involves action or even choice   
 
 Dev is the violation of norms & expectations   
  Dev is the violation of norms accepted by either a significant number of people in a community or society, or those w/ the power to enforce them   
  Just as there are important differences among situations in which norms are appropriate, there are also important differences about the relative seriousness of types of norm or law violating behavior   
  Deviance, like conformity, is shaped by society   
  The concept of deviance has TWELVE qualities / social foundations   
  1.  DEVIANCE IS DEFINED BY SOCIETY   
  Deviance / norms are created or defined by society, i.e. a general consensus   
  Thus, what is deviant is NOT a property inherent in the thing or act   
  2.  DEVIANCE IS NON-CONFORMITY   
  Deviance does not conform to expectations & norms that exist w/in a society   
  Deviance varies according to cultural norms   
  3.  GROUP INTERESTS DEFINE DEVIANCE   
  Group interests play important role in defining deviance   
  4.  POWERFUL GROUPS DEFINE DEVIANCE   
  Large or powerful segments of society determine norms & thus determine what is or is not deviant   
  Both norms & the way people define them involve social power   
  People at the bottom of the socio economic scale are most often labeled as deviant, because the powerful in society determine what is deviant   
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 However "deviant" something may be, unless the powerful disapprove, it is not deviant   
  Thus a behavior participated in by all or a majority of people can still be considered deviant   
  For conflict theorists, deviance is defined & enforced in a way that perpetuates the dominance of elites over the less powerful or powerless   
  Studies of the sociology of rule making show that what is defined as deviant is the outcome of a political process   
  Group interests play an important role in defining what behaviors are considered deviant or normal   
 
 Conflict theorists agree that a disharmony of interests exists in modern society   
 
 From the conflict perspective, norms don't involve agreement among a majority of people, norms reflect the interests of people w/ enough power to enforce norms
 
  POWER INFLUENCES SOCIAL NORMS   
  Soc norms are strongly influenced by the divisions of power   
  The grp w/ the most power can define the norms   
  The dominant group tries to enforce its norms, but not everyone agrees w/ the dominant grp   
  The existence of power points to the existence of inequality   
  Some grps may follow norms & values even though they don't agree w/ them   
  For some grps, norms & values are not in their best interest   
  Conflict & inequality are created when grps follow norms & values even through they don't agree or when those norms & values are not in their best interest   
  5.  DEFINITIONS OF DEVIANCE VARY BY WHO DOES THE ACT  
  Observations of social interaction reveal that definitions of deviance tend to vary according to who performs the act   
  6.  MOST PEOPLE VIOLATE RULES 
 
 
 Few people are arrested & processed as criminals, self report surveys reveal most people violate rules 
 
  7.  THE EFFECT OF DEVIANCE IS OFTEN MAGNIFIED BY THE LABELING EFFECT WHERE PEOPLE ARE MORE IMPACTED BY THE LABEL OF BEING DEVIANT THAT THEY ARE BY THE PERFORMANCE OF THE DEVIANT ACT   
  People become deviant as others define them that way 
 
 
 See Also:  Labeling Theory   
  8.  DEVIANCE VARIES ACROSS CONTEXTS   
 
 Behavior must be context appropriate:  what is normal in one context may be deviant in another 
 
  9.  DEVIANCE VARIES CROSS CULTURALLY  
 
 The nature of deviance changes from culture to culture 
 
 
 The nature of deviance changes from culture to culture due to the fact that behavior is socially labeled as deviant or normal & the individual cultures & societies define deviance in their own ways 
 
 
 Cross cultural analysis indicates that notions of right & wrong vary among cultures 
 
  10.  DEVIANCE VARIES HISTORICALLY  
 
 Deviance is noticeable historically because the nature of deviance changes over time 
 
  11.  ABSOLUTISM DOES NOT APPLY TO DEVIANCE SINCE IT IS DEFINED BY SOCIETY & NOT BY ANY PARTICULAR STANDARD   
 
 Deviant behavior is not a violation of anything absolute i.e., it is not inherent in any particular forms of behavior 
 
  12.  RELATIVISM DOES NOT APPLY TO DEVIANCE BECAUSE WHILE SOCIETY HAS NO ABSOLUTE STANDARD, IT ALWAYS HAS SOME STANDARD, & THUS NEVER HAS NON EXISTENT OR RELATIVE STANDARDS   
 
 In an analysis of deviance, the concept of relativism denotes that no behavior is "naturally" or morally deviant / bad 
 
 
 All behavior is socially labeled either as deviant or normal, but this does not mean that any behavior is acceptable 
 
 
 Relativism is the contention that what is deviant in any society is the consequence of social or political processes 
 
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 Examples of Deviance as a violation of social norms 
 

 
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Examples of behaviors that were approved of  by large or powerful segments of society
Slavery
Discrimination based on sex & race
School segregation
Holocaust in Germany

 
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Examples of Deviance & Norms
Men w/ long hair, women in pants    Dress
Norms:
    Folkways:  dressed in casual clothes for formal occasion
    Mores:       no shirt in dept. store
    Laws:
        Criminal:         no shirt, no shoes in food store
        Civil:               copying super model's look

 
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 Outline on  Functionalism on Deviance
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  - Video:  Functionalism & Other Theories on Deviance    10:02 
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  FOR FUNCTIONALISM, SOME TYPES OF DEVIANCE CAN HAVE POSITIVE FUNCTIONS FOR SOCIETY   
  Sociologists have determined that deviance of various types can have positive functions for society 
 
  For Durkheim, dev serves two necessary functions including that it: 
 
  - defines the boundaries of acceptable behavior 
 
  - promotes integration 
 
  For Durkheim, dev has the consequence of promoting social stability 
 
  Dev promotes social cohesion in that people who do not deviate feel that they belong to the group or society that supports the norms 
 
  Dev creates a feeling of us against them, i.e. the ones who break the norms 
 
  The fact that behavior must be context appropriate is seen in  that deviance is interpreted by age & by past behavior 
 
  The context in which deviance occurs may be social, cultural, or psychological & has a primary or secondary intensity   
  1.  PRIMARY DEVIANCE IS AN INITIAL DEVIANT ACT 
  Deviant behaviors that are short term or cease w/ adult status 
 
  Primary Deviance is correlated w/ social, cultural, structural & psychological conditions 
 
  2.  SECONDARY DEVIANCE IS DEVIANCE THAT RESULT FROM BEING LABELED AS DEVIANT 
 
  Secondary deviance evolves out of the offender's self concept 
 
  Secondary deviance evolves from other's conception of a person 
 
  Secondary deviance is long term & does not cease w/ adult status   
  Secondary deviance includes chronic deviant behavior by people who come to identify themselves as deviant   
  The distinction btwn primary & secondary deviance is importance in the development of social policies that reduce the chances of primary deviance inducing secondary deviance   
  A MORAL CRUSADE IS AN INTEREST GROUP'S ATTEMPT TO DEFINE A BEHAVIOR AS DEVIANT   
  Joseph Gusfield's study of alcohol prohibition concluded that the American Temperance Movement was an example of a moral crusade   
  An examination of deviance & social control is an examination of the appropriateness / correctness & necessity of govt & other social actors to utilize all types of social control, labels of deviance, sanctions, etc. to advance a moral crusade, or any behavior or ideology   
  For Durkheim, the positive consequences of deviance & social control include increased solidarity   

 
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 Outline on  Conflict Theory on Deviance
External
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  - Video:  Conflict Theory on Deviance    1:30 
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  THE CONFLICT THEORY OF DEVIANCE FOCUSES ON THE CREATION, DISTRIBUTION, USE, & MYSTIFICATION OF POWER 
 
  Overt power is the ability to get others to do something against their will 
 
  Covert power is the ability to set parameters in which people make decisions 
 
  Those who control power determine what is dev 
 
  Those who lack power may act in ways they consider acceptable, but these behaviors may be labeled dev by those who control the power 
 
  From conflict theory, soc change & progress occur as a result of conflict among soc grps 
 
  Dev beh may represent a challenge to dominant soc grps 
 
  The dev beh of 1 soc grp may be a demand for a change of norms through the challenge of existing norms 
 
  DEVIANCE INDICATES A STRUGGLE BTWN SOC GRPS & EACH SOC GRP HAS VARYING AMTS OF POWER 
 
  The grp w/ the most power tends to control the norms of society 
 
  The ruling class determines which dev behaviors will be punished & dealt w/ by a formal social control sys 
 
  The ruling class is the politically & economically dominant powerful grp 
 
  SINCE THE RULING CLASS HAS THE MOST POL & ECON POWER, IT HAS THE LARGEST PART IN DECIDING WHAT IS CONSIDERED DEV BEH 
 
  Those outside the power structure socially create acceptable or even desirable beliefs / behaviors, that the ruling class considers to be deviant, at least partly because this offers some measure of opposition to the ruling class 
 
  The less powerful grps find themselves subject to punishment in a formal soc control sys for things that they consider acceptable   
  Conflicts may occur w/in a single instit or org, not just btwn 2 different grps like the ruling class & a grp lacking power   
  Conflict also occurs w/in an org as in the conflict in the Republican Party btwn the Christian right & the traditional fiscal policy conservatives   
  In the Democratic Party there is conflict btwn social liberals & the more fiscally conservative, centrist wing   
  Dev occurs w/in a soc grp if conflict or power struggles exist w/in that grp   

 
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Outline on   Social Control
External
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  -  Video:  Social Control                  1:26 
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  -  Video:  Norms & Conformity      6:53 
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  SOCIAL CONTROL IS THE CONTROL OF THE INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR BY SOCIETY OR CONTROL OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE INTEREST OF THE WHOLE SOCIETY   
 
 Soc con is an important part of soc stability 
 
  All of us are subject to social control, attempts by society to regulate people's thought & behavior   
 
 Much of soc control is done through culture, socialization, & formal control by authorities 
 
 
 Soc controls are organized methods for teaching & enforcing conformity 
 
  Cases of serious deviance may provoke action by the criminal justice system, a formal response by police, courts, & prison officials to alleged violations of the law  
 
 Durkheim held that in modern society social control was slipping because the old forms, found in traditions, which he called mechanical solidarity, had not yet been replaced by the new form, found in the interdependence of society, which he called organic solidarity 
 
  See Also:  Durkheim   
  Where soc control fails, we see deviance, collective behavior, soc mvmts, crime, alienation, other social problems, & other forms social behavior that are outside the norm   
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 Examples of Deviance as a violation of social norms   
  A.  FOLKWAYS ARE THE MOST INFORMAL OF NORMS   
 
 Examples of folkways include manners, etiquette, customs, normal behavior, etc. 
 
  B.  MORES ARE SERIOUS NORMS THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE WRITTEN INTO LAW   
 
 Examples of a more include flag burning, questioning someone's religion or politics, etc. 
 
  C.  LAWS ARE A TYPE OF NORM W/ THE SUPPORT OF THE STATE / GOVT SANCTION W/ EITHER CRIMINAL OR CIVIL PUNISHMENT   
  i.  Criminal law is law which the state will prosecute 
The body of rules or principles prescribed by authority or established by custom, which a state, community, society, or the like recognizes as binding		  
  ii.  Civil law is law which allows one citizen to prosecute ( sue ) another  
  SOCIAL CONTROL INCLUDES ALL PROCESSES USED TO MINIMIZE DEVIANCE FROM SOCIAL NORMS; E.G., CULTURE, NORMS, SOCIALIZATION, LAW, ETC.   
  Social control includes all social processes used to minimize deviance from social norms; e.g., culture, norms, socialization, law, etc.   
  There are TWO Types of Social Control   
  FORMAL OR DIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL IS REGULATION THROUGH THE ENFORCEMENT OF NORMATIVE STANDARDS   
  It is often done by a person(s) w/ authority & responsibility   
 
 Formal con is defined by legal sanctions & enforced by instits such as the police, the courts, & the various local, state, & fed legislatures 
 
  The formal enforcement of norms is done through the threat of & implementation of rewards or punishments by those who represent an org or instit or the whole society   
  The formal agents of socialization act on the basis of rules & laws most of which are written   
 
 See Also:  Formal or Direct Social Control   
  INFORMAL OR INDIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL IS REGULATION THROUGH IDEOLOGICAL OR CULTURAL MANIPULATION   
  It is often done by surrogate human authority such as rules, customs, laws, even machines   
  Indirect social control is accomplished through socialization   
  Indirect social control is the most powerful type of social control   
 
 At the heart of informal social controls are relationships w/ significant others (SOs) 
 
  Review:  For Mead, SOs are people whose affection & approval are very important   
  SOs will reward, punish, or use other methods of socialization to enforce the norms of society   
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 Examples of direct & indirect control   
  Sanctions are rewards for conforming behavior & punishments for nonconforming behavior   
 
 There are FOUR Types of Sanctions   
  1.  A FORMAL POSITIVE SANCTION IS A FORMAL REWARD   
 
 A formal positive sanction is a formal reward, etc. is applied by a socially recognized actor ( person, organization, institution, etc. ) empowered to give that reward  
 
 Formal Positive Sanction are well defined & can only be applied by people w/ proper institutional credentials   
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 Examples of Formal Positive Sanctions   
  2.  AN INFORMAL POSITIVE SANCTION IN AN INFORMAL REWARD   
 
 An informal positive sanction is an informal reward, etc. by almost any actor  ( person, organization, etc. )   
  The Functions of Positive Social Control Methods are social control, inducement, & reward   
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 Examples of Informal Positive Sanctions   
  3.  A FORMAL NEGATIVE SANCTION IS A FORMAL PUNISHMENT   
  A formal negative sanction is a formal punishment, etc. by a socially recognized actor ( person, organization, institution, etc. ) empowered to give that punishment   
  Formal sanctions are well defined and can only be applied by people with proper institutional credentials   
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 Examples of Formal Negative Sanctions   
  4.  AN INFORMAL NEGATIVE SANCTION IS AN INFORMAL PUNISHMENT   
  An informal negative sanction is an informal punishment, etc. by almost any actor ( person, organization, etc. )   
  The functions of negative social control methods are social control, deterrence, & punishment   
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 Examples of Informal Negative Sanctions   
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 Chart of Examples of FOUR Types of Social Control   
  For Durkheim, the positive consequences of deviance and social control include increased solidarity 
 

 
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Chart of Examples of FOUR Types of Social Control 
 
Formal 
Informal 
Positive 
 Formal Positive 
Pay, grades, awards 		 Informal Positive 
Tip, praise, smile, inclusion 
Negative 
 Formal Negative 
Fine, pay cut, bad grade, note in a file, 
Excommunication from a religious organization, expulsion from high school, & criminal punishment 		 Informal Negative 
No tip, criticism, scowl, ostracism 

 
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Examples of Deviance & Norms 
Men w/ long hair, women in pants    Dress 
Norms: 
Folkways:  dressed in casual clothes for formal occasion 
Mores: no shirt in dept. store 
Laws: 
Criminal:  no shirt, no shoes in food store 
Civil:  copying super model's look 

 
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Civil law 
Body of law proper to the city as distinct from that common to all nations 
Also, the whole system of Roman law 
Hence the body of private law developed from Roman law 
Law pertaining to the citizen as an individual 

 
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Examples of direct & indirect control 

Factory Work: 
Supervisor harangues or beats workers to work faster 
Supervisor issues penalties 
Computer measures output w/ pay proportional to this output 
Elementary school:  Teacher constantly making sure child turns in work 
College:  Prof establishes goals.  It's up to the student to achieve them 


 
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Examples of Formal Positive Sanctions 

A raise 
An awards dinner 
A certificate of achievement 
A reward 


 
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Examples of Informal Positive Sanctions 

Giving an "atta boy" 
Taking someone out to lunch for a reward 
A pat on the back 
A big thank you 


 
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Examples of Formal Negative Sanctions 

Bad Grades 
Expulsion from High School 
Prison 
A ticket 


 
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Examples of Informal Negative Sanctions 

Taking someone to the woodshed 
A talking to 
A frown 
Ostracism 


 
Internal
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   Outline on    Crime 
External
Links
  -  Project:  Preventing Mass Shootings & Gun Violence 
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  -  Project:  Types of Crime 
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  -  Project:  Video:   Profiling & the Types & Causes of Crime 
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  -  Video:   Profiling 
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  CRIME IS A DEVIANT ACT THAT VIOLATES THE LAW   
  Crime refers to deviance as determined by the powers in society, which is a violation of the law, which is formalized, codified, norms enforced by the govt   
  When people break laws & commit crimes they are being deviant & unlawful   
  Since crimes are deviant, they can still be participated in by a majority of people   
  Crimes against the person involve direct violence or the threat of violence against others   
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 THE ELEVEN TYPES OF CRIME INCLUDE: 
1.  VIOLENT
2.  PROPERTY 
3.  JUVENILE 
4.  NON VIOLENT 
5.  VICTIMLESS 
6.  HATE 
7.  TREASON 		 8.  TERRORISM 
9.  WAR / CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY 
10.  STREET 
11.  WHITE COLLAR 
12.  SEX CRIME (child & adult)
13.  FAMILY CRIME 
 
  1.  VIOLENT CRIME IS PHYSICALLY FORCEFUL & / OR HARMS ANOTHER PERSON   
  Violent crime includes murder, assault, robbery, rape, abuse, etc.   
  2.  PROPERTY CRIME MAY OR MAY NOT BE PHYSICALLY FORCEFUL & IS DIRECTED AGAINST PROPERTY OR WEALTH   
  Crimes against property involve theft of property belonging to others   
  Property crime includes burglary, larceny, fraud, etc.   
  3.  JUVENILE CRIME IS ANY CRIME CARRIED OUT BY A PERSON NOT CONSIDERED TO BE AN ADULT; ADULT STATUS IS DEFINED DIFFERENTLY BY MANY STATES RANGING FROM AGE 12 TO AGE 16   
  Juvenile crime ( & other protected individuals ) denotes that, generally, individuals who are under the age of ten cannot be convicted of crimes   
  Those who have been declared mentally insane & the severally retarded also cannot be convicted of crimes   
  4.  NON VIOLENT CRIME GENERALLY INCLUDES ANY TYPE OF CRIME THAT IS NOT VIOLENT INCLUDING PROPERTY, VICTIMLESS & OTHER TYPES OF CRIME   
  Non violent crime includes violations of social norms such as speeding, littering, etc.   
  5.  VICTIMLESS CRIME INCLUDES CRIMINAL OR ILLEGAL ACTS IN WHICH ALL PARTICIPANTS ARE CONSENTING ADULTS   
  Victimless crimes are violations of law in which there are no readily apparent victims   
  Illegal acts in which all participants are consenting adults   
  Examples of victimless crimes include sex crimes, drug use, illegal gambling, sports such as cock fighting   
  The classic definition of victimless crime assumes, "There is never a victim" in sex crimes, drug use, etc.   
  A re examination of consent indicates that people consent under pressure   
  "Victimless" crime often does have a victim, but at some level, the harm is self inflicted   
  Conflict theory holds that victimless crimes are criminal only because politically powerful people / groups find them undesirable or offensive   
  Functionalist theory holds that social need, not societal power, underlies the labeling of  victimless behaviors as criminals   
  6.  HATE CRIME INCLUDES ACTS DESIGN TO INJURE OR TERRORIZE A SPECIFIC GROUP OF PEOPLE BASED ON RACE, ETHNICITY, ETC.   
  Hate crimes were first designated as such in the US during the 1990s   
  Hate crimes are the newest type of crime to be recognized   
  Hate crimes were designated so that the fed govt could bolster local investigation & prosecution & to punish crimes which have a terror aspect   
  7.  TREASON IS THE BETRAYAL OF ONE'S COUNTRY  
 
 Treason often includes any attempt to overthrow the govt of one's country 
 
  Typical types of treason include spying or selling of secret info   
  Treason committed & apprehended during times of war is punishable by summary execution, though this rarely happens in the West today   
  8.  TERRORISM INCLUDES THE SYSTEMIC USE OF TERROR, VIOLENCE OR INTIMIDATION TO ACHIEVE AN END, USUALLY BY ONE NATIONAL GROUP AGAINST ANOTHER   
 
 Terrorism, like war, has evolved over the centuries 
 
  The earliest forms of terrorism included assassination, poisoning of water supplies, & spreading disease   
  As soon as gun powder bombs were available, there were terrorist bombings   
  9.  WAR CRIMES & CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY INCLUDES CRIMES AS DETERMINED BY THE CUSTOMS OF WARFARE, TODAY, ESP THE GENEVA CONVENTION & OTHER TREATIES   
  War crimes & crimes against humanity includes any or various crimes committed during a war & considered to be in violation of the customs of warfare, usually as described by the Geneva Convention   
  Examples:  mistreatment of prisoners of war, genocide, use of chemical or biological weapons, etc.   
  A war crime committed & apprehended during times of war is punishable by summary execution, though this rarely happens   
  10.  STREET CRIME INCLUDES VIOLENT OFFENSES & PROPERTY OFFENSES USUALLY CARRIED OUT BY LOWER & MIDDLE CLASS PEOPLE   
  Street crime appears to be the most common, but it does less monetary & human damage that white collar crime, where one crime can affect millions of people   
  Examples:  burglary   
  11.  WHITE COLLAR CRIME INCLUDES NO VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS USUALLY CARRIED OUT BY UPPER MIDDLE & UPPER CLASS PEOPLE   
  White collar crime, a.k.a. corporate crime, is the most damaging in terms of money & human damage   
  Conflict theory holds that the laws that exist, the laws that are enforced, & the methods, targets, & harshness of enforcement all function to protect the interests of the ruling classes   
  It has been established that vagrancy law were enacted to serve the interests of economic elites   
  12.  SEX CRIME INCLUDES CHILD SEX ABUSE (PEDOPHILIA) AS WELL AS SEX CRIMES AGAINSTS ADULTS INCLUDING RAPE, SEXUAL ASSAULT, ETC.   
  13.  FAMILY CRIME INCLUDES CHILD, ADULT, ELDER, ETC ABUSE OF ASSAULT, NEGLECT, & TORMENT AS WELL AS CRIMES AROUND CHILD CUSTODY, CRIMES OF PASISON, ETC.   
 
 WHILE A PROFILE DELINEATES ONLY THE 'MOST COMMON' QUALS OF A PERSON, THE PROFILE OF A VICTIM DELINEATES THAT CRIME AFFECTS YOUNG, LOWER CLASS MALES 
 
  Socio economic status, race, age, & gender are the greatest predictors of victimization   
  Given these three factors, who is mostly likely to be a victim in our society ? ? ?   
  The poor, male, non white, young are the  mostly likely to be a victim in our society   
  18 - 24 yr. olds are most likely to be victims   
  Although white females & elderly people express the greatest fear of crime, they have relatively low levels of victimization   
  Thus those that fear crime the most are the least likely to be victimized:  middle class, old, female, white   
  While only half of street crime is reported to police, even less non street crime is reported to police   
  Murder & assault are generally planned & intended, but many crimes are a spur of the moment event   
 
 A PROFILE OF A CRIMINAL IS ALSO A YOUNG, LOWER CLASS MALE IN THAT MOST CRIMES ARE CRIMES OF OPPORTUNITY 
 
 
 It is very difficult to describe the typical criminal because there is wide variability, stereotypes mislead, & the reporting of various types of crime mystify the true nature of crime   
 
 More street crime is committed by members of the lower class, while more non street crime is committed by members of the middle & upper classes 
 
  The Street Criminal: A Profile   
 
 Gender:  The vast majority of all types of crime are committed by men 
 
  Men are arrested more than twice as often as women for property crimes   
  In the case of violent crimes, the disparity btwn the criminality of women & men is even greater, w/ men committing 5 times as many violent crimes as women  
  Age: Official crime rates rise sharply during adolescence & peak in the late teens, falling thereafter   
  Social class: Street crime is more widespread among people of lower social position. however, the link btwn class & crime is more complicated than it appears on the surface   
  Race & ethnicity: Both race & ethnicity are strongly correlated to crime rates, although the reasons are many & complex   
 
 In 2000, there are 1.3 mm Americans in prison 
 
 
 In 2002, there are 2.2 mm Americans in prison 
 
 
 Organizational dynamic:  Recall that Etzioni described prisons as being coercive organizations.   As prisons become for profits business, they become utilitarian organizations 
 
 
 THE PERSUASIVENESS OF CRIME IS THAT WE HAVE ONE OF THE MOST CRIMINAL NATIONS IN THE WORLD 
 
  How much crime is there?            Bureau of Justice Tables   
  Criminal statistics show crime rising btwn 1960 & 1990, & then declining through 2004   
  Victimization surveys may provide more accurate data on the nature & amount of crime because in many ways they are more accurate   
  The US property crime rate is  4.59 %         or 4,593 property offenses per 100,000   
  The US  sexual assault/rape crime rate is    .072 %      or    72 rapes per 100,000 women   
  The violent crime rate is   .685 %                        or 685 violent crimes per 100,000 people   
  In regard to crime statistics, w/ the exception of murder, only about half of all incidents of street crimes are reported to police   
 
 What is the UCR? 
Link
  FBI Universal Crime Reports      http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm 
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  UCR   1995  Report 
Link
  Bureau Justice:  Violent Crime Rates 
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  Bureau Justice:  Property Crime Rates 
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  Bureau Justice:  Reported Crime 
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  Bureau Justice:  Homicide by Age of Victim 
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  Statistics 1980 - 1999 
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  Crime in Virginia, 1999
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  Crime in all US states, 1999 
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  Crime in major US cities, 1999 
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  By world standards, the US crime rate is high because our culture has an emphasis on individual economic success   
  By world standards, the US crime rate is high because of the number of guns available   

 
External
Links

Top
Outline on  White Collar Crime 
External
Links
  -  Video:  Enron:  The Smartest Guys in the Room 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  Enron:  Intersections of Corporate & Political Crime; Causes of Crime 
Link
  WHITE COLLAR CRIMES (aka corporate crime ) ARE USUALLY NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS CARRIED OUT BY UPPER MIDDLE & UPPER CLASS MEMBERS OF THE COMMUNITY   
  The term "white collar crime"  was coined by the criminologist Sutherland   
  White collar crimes account for larger economic losses & in some cases, greater human misery than street crimes   
  Conservative estimated of cost of consumer fraud alone are 5 times higher than combined economic costs of all street crimes   
  There are SIX basic types of white collar crime   
  1.  PETTY WHITE COLLAR CRIME INCLUDES LESS SERIOUS NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS BY LOWER STATUS INDIVIDUALS IN AN ORG   
  Petty white collar crime includes nonviolent offenses carried out by people of relatively low social status who attempt to gain through deceit   
  Examples of petty white collar crime include the "larceny of time," which is the most common, & employee theft, which is a major concern to companies   
  2.  WHITE COLLAR CRIME INCLUDES SERIOUS NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS BY HIGHER STATUS INDIVIDUALS IN AN ORG   
  White collar crimes are usually non violent illegal acts carried out by "respectable" individuals, e.g. usually upper middle & upper class individuals in the community   
  Examples:  Computer theft, income tax evasion, & credit card fraud   
  3.  CORPORATE CRIME INCLUDES SERIOUS NON-VIOLENT ILLEGAL ACTS BY THE HIGHEST STATUS INDIVIDUALS IN AN ORG   
  Corporate crime is the deliberate decisions by corporate personnel that result in actions that violate law   
  Examples:  Enron, Microsoft, Tyco 2002:  Hasbro toys fined $7 mm for fixing toy prices   
  White collar / corporate crimes account for larger economic losses &, in some cases, greater human misery than street crimes   
  4.  ORGANIZED CRIME MAY INCLUDE VIOLENT, NON-VIOLENT, VICTIMLESS, ETC. TYPES OF CRIME CARRIED OUT BY A COMMUNITY OF PEOPLE WHO ARE OFTEN RELATED ETHNICALLY OR BY HERITAGE   
  Organized crime is carried out by organizations who exist mainly for the purpose of conducting illegal activity   
  Historically, organized crime has been dominated by immigrant & working class ethnic groups   
  Examples of types of org crime: drugs, prostitution, gambling, protection, money laundering, racketeering   
  5.  POLITICAL CRIME IS THE ABUSE OF A GOVT OR POLITICAL OFFICE OR POSITION, OR A CRIME CARRIED OUT TO GAIN OFFICE OR POLITICAL INFLUENCE   
  A great deal of political crime is aimed at preventing or controlling dissent   
  Note:  Not all crimes carried out by politicians or govt officials in office are political crimes   
  The most infamous recent examples of political crime include Watergate, Iran Contra, White Water Monicagate   
  6.  OTHER TYPES OF CRIME MAY BE WHITE COLLAR OR STREET   
  - War crimes, crimes against humanity   
  - Hate crimes   
  - Terrorism   

 
External
Links

Top
   Outline on    Crime & Racism
External
Links
  WHILE MANY BELIEVE THAT RACE IS A PRIMARY PROFILE FACTOR OF CRIMINALS, THIS IS SPURIOUS, & THE CONTROLLING FACTOR IS POVERTY / CLASS / ALIENATION   
  What people consider deviant or criminal reflects the relative power & privilege of different categories of people   
  It is a commonly held prejudice in US society that race & crime are related   
  Stereotypically, people in the US believe that non whites are more likely to be criminal   
  The incidence of crime is best explained by socio-economic status, gender, age, & not race   
  Regardless of Race, equal numbers of people in each income bracket are likely to be criminal   
  Poor whites are just as likely to be [street] criminal as any other race   
  It is stereotypical / prejudice to see the poor as having greater rates of crime because we typically exclude non street crime   
  People in the Upper income brackets commit hidden, unreported, & unprosecuted crime, while those in the lower classes commit approximately the same amount but are more engaged by the law   
  The study, the Saints & Sinners, examined high school preppies & troublemakers & found that while they took part in the same amount of crime, the Sinners were socially viewed as more troublesome, & were engaged w/ by the law more   
  For many business people, White Collar Crime is "just business"   
  RACISM MAKES THE RACE PROFILE OF CRIMINALS APPEAR WORSE THAN IT IS BECAUSE A RELATIVELY SMALL AMT OF RACISM AT EACH LEVEL OF THE CJS RESULTS IN A LARGE OVERALL RACIST EFFECT   
 
 Racism's influence throughout the Criminal Justice System results in injustices   
  The effects of racism in the Criminal Justice System compound over time, at various levels of the CJS, resulting in a 30 % increase incarceration   
  Organizational Dynamics can result in a small amount of racism, operating at many levels w/in an organization, creating a net effect of a large amount of racism   
  A small amount of racism operating at many levels w/in an organization can create a net effect of a large amount of racism   
Link
 Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination   
  The Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination shows that a small amt of discrimination can have a large effect because it gets magnified, or compounded at each stage of the CJS   
  Profiling is the process of determining suspects based on psychological & social evidence as well as evidence from the scene   
  Racial Profiling is profiling where race is wrongly considered to be a major indicator of crime or criminal intent   
  An example of racial profiling is that the NJ HP gave many more tickets to Blacks, who research showed, did not speed any more than others   
  Police corruption often is combined w/ aspects of racism   
  The term hate crime refers to a criminal act against a person or a person's property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias   
  Race as well as gender is an important variable affecting deviant labeling & other aspects of deviant behavior   

 
Top  
Racism's effects throughout the CJS 
In the CJS, non whites are more likely to: 
-  be scrutinized as suspect 
-  be arrested if discovered 
-  spend time btwn arrest & trial in jail 
-  go to trial 
-  be found guilty 
-  serve time 
-  be incarcerated for longer sentences 
Top  
Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination 
No Discrimination 
  
+ 2 % Discrimination 
Cases
% implicated 
  
Cases 
% implicated
5,000 
20 % 
"Suspicious looking" (non profiled) 
5,000 
22 % 
1,000 
30 % 
Number pulled over 
1,110 
32 % 
   300 
83 % 
arrested 
352 
85 % 
   250 
50 % 
prosecuted 
299 
52 % 
   125 
80 % 
guilty 
156 
82 % 
   100 
80 % 
serve time 
128 
82 % 
    80 
? 
longer sentence 
104 
? 
Discrimination of 2% results 24 extra in jail:  about 30%
 
 
early parole
 
 
The Table of the Compounding Effects of Discrimination shows that a small amt of discrimination can have a large effect because it gets magnified, or compounded at each stage of the CJS 

 
 External
Links

Top
  Outline on    Police Corruption 
& Other Acts of Racial Violence
External
Links
  POLICE, THE KKK, & CITIZENS WERE COMPLICIT IN LYNCHINGS DURING THE JIM CROW ERA, CIRCA 1870 TO 1940   
  Lynching attacks on US blacks, esp in the South, increased dramatically in the aftermath of the Civil War, after slavery had been abolished   
  While formally illegal, lynching was a form of vigilantism that was allowed / expected by the people of many regions in the US   
  Violence rose even more at the end of the 19th C, after southern white Democrats regained their political power in the South in the 1870s   
  During the period of 1868 to 1871 it is estimated that the KKK was involved in more than 400 lynchings   
  Between 1882 and 1968, the Tuskegee Institute recorded 1,297 lynchings of whites and 3,446 lynchings of blacks   
  DURING THE CIVIL RTS ERA, CIRCA 1940 TO 1980, VIOLENCE AGAINST BLACKS & OTHER OPPRESSED GRPS BEGAN TO BE REVEALED AS CRIMES  
  The discussion below covers the deaths that were widely publicized as being the result of the Civ Rts Struggle & does not include many acts of violence that occurred during marches, protests, & so on   
  In 1955 teenager Emmett Till is killed for whistling at a white woman in Money, MS   
  In 1955 Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on a bus, starting the Montgomery Bus Boycott   
  In 1958 the Bethel Baptist Church in Birmingham, AL is bombed by KKK members, killing 4 girls   
  In 1961 voter registration activist & NAACP member Herbert Lee is shot & killed by a white state legislator in McComb, MS   
  In 1963 CORE activist William L. Moore is killed in Gadsden, AL   
  NAACP worker Medgar Evers is murdered in Jackson, MS, but His killer is not convicted until 1994   
  The 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham, AL kills 4 young girls   
  In 1964  three civil rights workers disappear from Philadelphia, MS, later to be found murdered & buried in an earthen dam   
  In 1965 Malcolm X is assassinated in Manhattan, NY, probably by 3 members of the Nation of Islam   
  After the completion of the Selma to Montgomery March, a white volunteer Viola Liuzzo is shot & killed by KKK members in AL, one of whom was an FBI informant   
  Black deputy sheriff Oneal Moore is murdered in Varnado, LA   
  Following the accusations of mistreatment & police brutality by the Los Angeles Police Dept towards the city's black community, Watts riots erupt in South Central LA which lasted over 5 days, killing 34, injuring 1,032, w/ 3,438 arrested, &  cost over $40 mm in property damage   
  In 1966 NAACP local chapter president Vernon Dahmer is injured by a bomb in Hattiesburg, MS, dying the next day   
  In 1968, 2 Memphis, TN sanitation workers are killed in the line of duty, exacerbating labor tensions   
  Martin Luther King, Jr. is shot & killed in Memphis, TN   
 
 IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT OVERALL POLICE IN THE US ARE EXTREMELY JUST & LAW ABIDING, THERE IS A CASE OF ABUSE BY POLICE EVERY YEAR OR SO THAT GAINS NATL ATTN   
 
 When informed on the level of police corruption or excessive violence, most people believe that there are simply too many cases of police corruption to accept 
 
 
 Because of the respect society has for the police because of the sacrifices they make, it is difficult to face up to some bad officers 
 
 
 While there are cases of police brutality in nearly every major city, the vast majority of police follow the law, do their job, & are not racist 
 
 
 With regards to police corruption, a few bad cops are poisoning the well 
 
  CINCINNATI   
 
 In Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1999, a black was man killed by police for traffic violation 
 
  NYC:  DIALLO   
 
 The Diallo Case occurred in 1999 when in NYC, an unarmed innocent African immigrant, Amadou Diallo, was shot by police 
 
  The police had fired 41 bullets at the young, unarmed, innocent, African immigrant   
  When 19 hit their mark, Amadou Diallo dies   
 
 -  Supplement:  Time:  Cops, Brutality, & Race 
Link
  LA   
 
 The LA Corruption Case occurred from 1999 - 2000 when in LA the LAPD was discovered fixing cases against minority defendants 
 
  When an LAPD cop is caught, he blows the whistle on widespread corruption, testifying that the LAPD regularly fixed cases   
 
 -  Supplement:  CNN:  Attorneys:  The L.A. police scandal could affect more than 3,000 cases, freeing both innocent & guilty parties 
Link
 
 -  Supplement:  Time: The Motives Behind the LAPD's Mea Culpa 
Link
  NYC:  LOUIMA   
 
  In NYC in 1997, a Haitian immigrant, Louima, was sodomized by police & had to be hospitalized 
 
 
 In the Louima case, a NYC policeman was sentenced to 30 years for torture 
 
 
 -  Supplement:  CNN: NYC Police Corruption 
Link
  LA:  RODNEY KING   
 
 In 1994 in LA, a black man named Rodney King, was beaten unconscious by police before a video camera 
 
 
 The police were acquitted by a jury in a local court 
 
 
 The LA Riot resulted from the acquittal of the police for the beating of Rodney King 
 
 
 Several of the police were later found guilty by a Federal Court of the violation of Rodney King's civil rights 
 
  MIAMI   
 
 Miami Police racism has been well documented w/ national attention to abuses in 1980 & 1989 
 
  NJ   
 
 In the 1990s, after a lengthy investigation, the NJ HP was found to have given a lot more tickets to Blacks, though they did not speed any more than others 
 
 
 DWB is jargon which developed in the Black community & has spread to the general culture which recognizes the existence police prejudice 
 
  SINCE THE EMERGENCE OF THE BLACK LIVES MATTER MVMT, CIRCA 2010s, THE USE OF DEADLY FORCE BY POLICE & CITIZENS HAS BEEN THROWN DIRECTLY INTO THE PUBLIC EYE   
  Perhaps the earliest widely publicized case of the use of deadly force occurred when in 2012 Trayvon Martin, who was unarmed, was shot by neighborhood watch coordinator George Zimmerman; Zimmerman was NOT a police officer   
  Zimmerman was charged & acquitted of 2nd degree murder & manslaughter   
  Trayvon Martin's case received international press coverage   
  The discussion of cases below is a small, partial list of all the cases of deadly violence, the most publicized cases   
  In 2012 another case receiving international press coverage was that of Jordan Davis, who was shot by Michael Dunn over an argument over loud music; Davis was NOT a police officer   
  Dunn was found guilty of 1st degree murder & sentenced to life in prison w/o parole   
  In 2012, another case receiving international press coverage was that of Timothy Russell & Malissa Williams who were hit more than 20 times after a car chase; the pair were unarmed   
  One of the 13 officers was indicted for manslaughter & was acquitted; 6 officers were fired   
  After local legal proceedings ran their course, the FBI opened an investigation in July of 2015   
  In 2013, Johnathan Ferrel wa shot by officer Randal Kerrick when he approached a house seeking help after a car accident   
  Officer Kerrick was released after his charge of manslaughter resulted in a mistrial   
  In 2014, Eric Garner died from a chokehold by officer Daniel Pantaleo during his arrest for selling untaxed cigarettes on the street   
  Officer Pantaleo was not indicted by a Grand Jury; the FBI opened an investigation in 2015   
  The Garner family won a $5.9 million award from NYC   
  The Eric Garner case resulted in the 'I can't breath' saying   
  In 2014, John Crawford was shot by Officer Sean Williams b/c Crawford was holding a BB gun   
  Williams was not indicted but the DOJ is investigating   
  In 2014 Michael Brown, who was unarmed, was shot by officer Wilson in Ferguson, MO   
  No charges were ever filed against Wilson   
  The Michael Brown case resulted in the 'Hands up, don't shoot' saying   
 
 In 2014, Tamir Rice, a 12 yr old boy w/ a pellet gun, was shot by officer Timothy Loehmann   
 
 A Grand Jury did not indict officer Loehmann 
 
  In 2015, Walter Scott by shot by officer Michael Slager as Scott who was unarmed was running away after a traffic stop for a broken tail light   
  Slager was charged w/ murder & is out on bail awaiting trial in Oct of 2016   
  In 2015, Freddie Gray fell into a coma while being transported by police after they arrested him; Gray died later   
  Six officers have been charged w/ offenses ranging from murder to false imprisonment   
  The first case, against officer Porter, ended in a mistrial, which will weaken cases against other officers   
  In 2015, Sandra Bland was found dead in her jail cell after she was arrested for a traffic violation ; no indictments are pending but the FBI has opened an investigation   
  In 2015, Samule DuBose was shot by University of Cincinnati Police officer Ray Tensing when DuBose refused to get out of his car  
  Officer Tensing has been charged w/ murder   
  In 2015, while not a case of police deadly force, the shooting of the Emauel Nine by Dylan Roof at the Emauel African Methodist Episcopal Church has impacted the actions of the Black Lives Matter Movement   

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on the  Causes of Crime 
External
Links
  -  Project:  Causes of Crime:  Theory & Reality 
Link
  -  Project:  Labeling Theory 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:   Profiling & the Types & Causes of Crime 
Link
 
 -  Video:   Profiling 
Link
blank
 There are FOUR major explanations of crime including classic criminology explanations of crime, biological explanations of crime, psychological explanations of crime, & social explanations of crime 
 
 
 I.  CLASSIC CRIMINOLOGY WAS FRAMED IN THE IDEOLOGY OF CLASSIC CAPITALISM WHICH HOLDS A RADICAL VIEW OF INDIVIDUALISM:  PEOPLE ARE TOTALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR OWN ACTS; SOCIAL FACTORS DO NOT EXIST   
  1.  Criminal behavior represents rational decisions made by free willed individuals   
 
 2.  Critique:  Research holds that severe punishment should deter people from criminal acts, but certainty of punishment is more effective as a deterrent than severity   
  Violent crimes or crimes of passion involve little calculation.  They are crimes of frustration, not rationality   
  Fear of disapproval by significant others, rather than fear of formal sanctions, is also effective in deterring crime   
 
 II.  BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME VALIDATED THE IDEA THAT FACTORS OTHER THAN INDIVIDUALIST FREE WILL MIGHT SHAPE CRIMINALS, THOUGH EARLY BIO EXPLANATIONS WERE BOGUS   
  Early interest in criminality focused on biological causes; witness the work of Lombroso, Sheldon, & the Gluecks   
  1.  LOMBROSO HELD THAT CRIMINALS WERE ATAVISTIC, I.E. EVOLUTIONARY THROW-BACKS   
 
 Lombroso's theory of atavism held that criminals were atavistic   
  Atavistic means throw back; prehuman characteristics   
  Studied skull anomalies among Italian criminals & soldiers   
  Lombroso believed physiological abnormalities were more common among criminals than non criminals   
  By the end of the 1800s, Social Darwinism influenced criminology & all spheres of life   
  During the 1800s & early 1900s, the belief that people were born as criminals was widespread   
  2.  SHELDON'S BODY TYPE THEORY HELD THAT EVIDENCE OF CRIMINALS ATAVISM COULD BE SEEN IN THEIR STOUT 'CAVE-MAN LIKE' BODY TYPE  
 
 Sheldon's body type theory correlated body type to criminal behavior   
  Sheldon believed that the mesomorph physique caused juvenile delinquency   
  Critique:  Just because two things appear together does not mean one caused the other.  During Sheldon's time, those w/ the mesomorph physique were immigrants from E. Europe & the Mediterranean & it is likely that the disadvantage they experienced contributed to their criminality   
  3.  XYY THEORY HOLDS THAT AN EXTRA Y OR MALE CHROMOSOME MAKES MEN MORE AGGRESSIVE / CRIMINAL   
 
 XYY theory or "super male" theory holds that the extra male, Y chromosome made criminals more violent   
  This theory does not explain the existence of crime in society because the XYY chromosome occurs in less than 1% of criminal population   
 
 4.  GENETIC EXPLANATIONS HOLD THAT VARIOUS GENETIC QUALS / ABNORMALITIES ENHANCE CRIMINALITY   
  1 genetic marker explains 90% of all crime.  Should we get rid of it?   
  Will we see other markers as we unravel the genetic code?  If we show relationship btwn a genetic code & criminal behavior, what should we do?   
  Most scientists believe that no gene will "cause crime", but some characteristics may make one more prone to crime, given the right environmental conditions   
  An example of a genetically linked characteristic that may, under the right conditions, lead to a propensity toward crime is that a greater need or tolerance for excitement or danger may make one seek the thrill of crime   
 
 5.  OTHER BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS INCLUDE HORMONES, BRAIN DAMAGE, CHEMICAL IMBALANCES, FETAL ALCOHOL / DRUG SYNDROME, & MORE   
 
 Physical differences make one susceptible to social factors   
  Genetics & biological factors are likely to make a person susceptible to criminal behavior because of social factors in the environment   
  Example:  brain damage = low intelligence = poverty = crime   
 
 Biological explanations have served political agendas   
  We attribute many social problems to natural causes rather than politically created conditions   
  Many biological theories are being used to develop chemical control instead of than treatments for criminal & social psychological problems   
  A frequent criticism of the biological theories of crime is that they offer a very limited explanation of crime   
 
 III.  PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME   
 Link
 A.  PSYCHOANALYTIC EXPLANATIONS HOLD THAT A MALFUNCTION OF / OR TRAUMA TO THE PSYCHE CAN ENHANCE CRIMINALITY   
  Psychoanalytic explanations of crime hold that a lack of balance between id & ego causes high instinctual drives or an egomaniac which may lead to crime   
  The psychoanalytic explanation holds that criminals w/ high instinctual drives or an egomaniac kill for the thrill or for some purpose that is greater than life   
Link
 B.  SOCIOPATHS ARE THOSE WHO FEEL NO GUILT & THEREFORE BECOME CRIMINAL BECAUSE THEY FEEL NO REMORSE & / OR THEY SEEK THE FEELING OF GUILT   
  Sociopathic theory holds that sociopaths have no superego & therefore no guilt   
 
 Critique:  Good at explaining bizarre crimes   
  A frequent criticism of the psychological theories of crime is that most serious crimes are committed by people who are psychologically normal   
  Psychological explanations have a low prediction rates & cannot predict recidivism or run of the mill crimes   
 
 Criminals do have a higher level of mental illness.  Why?   
  Criminals have a higher level of mental illness because of horrible prison conditions which are more mental than physical punishment   
  Criminals have a higher level of mental illness because of physical & mental abuse in prison, including  rape, assault, isolation   
  Psychological analysis is more useful in dealing w/ 'ordinary' criminals in that Reckless & Dinitz's containment theory suggests that strong moral standards & positive self image can keep boys from becoming delinquent   
 
 IV.  SOCIAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLD THAT VARIOUS SOCIAL FACTORS / CONDITIONS CONTRIBUTE TO THE LEVEL OF CRIME IN A SOCIETY 
 
  A.  CONFLICT THEORY EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME ALL HOLD THAT CRIME IS A DIRECT RESULT OF AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM THAT OFFERS LITTLE SOCIAL MOBILITY, I.E. A CHANCE TO GET AHEAD 
 
 
 Conflict theory holds that the laws, the methods of enforcement, the targets of enforcement, & the harshness of enforcement, all function to protect the interests of the ruling class 
 
 
 1.  THE STARVATION EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT CRIME IS CAUSED BY POVERTY 
 
  The old economic view, the starvation variation holds that crime is caused by poverty   
Link
 2.  THE ACHIEVEMENT EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT PEOPLE BECOME CRIMINAL BECAUSE THEY DID NOT ACHIEVE WHAT THEY BELIEVE THEY RIGHTLY DESERVE 
 
  The new economic view, the achievement variation holds that if a person has not achieved they what believe they deserve or is fair for their level of sacrifice, they are more likely to term to crime   
 
 Conflict theory holds that criminals are likely to be someone who tried to get ahead & failed 
 
 
 3.  THE IDEOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT THE DIRECT CAUSES OF CRIME & THE CJS ITSELF ARE PURPOSEFULLY IGNORED BY THE RULING CLASS TO ENHANCE CRIME & KEEP PEOPLE FOCUSED ON SECURITY RATHER THAN THE ROOT OF THEIR PROBLEM:  ECONOMIC DOMINATION 
 
 
 The ideological explanation of crime may be said to be based on the principle of divide & conquer 
 
 
 Crime is a direct result of an ideological system (in support of an econ system) that uses poverty & the resultant crime to keep society focused on crime rather than the dominant structure of power 
 
 
 The ideological explanation of crimes holds that the justice system protects the interest of the ruling class 
 
 
 4.  THE CULTURE OF POVERTY EXPLANATION HOLDS THAT PEOPLE DEVELOP A SUBCULTURE WHICH SUPPORTS CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR 
 
 
 The culture of poverty explanation holds that criminal believes that ‘I cannot get ahead.’
 
 
 Note, cultural explanations are also discussed  below, here the COP explanation is seen as being an economic based theory since the social system creates an economy that prevents social mobility & a welfare system based on "band aids" 
 
 
 5.  VICTIMLESS CRIMES ARE ILLEGAL ACTS IN WHICH THE ONLY VICTIMS ARE THE OFFENDERS 
 
 
 Victimless crimes are established for social control over morality & other social relationship & are applied mostly to the lower classes 
 
 
 Victimless crimes are criminal only because politically powerful people or groups find them undesirable, offensive or suit ideological control drugs, prostitution, homosexuality 
 
 
 Meda Chesney-Lind, a female criminologist, argues that current theories in crime & deviance do not adequately reflect the experience of women
 
  Conflict theorists believe the social order reflects the suppression of competing interests   
  The definitions of deviance justify the dominance by the elites   
 
 There is an absence of restrictions against elite deviance   
  The small amount of street crime keeps the focus off of elite deviance   
  It is easier & more acceptable for upper class people to be deviant/ engage in victimless crimes   
  Elite deviance is seen as "eccentricity" 
Elites have the resources to make deviance seem more acceptable 
Elites have the resources to prevent being caught or to get away with deviance 		  
  B.  FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLD THAT WEAKNESS IN SOCIAL MORALITY / IDEOLOGY IS A PRIMARY FACTOR IN AFFECTING SOCIETAL LEVELS OF CRIME   
  See Durkheim on Crime 
 
  See Merton on Crime 
 
  C.  SUBCULTURAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLD THAT A CULTURE OF CRIME IS BASED ON CRIMINAL KNOWLEDGE, BELIEF IN THE LEGITIMACY OF CRIME, VALUES THAT SUPPORT CRIME & OPPOSE WORK / MAINSTREAM VALUES, & NORMS THAT SUPPORT BREAKING THE LAW   
  1.  THE LOWER CLASS CULTURE EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLDS THAT BECAUSE OF A NUMBER OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE LOWER CLASS, I.E. FRUSTRATION, ENTITLEMENT, POVERTY, CULTURE, ETC., THE LOWER CLASS IS MORE LIKELY TO BE CRIMINAL   
  holds that people react to anomie, shared frustration, & resentment by forming subcultures that turn middle class values upside down   
  Lower class people have their own subculture just as every class has its own subculture   
  2.  DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLDS THAT DEVIANT BEHAVIOR IS LEARNED THROUGH INTIMATE PERSONAL GROUPS   
  Sutherland's differential association theory suggests that all deviance is learned in groups 
 
  Differential association means you have different associations, i.e. relationships w/ others & as an explanation of crime, the implication is that one associates w/ those w/ whom one can learn criminal behavior, or similar behavior 
 
  Deviant behavior is learned through intimate personal groups 
 
  Lower class males develop male identities through peer group association in gangs 
 
  Lower class culture encourages:  - toughness  - smartness   - excitement  - fate   - autonomy   - machismo 
 
  Machismo is an exaggerated sense of maleness that encourages delinquent behavior 
 
 
 3.  SUBCULTURE OF VIOLENCE EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME HOLDS THAT THE PRACTICE OF VIOLENCE BECOMES INTEGRATED INTO A CULTURE, MAKING PEOPLE MORE LIKELY TO BE CRIMINAL 
 
  Subculture of violence explanations of crime holds that lower class culture places more value on masculine honor than on human life   
 
 Example:  Lower class males respond violently to trivial remarks & insults that are commonly disregarded in middle class culture 
 
 
 4.  CORPORATE CULTURE EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME ARE SEEN IN THAT PEOPLE FEEL ENTITLED TO UPPER CLASS BENEFITS & FEEL THEY ARE ABOVE THE LAW 
 
  Corporate culture explanations of crime include, "Everybody does it."  "You have to do it to make a profit."  "I am not responsible; I only follow orders."  "I am not hurting anyone"   
 
 The explanations of corporate culture as a cause of crime are similar to the lower class subculture explanations, but applied to upper class 
 
 
 Labeling theory holds that the chance of engaging in deviant or criminal behavior increases when one is labeled as a deviant or criminal 
 
  Hirschi's control theory holds that social bonds serve to both make one deviant if one bonds to deviant groups, or not, if one bonds to non deviant grps 
 

 
Top  
Examples of Psychoanalytic Criminals 
Natural Born Killers 
Timothy McVeigh 
Most of Batman's foes:  Riddler, Penguin 

 
Top  
Examples of Sociopathic Criminals 
Normal range of guilt: 
     kill bug, 
     run over dog 
     hurt child 
     kill adult 
Hannibal in Silence of the Lambs 
Jeffrey Dalmer 

 
Top  
Examples of Achievement Explanation of Crime 
worker stealing at wk 
Mid level worker embezzling at the bank 
Hi level manager embezzling, or killing partner 

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on  Hirschi's Social Control Theory
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  Hirschi's Social Control Theory & Drug Abuse 
Link
 
 INTRO:  SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY HOLDS THAT PEOPLE ARE CONTROLLED BECAUSE THEY HAVE INTERNALIZED THE NORMS ( RULES ) OF SOCIETY 
 
 
 Social control theory ( SCT ) states that social control depends on imagining the consequences of one's behavior 
 
  SCT was derived from functionalist theories of crime & fits into the positivist school, neo classical school, &, later, right realism   
  Hirschi challenged Sutherland & Cressey's differential association theory on the impact of delinquent peers on delinquency   
  FOUR TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROLS INCLUDE CONTROLS BASED IN: 
a.  ATTACHMENT TO PARENTS & OTHER SOs 
b.  COMMITMENT TO MAINSTREAM NORMS 
c.  INVOLVEMENT IN SOCIALLY APPROVED ACTIVITIES 
d.  BELIEFS EMBRACED BY MOST OF SOCIETY 		  
 
 Hirschi asserts that conformity arises from four types of social controls: which he called attachment, commitment, involvement, & belief 
 
 
 a.  The social control of attachment refers to attachment to parents, peers, or school 
 
 
 People w/ strong & stable attachments to others w/in society are presumed to be less likely to violate societal norms 
 
 
 b.  The social control of commitment refers to commitment to conventional lines of action 
 
  A person who has invested time, energy, & resources into conforming to social norms & expectations by, for example, pursuing educational goals is less likely to deviate than someone who has not made such an investment  
 
 c.  The social control of  involvement refers to involvement in conventional activities 
 
  A person who is actively engaged in conventional endeavors by, for example, pursuing employment simply has less time & opportunity to engage in deviance   
 
 d.  The social control of  belief refers to belief in a common value 
 
  Belief refers to a person's level of belief in the moral validity of shared social values & norms   
  In American society, certain values such as industrious conduct are espoused as norms & persons who strongly believe in the these norms are less likely to deviate from them   
  Those who question or challenge the norms have a greater propensity to behave in a deviant manner   
  SCT holds that the process of socialization & social learning builds self control & reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial   
  The stronger one's attachment, commitment, involvement & beliefs in harmony w/ those of society, the less the chance of becoming a deviant   
  SOCIAL BONDS ACT AS SOCIAL CONTROLS BECAUSE TO MAINTAIN BONDS ONE MUST FOLLOW GENERAL SOCIETAL ATTACHMENTS, COMMITMENTS, ACTIVITIES, & BELIEFS   
 
 Persons will engage in delinquent behavior when their "social bond" to society is weakened 
 
 
 The social controls of attachment, commitment, involvement, & belief are constructed through direct, indirect, internal, & need satisfaction bonds   
 
 Direct bonds are estbed when punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, & compliance is rewarded by parents, family, & authority figures 
 
 
 Indirect bonds are estbed when one refrains from delinquency through the conscience or superego 
 
  Internal bonds are estbed when one identifies w/ those who influence behavior because his or her delinquent act might cause pain & disappointment to parents & others w/ whom he or she has close relationships   
 
 Needs satisfaction bonds are estbed when an individual's needs are met & there is no point in criminal activity 
 
 
 Hirschi demonstrated that delinquent peers would have no direct effect on delinquency when social bonds inhibiting delinquency were taken onto account 
 
 
 Unattached youth drifted together into delinquent groups because weak social bonds failed to prevent both association w/ delinquents & delinquency itself 
 
 
 The groups that could strengthen the bonds were family, school, peers, religious institutions, etc. 
 
 
 CRITIQUE:  SCT DOES NOT EXAMINE HOW SO MANY PEOPLE FAIL TO ATTACH & SACRIFICE SOCIAL BONDS FOR A LIFE OF CRIME / DEVIANCE 
 
 
 Many of the conclusions are intuitively convincing, e.g. that individuals will not engage in crime if they think that this will sacrifice the affection or respect of significant others, or cause them to lose employment or their autonomy if they face imprisonment 
 
  SCT is an advance from differential association theory in that it applies the ideas of soc control & bonding to grps beyond peers   
  While in general, people are controlled by attachment, commitments, activities, & beliefs, these social practices fail in many circumstances   
  While social bonds are important, SCT does not explain by so many people fail to bond & why bonds break   

 
Internal
Links

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 An Overview of    Emile Durkheim    1858  -  1917
External
Links
  -  Project:  Theory & Your Project 
Link
Link
 -  Biography & Major Works   
  INTRODUCTION:  Durkheim, who is considered to be a 'father of sociology,' saw Rousseau as the father of sociology.  Saint Simon, Comte, Tocqueville & Spencer all utilized sociological concepts & some form of the scientific method, but Durkheim was first to make sociology a scientific discipline   
  SUMMARY:  For Durkheim, one of the main problem for the social sciences, which he answers w/ his theory, was 'What creates social order?'
During the modern era, there is a problem w/ maintaining social order
Durkheim makes SEVENTEEN major points
1.  Society & social behavior could & should be studied scientifically
2.  Social facts are observable 'phenomena' that allow the study of society
3.  Social cohesion is the force that unites a society, creating congruity, consistency, etc. 
4.  Mechanical solidarity is the type of cohesion based on traditional relationships 
5.  Organic solidarity is the type of cohesion based on self determination 
6.  The division of labor is the basis of organic solidarity today, in that every member participates in it & every member benefits from it 
7.  Collective consciousness consists of the knowledge, beliefs, values & norms that we hold in common 
8.  The cult of the individual represents society's unprecedented hi level of individualism 
9.  Anomie is the social condition of a weakened or absent common morality
10.  Integration is the process of bringing new individuals & social phenomena into society 
11.  Regulation is the process of controlling, directing, or ruling society 
12.  Common morality consists of the beliefs, values, & norms that we hold in common 
13.  Religion is a primary type of traditional cohesion
14.  Durkheim opposed political socialism, but believed in a greater level of cohesion or cooperation in society
15.  Occupational associations are optimal institutions for achieving social reform 
16.  Modern society was displacing traditional society & mech solidarity was dissolving, but organic solidarity is slow to develop 
17.  Organic solidarity  is not totally in effect, therefore there is a great risk of anomie & social instability 		  
 
 DURKHEIM IS A PROGRESSIVE FUNCTIONALIST:  I.E. ADVOCATED CHANGE 
& FOCUSED ON REGULATORY & INTEGRATORY PROCESSES 		  
  Saint Simon was the most influential social theorist on Durkheim's thinking   
 
 Durkheim built on Saint Simon's work of sociology as a 'science,' social evolution, etc.   
 
 Durkheim is usually categorized as a functionalist because many of his ideas have been utilized by that discipline   
  Functionalism is usually considered to be conservative, especially when compared to conflict theory   
 
 Durkheim is a progressive functionalist   
  Durkheim believed that contemporary philosophy should be constructive & organizational, NOT critical   
  Contrary to what is taught by many sociologists, Durkheim was not a conservative; Durkheim was a progressive thinker who had a deep interest in socialism & social change   
  Durkheim is less interested in economics than Marx or Weber, but like Marx & Weber, Durkheim was very interested in the industrial revolution & urbanization  
  For Durkheim, one of the main problem for the social sciences, which he answers w/ his theory, was 'What creates Social Order?'   
 
 Many issues that Durkheim studied stem from his concern w/ the inevitable results of the development of modern society 
 
  There are SEVENTEEN fundamental principles of Durkheim's theory   
  1.  SOCIETY COULD & SHOULD BE STUDIED SCIENTIFICALLY 
 
 Society & social behavior can be studied scientifically   
  Durkheim was first to make sociology a scientific discipline   
  Durkheim believed that society made individuals not vice versa   
  2.  SOCIAL FACTS ARE OBSERVABLE 'PHENOMENA' THAT ALLOW THE STUDY OF SOCIETY   
 
 Social facts include relationships, institutions, groups, statistical patterns, as well as more abstract concepts like culture & social structure   
  Durkheim conceived the idea that there were such things as 'social facts' that were observable 'things' that enabled the study of society   
  Durkheim's famous 1st principle of sociology was to 'study social facts as things'   
  When Durkheim advocated study social facts as things he was advocating that social life can be analyzed as rigorously as object or events in nature   
  3.  SOCIAL COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT UNITES A SOCIETY, CREATING CONGRUITY, CONSISTENCY, ETC.  
 
 Cohesion is necessary in both pre industrial & industrial society   
  The social forces, the cohesion that holds pre industrial & industrial societies together are different   
  4.  MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY IS A TYPE OF COHESION BASED ON TRADITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS   
 
 Mechanical solidarity is the type of cohesion in pre industrial society   
  Cohesion is based on tradition culture   
  Mechanical solidarity is based on a relatively narrow division of labor, which creates relatively high level of independence combined w/ nearly all relationships being primary   
  5.  ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS A TYPE OF COHESION BASED ON SELF DETERMINATION   
 
 Organic solidarity is the type of cohesion in industrial society   
  Cohesion is based on mutual interdependence   
  Organic Solidarity is based on a very broad division of labor, which creates relatively high level of mutual interdependence combined w/ nearly all relationships being secondary   
  Durkheim considered organic solidarity to be the cement of a society   
  Much of Durkheim's theory was based on his conception of organic solidarity   
  6.  THE DIVISION OF LABOR IS THE BASIS OF ORGANIC SOLIDARITY TODAY, IN THAT 
EVERY MEMBER PARTICIPATES IN IT & EVERY MEMBER BENEFITS FROM IT 		  
 
 The division of labor is the primary type of mutual interdependence in society today  
  Durkheim elaborated on Saint Simon's scheme of the new industrial class to develop his ideas on the division of labor  
  The division of labor resulted in development of modern society ( see below )  
  Durkheim perceived the ideas behind the industrial system as possessing an inherent unity  
  7.  THE COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS CONSISTS OF THE KNOWLEDGE, 
BELIEFS, VALUES & NORMS THAT WE HOLD IN COMMON		  
  Collective consciousness is our strongly held common morality
 
  8.  THE CULT OF THE INDIVIDUAL REPRESENTS SOCIETY'S UNPRECEDENTED HIGH LEVEL OF INDIVIDUALISM   
  The cult of the individual is strongly held individual morality  
  Individualism is the opposite of collective consciousness  
  Individualism increases chance of suicide  
  The cult of the individual was a source of societal disorganization  
  9.  ANOMIE IS A WEAKENED OR ABSENT COMMON MORALITY   
  Anomie is a condition of normlessness in society  
  Durkheim coined term anomie  
  Individuals are confronted w/ anomie when they are faced w/ insufficient moral constraints  
  For Durkheim, anomie is the social condition of a weakened or absent common morality which leads to deviance, crime & possibly even social chaos / revolution  
  Modern society has made old morality obsolete, but new morality is in flux & thus weak or absent  
  Compared to the absolute power of "the old morality" people in modern era do not have a clear concept of what is & is not proper & acceptable behavior  
  10.  INTEGRATION IS THE PROCESS OF BRINGING NEW INDIVIDUALS & SOCIAL PHENOMENA INTO SOCIETY   
  Society is becoming more integrated as it develops internalized social control
 
  Integration is the degree in which collective sentiments are shared; i.e. degree to which people feel part of social groups  
  11.  REGULATION IS THE PROCESS OF CONTROLLING, DIRECTING, OR RULING SOCIETY   
  Regulation is externalized social control
 
  Regulation is the degree of external constraints on people  
  W/o regulation, a person experiences anomie  
  12.  COMMON MORALITY CONSISTS OF THE BELIEFS, VALUES, & NORMS THAT WE HOLD IN COMMON   
  Common morality decreased during the modern era  
  There is a problem w/ maintaining social order  
  Disorder was viewed, generally, as an automatic consequence of an economic system in which every individual pursues his/her own interest unless such a system had a common morality of organic solidarity, the division of labor, etc.  
  See Also:  Durkheim on Crime  
  13.  RELIGION IS A PRIMARY TYPE OF TRADITIONAL COHESION   
  The source of religion is society's shared sentiments  
  The nature of society's religions were also affected by the transition from mechanical solidarity  to [ traditional solidarity ] organic solidarity [ rational solidarity ]
 
 
 14.  DURKHEIM OPPOSED POLITICAL SOCIALISM, BUT BELIEVED IN 
A GREATER LEVEL OF COHESION OR COOPERATION IN SOCIETY 
 
  Durkheim's studies of socialism were to be an "analysis of the causes of an idea."  
  Durkheim used the concept of socialism to emphasize or highlight his theoretical scheme  
  While Durkheim was not a socialist in Marxist sense, he, like Weber, is having a debate w/ 'the ghost of Marx'  
  One cannot say merely that Durkheim opposed Marxism because he accepted many basics & rejected many others  
  Durkheim especially opposed any revolutionary doctrine, which he feared would only result in anarchy & moral disruption  
  Durkheim also refused to recognize the class character of society as being center of conflict in society, but did recognize that equalization of classes was necessary  
  In essence, Durkheim synthesized works of St. Simon & Marx  
  15.  OCCUPATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS ARE OPTIMAL INSTITUTIONS FOR ACHIEVING SOCIAL REFORM  
  Occupation associations (OAs) are similar to business unions, but have much more authority in the workplace & in society   
  OAs are organizations of professionals in a particular field who organize to advance their own interests & the interests of society  
  Today one of our most powerful OAs is the American Medical Assoc (AMA) which regulates doctors, the healthcare field for the benefit of themselves, the patient, & society as a whole   
  16.  MODERN SOCIETY WAS DISPLACING TRADITIONAL SOCIETY & MECH 
SOLIDARITY WAS DISSOLVING, BUT ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS SLOW TO DEVELOP 		  
  Durkheim viewed the development of the modern era with hope, but later became disillusioned  
  The development of modernity was especially dangerous because it broke down traditional society, which was held together by mechanical solidarity  
  Durkheim believes that modern society is not fully developed, which is a position which Habermas now embraces  
  17.  ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS NOT TOTALLY IN EFFECT, THEREFORE 
THERE IS A GREAT RISK OF ANOMIE & SOCIAL INSTABILITY 		  
  Because of the transition from tradl soc to mod soc, i.e. the trans from mechanical to organic solidarity, & because societies change at different rates, & because some societies have lost tradl soc but have not adopted mod soc values, we are experiencing a crisis or breakdown   
  At the personal & social level the crisis of the transition from tradl to mod society is experienced as anomie, i.e. an absence of a common morality   
  For the most part Durkheim did support the development of modernity, but after "the Great War" his son was killed & he had great doubts that modern society could ever function as well as traditional society  

 
Top  

Emile Durkheim
1858  -  1917
Born in France 
Resided in Germany
Son died in The Great War
( known today as WW I )
Deeply hurt Durkheim,
Became cynical about society & died soon after

DURKHEIM, Emile (1858-1917). A pioneer social scientist, Emile Durkheim established sociology as a separate discipline, or field of study. He was the first to subject the specific events of everyday life to close sociological study and to determine specific scientific methods of examination. 
   Emile Durkheim was born on April 15, 1858, in Epinal, France. He studied philosophy at the prestigious Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris. Upon graduation in 1882 he taught in secondary schools until 1887, when he was appointed to a lectureship especially founded for him at the University of Bordeaux. This was the first course of social science officially provided in a French university. 
   Durkheim's first book, 'The Division of Labor in Society', published in 1893, focused on the problems of new technology and the mechanization of work. This division of labor, according to Durkheim, made workers both more alien to one another, as their jobs were different, and more dependent on one another, as none any longer built the whole of a product. The methods to be used to examine society in this new discipline Durkheim laid out in 'The Rules of Sociological Method' (1895). 
   His classic 'Suicide' (1897) examines the ties that bind individuals to the society in which they live, and their breakdown. Suicide appeared to be more frequent in societies where individuals are less a part of the life around them, as in modern industrial societies. He distinguished three types of suicide: In egoistic suicide the individual shuts himself off from other human beings. Anomic suicide comes from the belief that the world has fallen apart around one. Altruistic suicide springs from great loyalty to a cause. 
   In 1902 Durkheim was appointed to the University of Paris, becoming a full professor in 1906. He taught there until his death on Nov. 15, 1917. 

---------------------------------------------------------
Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia
Copyright © 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 The Learning Company, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Major Works of Durkheim
Suicide
The Division of Labor in Society
The Rules of Sociological Method
The Elementary Forms of Religious Life,   1915

 
External
Links

Top
Durkheim on  Social Order & Deviance
External
Links
  -  Video:  Durkheim on Deviance      1:35 
Link
  -  Project:  Durkheim on Deviance, Social Control, & Social Order 
Link
  SOCIAL ORDER IS NOT AUTOMATIC; IT MUST BE MAINTAINED THROUGH A NUMBER OF SOCIAL PROCESSES WHICH ARE ACTIVE EACH & EVERY DAY   
  The key insight of the structural functional approach is that deviance is a necessary element of social organization, especially in establishing social order   
 
 Durkheim believed that a major sociological question was the question of social order, which considers how society might establish & maintain social stability & cohesiveness 
 
 
 Dev behavior keeps society stable by estbing boundaries, the boundaries btwn normalcy & dev   
  Dev beh establishes boundaries btwn rewarded behavior & punished beh   
  For Durkheim, some amt of dev is a normal part of social organization   
  For Durkheim, social control can help maintain norm violating w/in some limits but it cannot eliminate it   
 
 If dev were eliminated, society would be less stable   
 
 Regardless of what we do in the name of social control, there will always be some deviance   
  For Durkheim, there is nothing abnormal about deviance in the sense that deviance is found in every society   
  Deviance performs essential social control functions for society   
  THE FUNCTION OF DEVIANCE, BROADLY SPEAKING, IS TO HIGHLIGHT WHAT IS 'NORMAL,' I.E. SOCIAL ORDER, W/ WHAT IS ABNORMAL / DEVIANT / CHAOS   
  A function of deviance is that:   
  a.  it affirms cultural values & norms   
  b.  responding to it clarifies moral boundaries   
  c.  responding to it brings people together   
  d.  it encourages social change   
  The kind of deviance people generate depends on the moral issues they seek to clarify   
  IN COMPARING DURKHEIM W/ OTHER THEORISTS ON SOCIAL ORDER, THERE IS A RANGE OF PROCESSES MAINTAINING IT, INCLUDING:  SOCIAL APPROVAL, FORCE, CIVIC PARTICIPATION, ECON INCENTIVES, ETC.   
  In relation to the nature of social order, Durkheim contrasts his own view to Hobbes, the utilitarians, St. Simon, & Comte   
  Hobbes believed that social order is result of fear of a Leviathan, a central power   
  St. Simon & Comte both advocated a Hobbesean solution to problem of order   
  In relation to the social order, many social theorists w/ Hobbesean leanings believe that because of industrial development, conflicts of interest, urbanization, etc., society is tearing at the very social fabric that holds it together 
 
  For the many social theorists w/ Hobbesean leanings concerned w/ maintaining the social order, the solution was often state imposed social peace   
  Utilitarians such as JS Mill & Harriet Taylor were diametrically opposed to the Hobbesean state 
 
  Utilitarians believed that central authority must be eliminated 
 
  For Durkheim, social order & harmony resulted from the division of labor 
 
  Order was an automatic consequence of economic system where every individual pursues their own interests 
 
  The modern era is characterized by laissez faire capitalism wherein the economy works best when left alone & will create the "greatest good of the greatest number" 
 
  See Also:  false/class consciousness, ideology, interests 
 
  Durkheim recognized the successes & the failures of the utilitarian position 
 
 
 THE SOCIAL ORDER IS BASED ON MECHANICAL OR ORGANIC SOLIDARITY 
 
  Durkheim developed the concepts of mechanical & organic solidarity to denote the "social glue" which held the respective traditional & modern social fabrics together   
 
 See Also:  Mechanical & Organic Solidarity 
 
  For Durkheim, the problem of social order occurs primarily when, during the process of modernization, mechanical solidarity breaks down, & is not yet replaced w/ organic solidarity 
 
  The problem of social order may also occur when a given traditional or modern society becomes so stressed that solidarity is weakened or destroyed 
 
  Anomie, deviance & crime exist in all societies as they change at the margins & for boundary maintenance, etc., but they become social problems when solidarity breaks down 
 
  Deviance is so crucial to social order that societies lacking a given amount of it would redefine acceptable behavior to create deviance 
 
  Regarding deviance & dysfunctions, Durkheim believed that deviance, beyond a certain level, threatens the social order and can be dysfunctional 
 
  For Durkheim, high levels of immigration may be a major social problem, but not because of economic or job issues 
 
  Immigration is a major problem in our modern society because immigrants do not know the norms & laws of this country & therefore are a source of social instability 
 
  The instability fostered by immigration can be functional if it is limited & the society can absorb & integrate the new culture 
 
  The instability inherent in immigration can undermine the old order creating conflict, instability, anomie, crime, deviance, etc. 
 

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on   Durkheim on Crime
External
Links
  -  Project:  Public Punishment 
Link
  DURKHEIM & MANY FUNCTIONALISTS HOLD THE CONTROVERSIAL POSITION THAT CRIME IS FUNCTIONAL FOR SOCIETY   
  Durkheim viewed a limited amount of crime as functional for society, however if crime became too pervasive, this was a symptom of anomie & the breakdown of the social order   
  Durkheim believed that an affinity for crime was the result of social forces   
  Durkheim, as he often did, developed his own position in direct opposition to other prevailing ideas of his time (late 1800s) 
 
  Durkheim directly refuted the positions that an affinity for crime was the result of something that is in individuals' psychological or physiological makeup   
  1.  DURKHEIM'S ANOMIC EXPLANATION OF CRIME HOLDS THAT THE BREAKDOWN OF NORMS CAUSES CRIME 
 
  Durkheim developed the concept of anomie, which is a condition of normlessness in society   
  In a society, w/in the normal range of anomie we find that there are always some people who are outside the system 
 
  In a society, outside of the normal range of anomie we find that people engage in more deviant behavior, crime, riot, revolution, etc.   
  Anomie occurs at some normal level in society, but becomes socially pathological when the social order breaks down & anomie becomes widespread creating waves of deviance, crime, chaos, etc.   
  See Also:  The Problem of Social Order   
   2.  DURKHEIM'S SOLIDARITY EXPLANATION OF CRIME IS THAT DEVIANCE EXISTS BECAUSE SOCIETY MUST HAVE A SET OF BEHAVIORAL EXPECTATIONS THAT HELP TO DEFINE THE CHARACTER OF THAT SOCIETY 
 
  For Durkheim & the functionalists there are positive consequences of deviance & social control:   
  Deviance / crime promotes solidarity in mainstream society 
 
  Deviance / crime sets boundaries   
  Deviance is so crucial to social order that societies lacking it would redefine acceptable behavior to create deviance 
 
  Conflict theorists would note that deviance has many other positive consequences, i.e., it is a source of innovation 
 
  There are also dysfunctions of deviance in that deviance beyond a certain level threatens the social order 
 
  DURKHEIM HOLDS THAT PUBLIC PUNISHMENT IS FUNCTIONAL BECAUSE IT SETS BOUNDARIES & ALLOWS US TO VIEW CRIMINALS AS DEVIANTS / OUTSIDERS   
  Public punishment is good for society 
 
  Public punishment is good for society not for the thrill, but because it allows us to see us as good & others as bad & the experience of a communal punishment against an offender builds solidarity   
  Public punishment is functional for society because it creates an in group w/ a norm of obeying the law; i.e. creates solidarity around the law   
  Public punishment is functional for society because the communal experience of punishing builds solidarity   
  Durkheim's view of the purpose of punishment is NOT to deter or correct the offender, rather it is to maintain the fundamental values of the community   
  Functionalists, including Durkheim, argue that the use of coercive social control is legitimate because laws are enacted by representatives of the people in the interest of the people   

 
External
Links

Top
   Outline on  Merton's  (1910 - 2003 )
 Revision of Anomie
External
Links
  -  Video:  Merton on Anomie      5:21 
Link
 
 -  Project:  Anomie & Lifestyle 
Link
  -  Project:  Anomie & Your Research 
Link
  INTRO:  MERTON REFINED ANOMIE TO ADDRESS DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANOMIE IN DIFFERENT SEGMENTS OF SOCIETY   
 
 Merton revised Durkheim's concept of anomie   
  Structural functionalism had said that social values & norms were universal in that ALL values & norms are functional for society   
  Merton posits that social values & norms are not necessarily universal for society in that some values & norms may be functional for one segment of society, or one historical era, & not functional for another   
 
 Merton revised Durkheim's concept of anomie which results when the goals of society break down, i.e. the social order is weakened 
 
 
 Merton held that society socializes members for certain needs & desires, but fails to provide legitimate opportunities /  means to satisfy them, then anomie & crime result   
 
 It is not poverty itself that creates deviance, but poverty surrounded by wealth, i.e. the income gap   
  Merton's anomic argument is similar to the economic or achievement explanation of crime  
  For Merton, the problem is not so often that society fails to provide norms, but that society socializes members for certain needs & desires but fails to provide legit opportunities to satisfy them   
  Society does not provide the means to achieve normal goals of society   
  The "strain" between our culture's emphasis on wealth & the limited opportunity to get rich gives rise, especially among the poor, to theft, the sale of drugs, or other street crime   
 
 See Also:   Durkheim   
  See Also:   Durkheim on the Problem of Social Order, Deviance, & Crime   
 
 See Also:   Anomie   
Link
 The Table on Merton's Analysis of Anomie demonstrates that to avoid anomie, societally sanctioned goals must match societally institutionalized means   
  For Merton, there are FIVE types of lifestyles that compensate for societally sanctioned goals & institutionalized means, including:  the conformist, the innovator, the ritualist, the retreatist, & the rebel   
  CONFORMISTS HAVE NO ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY ACCEPT THE MEANS & GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The conformist     accepts means        accepts goals   
  The conformist is the 'normal person'   
  Merton believed that most of people color btwn the lines, pay taxes, & generally accept things as they are   
 
 Merton viewed a normal person as accepting society's goals & means to attain those goals   
  Conformity lies in pursuing conventional goals through approved means   
  INNOVATORS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY REJECT THE MEANS, BUT ACCEPT THE GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The innovator        rejects means        accepts goals   
  Accepts the goals society offers, but rejects the normal means for achieving those goals:   
  Examples:  Business entrepreneur:  do business in a new way 
Criminal:  develops a new/illegal was to do something 
Artist:  develops new or innovative artistic style, content, etc. 		  
  RITUALISTS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY ACCEPT THE MEANS BUT REJECT THE GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The ritualist          accepts means      rejects goals  
  Rejects the goals of society (none of that wealth & luxury, thank you) but yet comes to work every day to save up to buy a sailing boat or a hut on the mountain side   
  RETREATISTS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY REJECT THE MEANS & GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The retreatist       rejects means        rejects goals   
  Wants neither goals of society & also does not want to work at a normal job: 
Wants to live on a boat or in a hut, etc. & supports such a goal through some strange life style (collecting/selling junk to illegal activities) 		  
  Examples:  hobos, alcoholics, and drug addicts   
  REBELS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY ESTABLISH NEW MEANS & GOALS COMPARED TO THOSE OF SOCIETY   
 
 The rebel               new means           new goals   
  For Merton, the rebel does not want society's goals, but creates new unique goals   
  For Merton, the rebel lives simply, & prepares for Armageddon, the revolution, etc.   
  For Merton, the rebel does not want society's methods, but develops their own in harmony w/ their own goals   
  Examples of rebels might be those who raise & live off a garden or dig a bomb shelter   

 
Top  
Table on Merton's Analysis of Anomie 
To avoid anomie, societally sanctioned goals must match societally institutionalized means 
 
Acceptance of 
Sanctioned Goals
Acceptance of 
Institutionalized Means
Examples
Conformist
accepts
accepts
Norm & Norma Normal
Innovator
accepts
rejects
Entrepreneurs & Criminals
Ritualist
rejects
accepts
Bureaucratic personality
Retreatist
rejects
rejects
Drug User / Seller, Hermit
Rebel
rejects & substitutes
rejects & substitutes
Cult member, Hippie

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on   Labeling Theory
External
Links
  LABELING THEORY HOLDS THAT THE ACT OF LABELING / NAMING SOMEONE AS A DEVIANT, CRIMINAL, ETC. HAS NEGATIVE EFFECTS & MAKES THEM MORE LIKELY TO EMBRACE THAT ROLE   
  Labeling theory has roots in the symbolic interaction approach 
 
  The symbolic interaction approach explains how people define deviance in everyday situations 
 
  The central contribution of symbolic interaction analysis is labeling theory, the assertion that deviance & conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions 
 
  Labeling theory explanations of crime hold that deviance is created by societal reaction to certain groups, individuals, & behaviors; not by the behavior itself 
 
  For labeling theory, deviant behavior is defined by society 
 
  The core of labeling theory is relativism, the contention that what is deviant in any society is the consequence of social or political processes 
 
  The majority of people engage in deviant behavior or break rules, but few are labeled as deviant 
 
  Labeling theory contends that deviants are fundamentally the same as non deviants, except that they got caught & were labeled 
 
  Laws which supported genocide, slavery, prohibition, the Holocaust, racism, etc. were all based on labels given to populations in society 
 
  Thus labeling theory has much in common w/ conflict theory 
 
  There are TWO consequences of labeling   
  a.  PRIMARY DEVIANCE IS AN INITIAL DEVIANT ACT OR DEVIANT BEHAVIOR THAT IS SHORT TERM OR CEASES W/ ADULT STATUS 
 
  Primary deviance refers to passing episodes of norm violation   
  Primary deviance is related to unique social, cultural, or psychological situations 
 
  Labeling theory cannot account for primary deviance 
 
  b.  SECONDARY DEVIANCE IS DEVIANCE THAT RESULTS FROM BEING LABELED AS DEVIANT
 
  Secondary deviance is when an individual repeatedly violates a norm & begins to take on a deviant identity   
  Secondary deviance evolves out of the offender's self concept 
 
  Secondary deviant behaviors that are long term & do not cease w/ adult status 
 
  Chronic deviant behavior occurs when people come to identify themselves as deviant 
 
  The labels of society become self labels & thus deviant or criminal behaviors often becomes a self fulfilling prophecy when the person who sees themselves as deviant, comes to frequently act deviant 
 
  2.  The example of the Saints & the Roughnecks demonstrates that the Roughnecks were labeled as deviant for behaviors which the Saints were not labeled as deviant 
 
  The Roughnecks' labels resulted in a lifetime of trouble for them 
 
  Access to power is a significant factor in distinguishing btwn those who are labeled deviant & eventually take on deviant careers, & those who avoid deviant identities
 
 
 Clear policy implications of the labeling tradition include remove class & racial bias from the criminal justice system & make punishment more humane 
 
  STIGMA, THE MARK OF SHAME OR DISHONOR, IS A POWERFUL FORCE WHICH ENCOURAGES PEOPLE TO AVOID IT, BUT SOMETIMES ONCE THEY ARE LABELED, THEY EMBRACE IT   
  A stigma is a powerful negative social label that radically changes a person's self concept & social identity, operating as a master status   
  Stigmas are often attached in formal rituals called degradation ceremonies   
  RETROSPECTIVE & PROJECTIVE LABELING OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE ADD THE LABEL THAT A PERSON 'WAS ALWAYS A ...' OR 'WILL ALWAYS BE A ...'  
  Stigmas are deepened by retrospective labeling, the interpretation of  someone's past consistent w/ present deviance   
  People may also engage  in projective labeling  
  LABELING DIFFERENCE AS DEVIANCE ADDS THE POWER OF OSTRACISM TO ANYONE WHO IS DIFFERENT   
 
 Thomas Szasz argues that "mentally ill" is a label we attach to people who are only different & concludes that we should abandon the concept of mental illness entirely
 
  A CRITIQUE OF LABELING THEORY IS THAT SOME PEOPLE ARE HIGHLY SUSCEPTIBLE TO LABELING WHILE OTHERS ARE NOT   
  Labeling theory is most applicable to minor forms of deviance  
  The consequences of deviant labeling may vary   
  Not everyone resists deviant labeling   

 
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 Outline on  Deviant Subcultures
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  A DEVIANT SUBCULTURE IS A SUBCULTURE WHICH EXISTS OUTSIDE OF THE MAINSTREAM OF SOCIETY & SUPPORTS MEMBERS IN THEIR ACTIONS / LIFESTYLE   
 
 Because a subculture is a set of people w/ a set of behavior, beliefs, i.e. culture which could be distinct or hidden that differentiates it from the larger culture, a deviant subculture is one whose behavior, beliefs, culture etc. distinguishes it by being outside the norm of the larger culture 
 
  Cloward & Ohlin extended Merton’s theory, proposing that access to illegitimate opportunities for success is also problematic   
  The concept of relative opportunity structure denotes that while Merton noted that society does not provide adequate legitimate means for approved goals, there is also a shortage of illegitimate means to achieve either approved or unapproved goals   
 
 To organize & expand cultures of deviance, three different types of delinquent subcultures may arise: criminal subcultures, conflict subcultures, & retreatist subcultures 
 
 
 Cohen suggests that delinquency is most pronounced in lower class youths because they have the least opportunity to achieve conventional success 
 
 
 Miller characterizes deviant subcultures in terms of trouble, toughness, smartness, a need for excitement, a belief in fate, & a desire for freedom 
 
 
 Anderson explains that in poor urban neighborhoods, most people manage to conform to conventional, that is "decent" values 
 
 
 In applying Hirschi's social control theory, a deviant subculture's very deviance serves to bond it securely together 
 
  DEVIANT SUBCULTURES ARE SOME THE STRONGEST SUBCULTURES KNOWN   
 
 Deviant subcultures are strong because the people in them often feel they have no alternative 
 
 
 Deviant subcultures are strong because they have high levels of commitment in that people often have a 100% commitment to the group in that divided loyalties are not allowed 
 
 
 Deviant subcultures are strong because they have high levels of involvement in that people often spend all their time w/in the group 
 
 
 Deviant subcultures are strong because their beliefs are similar to that of the subculture & have little or nothing in common w/ mainstream culture 
 
 
 Deviant subcultures are strong because of they are often attacked from outside, building in group solidarity 
 

 
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 Outline on  Conflict Theory on Crime
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  DEFINITIONS & SANCTIONS OF DEVIANCE & DEVIANT PRACTICES ALL REFLECT POWER RELATIONS IN SOCIETY   
  The social conflict approach links deviance to social inequality: who or what is labeled "deviant" depends on which categories of people hold power in a society 
 
  The norms of any society generally reflect the interests of the rich & powerful 
 
  Power is the ability to get someone to think or act in a way that they would not otherwise have done   
  While most people assume power is based on violence, threat of violence, econ, pol, or social control, benign forms of power such as opportunity for growth exist that people do opening & willingly submit to   
  The powerful have the resources to resist deviant labeling 
 
  Laws, which prescribe what is deviant & what is normal, may be inherently unfair giving an advantage to the powerful 
 
 
 DEVIANCE WHICH OPPOSES CAPITALISM IS OFTEN SEVERELY SANCTIONED BECAUSE IT IS QUESTIONING SOME OF THE PRIMARY VALUES & SOCIAL STRUCTURES OF SOCIETY 
 
 
 Spitzer suggests that deviant labels are chiefly applied to those who impede the operation of capitalism 
 
  For many decades, labor organizers were labeled as deviant & criminal w/ allegations of secret societies, immorality, communism, & cult like activities   
 
 WHITE COLLAR CRIME IS LESS DEVIANT THAN STREET CRIME   
  White collar crime consists of crimes committed by persons of high social position in the course of their occupations 
 
  White collar crime is usually controlled by civil rather than criminal law 
 
  Most white collar criminals are treated leniently 
 
  CORPORATE  CRIME IS GENERALLY CONSIDERED TO BE LESS DEVIANT THAN STREET CRIME & EVEN WHITE COLLAR CRIME 
 
  Corporate crime refers to the illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf 
 
  ORGANIZED CRIME EXISTS BECAUSE IT KEEPS PEOPLE FIGHTING FOR SECURITY RATHER CONFRONTING THE ROOT CAUSE OF THEIR OPPRESSION 
 
  Organized crime is a business supplying illegal goods or services   
  A CRITIQUE OF CONFLICT THEORY ON DEVIANCE IS THAT NOT ALL CRIME IS A FUNCTION OF A REACTION TO CAPITALISM   
  Conflict analysis often seems to assume that laws benefit only the rich while their argument is more that they benefit the rich more than the poor   
  Conflict theory implies that crime arises only in societies that treat their member unequally because there is a direct correlation btwn the level of inequality in a society & the amount of crime   

 
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 Outline on the  Criminal Justice System
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  THE US CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM IS MADE UP OF THE 'LAW & ORDER' SYSTEM & MORE, INCLUDING LAW ENFORCEMENT, PROSECUTION & DEFENSE, THE COURT SYSTEM, THE PENAL SYSTEM, THE PAROLE SYSTEM, & MORE 
 
  The criminal justice system (CJS)  is a society's formal response to crime 
 
  Key elements of the CJS include due process, equal justice for all, a right to a jury of your peers, the right to representation, etc. 
 
  A.  DUE PROCESS OUR CONSTITUTIONAL CONCEPT THAT ALL PEOPLE ARE GUARANTEED EQUAL, FAIR, & JUST PROCESS WHEN ACCUSED OF A CRIME 
 
  Due process involves the idea that the CJS must operate w/in  the bounds of law, & is guided by the Bill of Rights 
 
  Anyone charged w/ a  crime must receive fair notice of the proceedings, a hearing on the charges, & a judge or jury that weighs evidence impartially 
 
 
 B.  POLICE, BROADLY SPEAKING, INCLUDE ALL CITY POLICE, SHERIFFS, PRIVATE POLICE, FED LAW ENFORCEMENT PERSONNEL, ETC. 
 
  In the US there are approximately 19,000 police depts & 1 million police officers, depending on the criteria used to count them (w/ part timers counted as 1/2)   
 
 The police serve as the primary point of contact btwn the population & the CJS 
 
  The police frequently refer to themselves as the "thin blue line" signifying how they stand btwn the law abiding & the lawless, btwn order & chaos, btwn peace & violence   
 
 Police quickly size up a situation in terms of six factors, including: 
 
 
 1.   how serious is the alleged crime? 
2.   what is the victim's preference w/ regard to making an arrest? 
3.   is the suspect cooperative? 
4.   have they arrested the suspect before? 
5.   are bystanders present? 
6.   what is the suspect's race? 
 
 
 C.  THE COURT SYSTEM IS GENERALLY DIVIDED INTO STATE & FED CTS W/ LOWER LEVEL CTS, CTS OF APPEALS, & A SUPREME CT, AS WELL AS VARIOUS SPECIALIZED CTS 
 
 
 After arrest, a court determines the guilt or innocence of the accused 
 
 
 In practice, about 90 % of criminal cases are resolved through plea bargaining, a legal negotiation in which the prosecution reduces a defendant's charge in exchange for a guilty plea 
 
 
 D.  PUNISHMENT IN THE US GENERALLY HAS TRIED BUT GIVEN UP ON A SYSTEM TO REFORM PRISONERS SO THAT TODAY PRISONERS ARE GIVEN INSUFFICIENT TRAINING TO MAKE IT WHEN THEY ARE RELEASED 
 
  There are 2.2 mm people incarcerated in the US in the mid 2000s   
 
 There are four basic reasons to punish 
 
 
 a.  Retribution is an act of moral vengeance by which society subjects an offender to suffering comparable to that caused by the offense 
 
 
 b.  Deterrence is the attempt to discourage criminality through punishment 
 
 
 Specific deterrence demonstrates to the individual offender that crime does not pay 
 
 
 In general deterrence, the punishment of one person serves as an example to others 
 
  c.  Rehabilitation involves reforming the offender to prevent subsequent offenses   
  d.  Societal protection is rendering an offender incapable of further offenses temporarily through incarceration or permanently by execution   
  A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE PENAL SYSTEM IS THAT OUR SYSTEM IS NEAR OR ABOVE CAPACITY & THAT THEREFORE REHABILITATION IS UNLIKELY   
  Punishment deters some crime, yet our society has a high rate of criminal recidivism – subsequent offenses by people convicted of crimes   
  The death penalty has limited value as a general deterrent   
  Prisons do little to reshape attitudes or behavior in the long run   
  E.  COMMUNITY BASED CORRECTIONS ATTEMPTS TO KEEP CONVICTED CRIMINALS OUT OF PRISON BY HOUSING THEM IN HALF-WAY HOUSES OR SIMPLY HAVING THEM DO COMMUNITY SERVICE   
  One alternative to the traditional prison is community based corrections, correctional programs operating w/in society at large rather than behind prison walls   
  There are several types of community based correction   
  a.  Probation is a policy of permitting a convicted offender to remain in the  community under conditions imposed by a court, including regular  supervision   
  b.  Shock probation is a policy by which a judge orders a convicted offender to prison for a short time & then suspends the remainder of the sentence  in favor of probation   
  c.  Parole is a policy of releasing inmates from prison to serve the remainder  of their sentences under supervision in the local community   
  A CRITICAL REVIEW OF COMMUNITY BASED CORRECTIONS IS THAT THIS ONLY WORKS W/ SOME TYPES OF CRIMINALS   
  Evaluations of probation & parole are mixed   
  The sobering truth is that  the criminal justice system cannot eliminate crime   

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