Internal
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Outline on the
History of Soc Mvmts
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External
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For many social theorists, social change & social movements are
part of a historic, dialectical & mutually reinforcing relationship |
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The dialectical & mutually reinforcing relationship btwn social
change & social movements is seen in the demographic change of the
Baby
Boom, the relationship btwn it & the post WW2 growth of
higher ed, both of which spawned student activism around Civil Rights,
Vietnam, the Womens' Mvmt, & the Env Mvmt |
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Alain Touraine (1977, 1981) developed an analysis of historicity in
soc mvmts examining why there are so many more mvmts in the modern
world than there were in earlier times |
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In the pre modern era, i.e. before the industrial revolution, soc mvmts
as we know them were rare |
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There were few soc mvmts because authoritarian regimes brutally
oppressed any dissent; there were generally only two classes,
& the lower class had virtually no power or resources; communications
& transportation were difficult making it difficult to consolidate
people, their resources & power; & any significant trend
toward a soc mvmt was usurped & developed through political
systems, i.e. the Crusades |
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What are now known as the core nations transitioned from traditional
societal forms to modern industrialized forms; from agricultural feudal
economic systems to industrial econ systems; & from authoritarian kingdoms
to democracies |
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Modernization, industrialization, secularization, & democratization
have all allowed such social forces as soc mvmts, dissent, & individual
& group deviance to flourish |
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In the modern era, individuals & grps know that social activism
can be used to achieve social goals & reshape society |
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Nations that have not experienced modernization, industrialization,
secularization, & democratization are more likely to oppress
soc mvmts, dissent, & individual & group deviance |
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Social mvmts are more common in core nations than in peripheral
& semi peripheral nations |
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Social mvmts are more common in democratic societies than authoritarian
nations |
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In core nations, interest groups become more common & far
more diverse, & social control weaker, which makes it easier
for people to organize against conditions or ideas they oppose |
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Democracy allows interest groups to flourish & become more diverse
whereas authoritarian regimes view social movements as a threat
& use techniques such as surveillance & imprisonment to immobilize
them |
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Modernization, including industrialization, makes the authoritarian
practices of surveillance, imprisonment, harassment, assassination,
deportation, etc. more difficult to carry out because people have resources
to fight such tactics |
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The former Soviet Union's authoritarian regime kept many social forces
under it's control |
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When the Soviet Union collapsed in the 1990s, Eastern European &
Central Asian nations & regions underwent rapid social change |
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In general, Eastern European nations have become more democratic unleashing
a wide variety of ethnic, religious, & nationalist mvmts |
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In general, Central Asian nations have become less authoritarian than
the former Soviet Union & have developed theocracies |
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Historically the major social mvmts which developed in the US include
the Labor mvmt, the Civil Rights mvmt, the the Anti War
mvmt, the Womens' mvmt, the Env mvmt, & others |
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The major, early soc mvmts in the US have become institutionalized
in that they are widely practiced, important, necessary, & taken for
granted part of modern soc structures |
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Some contemporary mvmts include the Nuclear Freeze mvmt, gay rights,
intl human rights, animal rights, consumer rights, & others |
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An important quality of soc mvmts today is the development of the soc
mvmt industry |
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As the early soc mvmts became institutionalized, they developed the
soc mvmt industry which functions both to support &, to a limited extent,
create soc mvmts |
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The soc mvmt industry offers ready made, for sale support knowledge
tech, process tech, & physical tech on the production of ideology,
soc mvmts, etc. |
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Soc mvmts are highly networked in that many work together &
support each other |
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Non governmental organizations (NGOs) are closely related to
soc mvmts, but are more likely to be engaged in direct assistance or support
to a particular class or group of people |
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NGOs will often try to minimize their ideology in order to raise
$$ to support their assistance efforts |
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NGOs & soc mvmts both utilized the soc mvmt industry |
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Soc mvmts, the soc mvmt ind, & NGOs all form a network,
which is tightly linked to govt |
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Redclift and Benton (1994) note that little attn is paid to inter
soc mvmt relationships; i.e., the extent of soc mvmt cooperation, conflict
& it's effect on the shape of society |
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Internal
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Outline on Interest
Groups
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External
Links
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An interest group is organized to pursue specific interests in the
political
arena, operating primarily by lobbying the members of legislative bodies |
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In the recent past, interest grps were almost exclusively lobbying
grps; however, today interest grps engage in an entire range of
tasks that support lobbying |
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Interest grps often engage in public education in order to raise
awareness of their issue, to mobilize their constituency, & to oppose
counter interest grps positions |
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Public education is often tied to issues around particular candidates
& thus interest grps now are, in effect, campaigning for the candidates
of their choice |
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Interest grps today often lobby a legislative body, & more recently
have also become involved in the public & admin rules making process |
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Interest grps today have also become involved in the implementation
of admin rules & serve as watchdogs on govt activities |
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In order to accomplish the tasks of lobbying, public rules making,
admin rules making, & rules implementation, interest grps must raise
money
& thus they have a strong public relations branch to educate
their constituency & raise money from that constituency |
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Interest grps may be distinguished from social mvmts in that most social
mvmts have or employ an interest grp to impact govts at the admin
level, the legislative level, the executive level, the judicial level,
& so on |
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Interest grps may be linked to a soc mvmt, but they may also have a
much narrower focus on just one issue |
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Political movements would be a subset of a soc mvmt in that soc mvmts
define a new way of thinking/world view/ideology while political
mvmts generally try to reflect existing world views |
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Soc mvmts do cognitive praxis in that they produce innovative
knowledge claims, while interest grps generally only represent existing
knowledge claims |
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Soc mvmts often employ, hire, or ally interest groups, lobbying groups
& other similar types of orgs |
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Internal
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Outline on New
Social Movements
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External
Links
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- Project: The Intersection
of Culture & Social Structure via Social Issues by Social Group |
Link
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NSM'S ARE SOC MVMTS THAT ARE 'NEW' IN COMPARISON TO THE ORIGINAL
OR 'CLASSIC' SOC MVMTS OF RELIGIOUS UPHEAVALS, POL REVS, THE LABOR MVMT,
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MVMT, & THE WOMEN'S SUFFRAGE MVMT |
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New social movements ( NSMs ) are the social mvmts that have arisen
in the later half of the 1900s in conjunction w/ the rise of democracy
& modernization |
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NSMs are distinguished from older social mvmts in that the latter were
much more rare, often had to develop into a political mvmt or revolution
to succeed, did not have the advantages of voice that democracy offers,
nor of communications, the media, etc. as modernization offers |
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Old social mvmts include the Crusades, the Reformation, revolutions,
etc. while the NSMs include the Labor Mvmt, the Civil Rights Mvmt, the
Women's Mvmt, the Env Mvmt, etc. |
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The NSMs arose w/ the demise of of traditional working class,
the decline of industrial jobs |
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Since the 1950s, the Working Class is down from 50% to 20% of the population
w/ less than 15% unionized in US |
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STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE 1ST WORLD |
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Since the 1950s there is a decline of social democrats as seen
in the Reaganist dismantling of Keynesianism, the welfare state & other
achievements of the FDRites |
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The failure of social democrats to achieve their goals through traditional
politics has fostered the fragmentation of the social groups supporting
FDRism & social democratic policies into the NSMs |
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A strength & weakness of the NSMs is that they must now accommodate
diverse
groups including the working class, ethnic & gender minorities
(minorities in terms of power) and new middle class of NSMs such as the
feminists, env grps, peace grps, anti nuke grps, etc. |
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NSM'S CRITIQUE OF SOCIETY ADDRESSES MATERIALISM, INDIVIDUALISM,
RATIONALISM,
ETC. |
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NSMs often offer a broad critique of society as seen in their
position that |
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- modern society is based on materialism |
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- modern society is based on individualism in that we often
either ignore the problems of others or assume they are individual &
not social in nature |
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- science, rationalism, modern society, etc. have the ideology
of omnipotence & infallibility, but are flawed, possibly fatally flawed |
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NSMs often embrace the modernist view of social change & knowledge,
while some such as the anarchists eschew the modernist view in favor of
chaos theory, post modernism, nihilism & so on |
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LIMITS OF NSMs |
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The limits of the modernist NSMs includes the viewpoint that
knowledge is
1. limited
2. politicized
3. a product of existence
4. the result of the interplay of knowledge & beliefs
5. the result of globalized issues |
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1. LIMITED KNOWLEDGE |
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Knowledge is based primarily on limited scientific knowledge |
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"Knowledge" is an unexamined combination of knowledge which
is tested, 'valid' science (which has limitations) & beliefs
which are untested 'valid' ideas, values, & norms |
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Environmentalism must be based on more than just environmental enlightenment
based on physical science knowledge about the env |
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People view social problems in different ways, using different criteria
including different scientific knowledge, values, politics, jobs, etc. |
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Scientific knowledge & beliefs are not fixed, rather they are experiencing
rapid change |
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2. POLITICIZED KNOWLEDGE |
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Science is politicized in environmentalism, abortion, & other social
issues that enter the realm of public discourse |
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The politicization of science is the result of the natural dev of paradigms
in the creation of knowledge, the use of knowledge by various grps in society,
the creation & control of knowledge by grps in society, & the fact
that particular socio hist contexts negate the ability of society to accept
particular bits or types of society |
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3. KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, ETC. ARE PRODUCTS OF EXPERIENCE |
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Beliefs are a product of all levels of social existence |
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Beliefs are formed through experiences in social structure & culture |
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Just as knowledge is learned through everyday experiences of teaching
& ed, trial & error, etc., so beliefs, values, & norms are
learned through everyday experiences of faith, tradition, etc. |
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Link
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The Table on the Intersection of Culture
& Social Structure via Social Issues by Social Group shows that
knowledge, beliefs, values & norms surrounding an issue vary depending
on what structure of society one is functioning in & by the group to
which one belongs |
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The concept of master status embodies the idea that people may
have a dominant social structure or social group to which they belong which
in our society is usually one's occupation |
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However, even one's master status may be significantly influenced by
one's relationship to another sphere of life such as ones' family, peers,
religion, education, etc. |
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The relationship btwn social issues, social mvmts, social grps, culture,
& social structure demonstrates that to a large extent all culture
is local, i.e. situationally specific |
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4. KNOWLEDGE & THE INTERPLAY OF KNOWLEDGE & BELIEFS |
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The identity of social problems come & go, i.e. enter & leave
the realm of public discourse, on the basis of "knowledge
AND beliefs" |
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Knowledge is changed by science, politics, the media, social mvmts,
etc. |
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The concept of the "social construction of reality" holds that the
creation of the env debate, or any public debate, is a product of
science, media, politics, culture, etc. |
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5. KNOWLEDGE & GLOBALIZED ISSUES |
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Many social issues are now globalized & have an impact on interest
groups, & constituencies around the world, & these diverse groups
& levels of analysis are extremely difficult to synthesize |
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The env problem, or any public problem, engenders policies, grps, debates,
lobbyists, think tanks, etc. & all of these actors must comprehend
all levels of action & discussion from the global level to the national
level to the regional level to the local level to the personal, & how
these actors & levels interact in the complex processes of the public
discussion |
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The globalization of social issues can be seen in the dictum, "the
personal is political," in that whether I drive a gas hog or an economy
car, or whether I heat w/ coal, oil, nuclear/electric, wood, or super insulation,
or whether I eat fast food or food from my own garden are all both personal
choices & global issues |
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The difficulty of synthesizing the interests of diverse groups &
multiple levels of social existence can be seen in the failure of the env
& other mvmts to understand the peripheral nations, the interests of
the working class, businesses, & racism, etc. |
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Table
on
the Intersection of Culture & Social Structure via Social Issues by
Social Group
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Social Movement or Group that is concerned w/ this issue: |
Social Movement or Group that conflicts or allies w/ the
soc mvmt or grp on this issue: |
Social Issue: |
Social Issues that compete w/ this social issue for this
social group: |
Culture -->
Social Structure \/
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Knowledge
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Beliefs
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Values
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Norms
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Peers |
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Family |
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Religion |
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Govt |
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Military |
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Economy |
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Charity |
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Education |
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Media |
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Recreation & Leisure |
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The Table on the Intersection of Culture & Social Structure
via Social Issues by Social Group shows that knowledge, beliefs, values
& norms surrounding an issue vary depending on what structure of society
one is functioning in & by the group to which one belongs |
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Internal
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Outline on the
Types of Social Movements
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External
Links
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- Project:
Classify the Types of Soc Mvmts |
Link
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Because soc mvmts are so historically new, & because the study
of soc mvmts is even newer, & because there are so many types of soc
mvmts which are evolving & changing, there are several important
types or categories of soc mvmts |
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Link
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Interest Groups |
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Link
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NSMs |
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Link
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NGOs |
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There are EIGHT types of soc mvmts, including
1. Transformative mvmts (aka Protest mvmts)
2. Counter mvmts
(aka Regressive mvmts)
3. Redemptive mvmts
(aka Religious mvmts)
4. Reformative mvmts
5. Revolutionary mvmts
6. Alternative mvmts
7. Communal mvmts
8. Personal cults
& some theorists delineate one more, viewing Religious Mvmts as
a separate form of Redemptive Mvmt |
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The types of soc mvmts should not be confused w/ the various soc mvmts
themselves such as the Labor mvmt, the Civil Rights mvmt, the Peace mvmt,
the Women's mvmt, the Env mvmt, etc. |
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Link
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1. Transformative mvmts (aka Protest mvmts) are soc mvmts
which aim to produce major processes of social change throughout society |
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Link
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2. Counter Mvmts (aka Regressive mvmts) are social
mvmts who seek to undo social change or to oppose a Transformative or Reformative
Mvmt |
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Link
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3. Redemptive Mvmts (aka Religious mvmts) are social
mvmts which seek to rescue individuals from ways of life seen as corrupting |
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Link
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4. Reformative Mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is
to achieve some limited reform, change an entire community, & sometimes,
but not often, remake the entire society |
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Link
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5. Revolutionary mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is
to achieve some radical change, & remake the entire, or most of society |
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Revolutionary mvmts are a type of transformative mvmt |
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A revolutionary mvmt hopes to achieve radical change through the elimination
of old social institutions & the establishment of new social institutions |
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Revolutionary mvmts are rare compared to transformative or reformative
mvmts |
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Rev mvmts often occur when a series of reform mvmts have failed
to achieve the objectives they seek |
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While rare, revolutions do occur & are usually historic in nature
as seen in countries as diverse as the US, Russia, France, Cuba, China,
Iran, Mexico, Zimbabwe, & the Philippines |
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Many countries have also experienced unsuccessful revolutions, including
Chile, Argentina, Hungary, etc. |
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Link
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6. Alternative mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is
to bring about change by securing partial change individuals |
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7. Communal mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is to
bring about change by the example of building a model society among a small
group |
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Communal mvmts seek not to challenge conventional society directly,
but to build alternatives to it |
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Some communal mvmts create household collectives, popularly known as
communes, in which people live together, share resources & work equally,
& base their lives on principles of equality (Kanter, 1972, 1979) |
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Some communal mvmts develop work collectives, in which people live
separately but jointly own, govern, & operate an org that produces
& sells some product or service (Rothschild-Whitt, 1979) |
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8. Personal Cults are soc mvmts which occurs in combination
w/ one of the other types of soc mvmts |
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Personal cults are centered around a person, usually a charismatic
individual |
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The person at the center of a personal cult is revered by the people
in the mvmt & may be elevated to a godlike status |
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Personal cults are particularly common among religious & revolutionary
political mvmts |
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Examples of personal cults include Jim Jones & the People's Temple,
David Koresh & the Branch Davidians, Do & the Heavens Gate group |
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Personal cults need not all be so radical as seen in fan fanaticism,
or in the devotion to a political leader like Mao Zedong, or JFK |
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The classification of soc mvmts may be done by ranking them on their
Breadth of Change & Depth of Change |
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Link
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The Table on the Breadth & Depth
of Change in Social Mvmts demonstrates that the breadth & depth
of change in society impact the type or nature of social mvmts |
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Each of the types of soc mvmts may be seen as having a limited or radical
change component, & may apply to individual, groups, or all of society,
depending on the particular subject of the mvmt |
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Giddens notes that emergent structural processes which appear to be
becoming institutionalized dimensions of modernity are fostering the development
of social mvmts to oppose them |
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For Giddens, the emergent processes of capital accumulation
created the Labor mvmt |
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For Giddens, the emergent processes of surveillance by govt
& corps created the democracy / free speech mvmts |
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For Giddens, the emergent processes of the military-industrial-
congressional-complex created the peace mvmts |
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For Giddens, the emergent processes of industrialization crated
the envl mvmt |
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The emergent processes of globalization is creating the anti
globalization mvmts, & the anti free trade mvmts |
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Link
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The Table on the Emergent process
of Modernity & Reflexive Social Mvmts shows the reflexivity of social
mvmts which arise in response to modernity |
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Giddens & Beck see these soc mvmts as reflexive in that they respond
to a social situation & change fundamental societal relationships &
institutions |
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Farley delineates FIVE types of soc mvmts, including protest mvmts,
regressive mvmts, religious mvmts, communal mvmts, & personal cults |
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Giddens delineates FOUR types of soc mvmts, including transformative
mvmts, reformative mvmts, redemptive mvmts, & alternative mvmts |
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Locher delineates FOUR types of soc mvmts, including alternative mvmts,
redemptive mvmts, reformative mvmts, & revolutionary mvmts |
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Types of soc mvmts (descriptive approach)
1. Transformative mvmts (aka Protest)
Farley Giddens
2. Counter Mvmts
(aka Regressive) Farley
3. Redemptive
(aka Religious) Farley
Locher Giddens
4. Reformative mvmts
Giddens Locher
5. Revolutionary mvmts
Locher
6. Alternative mvmts
Giddens Locher
7. Communal mvmts
Farley
8. Personal cults
Farley |
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And how do we treat failed ideologies such as utopianism, Eugenics,
etc. |
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Table
on the Breadth & Depth of Change in Social Mvmts
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Depth
of
Change
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Breadth of Change
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Specific Individuals
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Significant Parts of Society
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Entire Society
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Limited Change
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Alternative
Mvmts
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Transformative, Counter, Communal Mvmts
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Reformative
Social Mvmts
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Radical Change
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Redemptive
Social Mvmts
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Personal Cults
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Revolutionary
Social Mvmts
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The Table on the Breadth & Depth of Change in Social
Mvmts demonstrates that the breadth & depth of change in society impact
the type or nature of social mvmts |
Table
on the Emergent process of Modernity & Reflexive Social Mvmts
|
Emergent Processes of Modernity |
Reflexive Soc Mvmt |
capital accumulation |
labor mvmt |
surveillance |
democ/free speech mvmt |
military power |
peace mvmt |
industrialism |
envl mvmt |
globalization |
anti globalization & anti free trade |
The Table on the Emergent process of Modernity & Reflexive
Social Mvmts shows the reflexivity of social mvmts which arise in response
to modernity |
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Internal
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Top
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Outline on
Transformative Movements
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External
Links
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TRANSFORMATIVE MVMTS ARE SOC MVMTS WHICH AIM TO PRODUCE MAJOR
PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE THROUGHOUT SOCIETY |
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Trans mvmts strive for thorough-going change in the society or societies
of which they are a part |
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The objective of transformative mvmts is to change or oppose some
current social condition or other soc mvmt |
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The trans mvmt is the most common type in most industrialized
nations & includes such important mvmts as the civil rights mvmts,
the women's mvmts, the gay rights mvmts, the antinuclear mvmts, the env
mvmt, & the peace mvmt |
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Many transformative mvmts are also reform mvmts in that they
seek soc change, but some transformative mvmts only protest, demonstrate,
or raise awareness of a current social condition or other soc mvmt, &
do not seek or accomplish soc change |
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The social change aimed for by trans mvmts are cataclysmic,
all embracing, & often violent |
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Examples of trans mvmts include revolutionary mvmts, some radical religious
mvmts, millenarian mvmts |
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Trans mvmts are often called protest mvmts because protest is
often their most utilized & effective method of achieving their goal
of societal change |
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TRANS MVMTS ARE IMP BECAUSE THEY ADDRESS COLLECTIVE ISSUES,
I.E. ISSUES THAT CANNOT BE ADDRESSED BY INDIVIDUAL ACTION |
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Trans mvmt are esp important because they often address those social
issues that cannot be changed by individual action |
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C Wright Mills makes a distinction btwn personal troubles &
public issues in his development of the concept of the sociological
imagination |
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See Also: The Sociological Imagination |
Link
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Personal troubles are those to which we must look the the individual
for the solution |
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Public issues are those to which we must look to society, in
all of its manifestations: govt, the family, the workplace, etc.
for the solution |
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For Mills, it can be very difficult to tell the difference btwn personal
troubles & public issues |
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Because of the difficulty of telling the difference btwn personal troubles
& public issues we often say that a person needs wisdom, vision,
consciousness, a sociological imagination, etc. in order to make this
complex judgment |
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The difficulty in determining the nature of social problems can be
seen in looking at an unemployed person in that we must look at the persons'
motivation & personal skills, as well as the level nature of unemployment |
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In the social problem of unemployment after we have examined all the
factors affecting a person or a given population, we can then make our
judgment as to whether the problem is a personal trouble of a public issue,
& more importantly, determine the appropriate path to a solution |
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Since the US is the most individualistic society in all of history,
we tend to view problems as personal troubles |
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Reasons for personal troubles are often called excuses, even
though some of these, such as a physical disability, are viewed as legitimate
by society |
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Reasons for public issues are often called explanations |
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Individualizing is the tendency to view a problem as a personal
trouble regardless of whether it is a personal trouble or a public issue |
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Collectivizing is the tendency to view a problem as a public
issue regardless of whether it is a personal trouble or a personal trouble |
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TRANS MVMTS RAISE PUBLIC AWARENESS, EDUCATE THE PUBLIC,
CREATE PUBLIC WILL FOR CHANGE, & THUS OFTEN HOPE TO FOMENT CHANGE
THROUGH POLITICAL ACTION, OR OTHER LARGE SCALE ACTION |
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An example of social issues as opposed to personal issues would be
energy
policy (often addressed by the env mvmt) in that while I can individually
conserve energy by turning down the thermostat, drive less, buy a more
fuel efficient car, etc., these individual changes will only marginally
change my energy consumption |
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In order to significantly change my individual energy consumption,
society wide changes are needed such as an alternative energy infrastructure
(wind, solar, etc.) & mass transit is needed |
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The purpose of trans mvmts is often to create enough consciousness,
i.e. public will, to raise the issue on the political radar |
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When trans mvmts have raised the issue on the political radar,
because of powerful entrenched interests, it still often takes decades
for the govt / political system to change |
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The vegetarian mvmt is not a trans mvmt because individuals
are quite capable of becoming vegetarian on there own, though undoubted
such a mvmt would have society wide impacts of the ag & food production
industries |
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Internal
Links
Top
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Outline on Counter
Movements
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External
Links
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Counter mvmts are social mvmts who seek to undo social change
or to oppose a transformative or reformative mvmt |
|
|
Counter mvmts are also known as regressive mvmts because they
often seek to take society back, or regress, to an earlier type of social
system, undoing the social change instituted by a trans mvmt |
|
|
Counter mvmts form directly in response to a trans mvmt |
|
|
Reactionary reformative mvmt are counter movements & they
usually form immediately after a progressive mvmt has succeeded in creating
changes w/in a society |
|
|
An example of a counter mvmt is the antifeminist mvmt, which opposes
recent changes in the role & status of women & urges them to remain
at home & take care of their children rather than seek outside employment |
|
|
An example of a counter mvmt is the Ku Klux Klan, various neo nazis,
& racist "skinhead" groups which believe in white supremacy & favor
return to strict racial segregation |
|
|
The Ku Klux Klan was created in the South after the Civil War to fight
the social changes that were taking place |
|
|
An example of a counter mvmt is the anti gay rights mvmt which opposes
legislation banning discrimination based on sexual orientation |
|
|
Other examples of a counter mvmts are the anti feminist mvmt, militant
right wing mvmts, Drunks Against Mad Mothers (DAMM), smoker's rights groups,
etc. |
|
|
Counter mvmts form to fight social change to return society
to the way it was before those changes took place |
|
|
DAMM seeks to relax some of the recent drunk driving laws & penalties
& to return people's attitudes to be more accepting of drivers who
have a few drinks |
|
|
Some counter mvmts form in opposition to the general culture
& structure of society such as the Rainbow Family, or a group is even
more loosely organized, hippies |
|
|
A typical counter mvmt are reformative or transformative because they
seek to reverse some specific social change that they oppose |
|
|
Almost any transformative mvmt that becomes large & influential
generates a counter mvmt (McAdam, McCarthy, & Zald, 1988) |
|
|
Counter mvmts develop among groups whose interests, values, or ways
of life are challenged by the original transformation |
|
|
Counter mvmts & trans mvmts often engage in efforts to capture
the support of public opinion (McAdam, 1983) |
|
|
Opposing interactions btwn opposing mvmts often become a long term,
sustained process in which each mvmt reacts & responds to the actions
of the other (Meyer & Staggenborg, 1996) |
|
|
The action - reaction interaction of trans & counter mvmts can
be seen in the struggle btwn the pro choice & the pro life mvmts in
the abortion debate |
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Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Redemptive
Movements
|
|
External
Links
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Redemptive mvmts are social mvmts which seek to rescue individuals
from ways of life seen as corrupting |
|
|
Religious mvmts are redemptive mvmts in so far as they concentrate
upon personal salvation |
|
|
Religious mvmts are soc mvmts which relate to spiritual or supernatural
issues, which oppose or propose alternatives to some aspect of the dominant
religious or cultural order |
|
|
Redemptive mvmts want to create a dramatic change, but only
in some individuals' lives |
|
|
The goal of redemptive mvmts is the complete transformation of certain
people |
|
|
The target audience of redemptive mvmts is narrow & specific |
|
|
Redemptive mvmts want to totally change the lives of their followers |
|
|
The line btwn a redemptive religious mvmt & a mainstream religion
is usually one of institutionalization & general acceptance
by society |
|
|
The line btwn a redemptive religious mvmt & a mainstream religion
can be seen in any of the mainstream religions today, including Christianity,
which were originally opposed by general society, but then became accepted
& institutionalized |
|
|
Many redemptive religious mvmts never become accepted by society
& either fade away or remain marginal sects or cults |
|
|
Examples of redemptive social mvmts include any religious mvmts that
actively seek converts, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses & certain Christian
fundamentalist & Baptist congregations |
|
|
An example of a redemptive mvmt is the Pentecostal sects which propose
that individuals' spiritual capacities & development are the true test
of their worth (Schwartz, 1970) |
|
|
Redemptive mvmts include many religious sects, & even some relatively
institutionalized churches, that nonetheless oppose some element of the
dominant religion or culture |
|
|
Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian Scientists, & Mormons are relatively
institutionalized but are not part of mainstream religious mvmts |
|
|
Some redemptive mvmts combine a religious message w/ political protest,
such as the Nation of Islam, aka the Black Muslims, the Catholic liberation
mvmt in So Am, et al |
|
|
Liberation theology is a redemptive religious mvmt concentrated in
Latin Am Catholics |
|
|
Other redemptive mvmts include the Unification Church, aka the Moonies
so named after Rev Sung Yun Moon, the Hare Krishnas, & the Scientologists,
as well as mvmts w/in major religious orgs such as the Pentecostal mvmt
w/in several Protestant denominations & the Catholic Church |
|
|
These groups want to totally transform the lives of the individuals
they "save," but the only way to be saved is to join the mvmt |
|
|
Those who join are transformed, but the rest of the population of the
world remains unchanged |
|
|
Redemptive mvmts don't want people to change just one set of attitudes
or beliefs, they want them to become a part of the group in every way &
to take on evangelizing as a way of life |
|
|
Members of redemptive soc mvmts believe they are changing the world
one person at a time |
|
|
The Promise Keepers, a religious based, men only mvmt, swept the US
in the 90s |
|
|
The Promise Keepers are the most recent redemptive mvmt in the US |
|
|
The Promise Keepers transform the lives of those men who paid a fee
to learn how to be better Christian husbands |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Reformative
Movements
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|
External
Links
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Reformative mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is to achieve
some limited reform, change an entire community, & sometimes, but not
often, remake the entire society |
|
|
Reformative mvmts are probably the most common category of social mvmts
in American society |
|
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Reformative mvmts are a type of transformative mvmt |
|
|
Reformative mvmts often concern themselves w/ specific kinds of inequality
or injustice |
|
|
A reformative mvmt strives to establish new policy in, for example,
the env, foreign affairs, or for a particular racial or ethnic grp |
|
|
A reformative mvmt does not strive to eliminate or remake
social institutions |
|
|
The goal of a reformative mvmt is to change society's attitude
about a particular topic or issue |
|
|
Reformative mvmts do not want to destroy or replace the existing order |
|
|
Reformative mvmts want the existing govt, or society in general, to
change in some specific way |
|
|
Examples of reformative mvmts include mvmts against racism or anti-abortion
groups |
|
|
Reformative mvmts can be progressive, meaning that they seek
to make a change, or reactionary, meaning that they seek to resist
or reverse a change |
|
|
Reactionary reformative mvmts are counter movements & they
usually form immediately after a progressive mvmt has succeeded in creating
changes w/in a society |
|
|
An example of a reformative mvmt is Mothers Against Drunk Driving (
MADD ) which began its push against drunk driving in the 1980s & 1990s |
|
|
As a reformative mvmt, MADD sought to change laws & attitudes of
law enforcement officials, politicians, & citizens toward drinking
& driving |
|
|
MADD succeeded as seen in the increased likelihood of authorities &
people in general seeing drunk driving as a major crime rather than a minor
infraction |
|
|
The suffrage mvmt, the civil rights mvmt, & the feminist mvmt are
progressive reformative mvmts |
|
|
The suffrage mvmt, the civil rights mvmt, & the feminist mvmt all
sought the change of society in one relatively specific area such as women's
right to vote, racial discrimination & segregation, or gender discrimination |
|
|
The white supremacy / white separatist movement, the antifeminist movement,
& militant right wing mvmts are examples of reactionary reformative
or counter mvmts |
|
Link
|
See Also: Counter Mvmts |
|
|
Whether reformative mvmts are reactionary or progressive, they want
to create what they call a better society |
|
|
Reformative mvmts believe that one specific change is the key to improving
every other aspect of society |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Revolutionary
Movements
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project: The Most
Important Rev |
Link
|
|
Revolutionary mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is to achieve
some radical change, & remake the entire, or most of society |
|
|
Revolution is a term that generally refers to a fundamental change
in the character of a nation's govt, & possibly in the society,
that may or may not be achieved through violent means |
|
|
Revolutionary mvmts are a type of transformative mvmt |
|
|
A revolutionary mvmt hopes to achieve radical change through
the elimination of old social institutions & the establishment
of new social institutions |
|
|
Rev soc mvmts want to completely destroy the old social order &
replace it w/ a new one |
|
|
The goal of a rev is the total transformation of society by destroying
the old govt & replacing all current leaders |
|
|
Revolutions may also occur in other areas than govt, including cultural,
economic, and social activities |
|
|
Rev are the most threatening to existing social order, authority, &
power |
|
|
Sometimes revs have specific goals, sometimes only vague utopian dreams |
|
|
For Marx, there is a clear distinction between political changes in
governments
and radical changes in the economic organization of society even
when the former occurs violently |
|
|
For Marx, most revs are simply the replacement of one political regime
w/ another, while the fundamental structures of soc stay intact |
|
|
The type of rev which Marx advocated was the replacement of one mode
of production with another |
|
|
For Marx, the history of societies is the history of class conflict
or the contradiction within the mode of production between the forces and
the relations of production, & thus rev must come about through class
conflict, which need not be violent, but unfortunately often is |
|
Link
|
See Also: Marx's Theory of Rev |
|
|
Rev is an important example of mass protest operating outside
orthodox political channels, but there are other, limited situations in
which uprising or outbreaks of social violence occur in the actions of
street crowds or mass demonstrations |
|
|
Social mvmts, i.e. loose associations of people working collectively
to achieve shared ends, play key roles in revolutions |
|
|
The existence of soc mvmts which receive mass support is a defining
characteristic of revolution |
|
|
As w/ any mass action, soc mvmts come into being in many other situations
besides those of a rev mvmt |
|
Link
|
See Also: The Forms of Revolution |
|
|
Revolutionary mvmts are rare compared to transformative or reformative
mvmts |
|
|
Revolutionary mvmts usually occur when a series of reform mvmts
have failed to achieve the objectives they seek |
|
|
There are "militia groups" in the US who believe the fed govt is evil
& want to overthrow it |
|
|
The Montana Freemen could be considered rev soc mvmts |
|
|
Many soc mvmts have actually led to real social & political revs
in their society |
|
|
Most revs intend to create a better society by replacing the power
structure w/ one based on different principles |
|
|
The nature of revs have changed over time being extremely rare
throughout most of history, then occurring sporadically in the early
industrial era, & these becoming plentiful in the industrial
age |
|
Link
|
See Also: The History of Rev |
|
|
Many countries have also experienced unsuccessful revolutions,
including Chile, Argentina, Hungary, etc. |
|
|
While rare, revolutions do occur & are usually historic in nature
as seen in countries as diverse as the US, Russia, France, Cuba, China,
Iran, Mexico, Zimbabwe, & the Philippines |
|
|
The English Parliamentary Rev in the 1500 & 1600s, the French anti
monarchist mvmt beginning in the 1700s & continuing through the 1800s,
the Russian Rev, the Communist Rev in China, & Fidel Castro's socialist
mvmt in Cuba all succeeded in completely destroying the existing power
structure & replacing it w/ a new idealized social order |
|
|
Almost all 20th C revs occurred in developing societies such as Mexico,
Turkey, Egypt, Vietnam, Cuba, & Nicaragua, not in industrial nations
(Moore, 1965) |
|
|
The Revolutions that have had the biggest impact for the world in this
century were the Russian Rev of 1917, Chinese Rev of 1949, & while
the Cuban Rev was less important, it has had a greater impact because of
the Cold War & geo-politics |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on the
Forms of Revolution
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project: Examples of
the Forms of Rev |
Link
|
|
THE FORMS OF REV INCLUDE: REVOLUTION, REVOLT,
INSURRECTION,
REBELLION,
COUP,
MUTINY,
&
VELVET REVOLUTION |
|
|
1. A revolution is the seizure of state power through
violent means by the leaders of a mass movement, where that power is subsequently
used to initiate major processes of social reform |
|
|
2. A revolt is a initial process of taking power,
which if it then fails to govern becomes an insurrection, but if it succeeds
in governing, then it becomes a rebellion or revolution |
|
|
3. An insurrection is a revolution that succeeds
in taking power, but soon fails at governing |
|
|
4. A rebellion is a form of revolution under the
threat or use of violence which lead to some, but not substantial change
in the society |
|
|
A rebellion is a form of rev where one group of leaders replaces another
w/o any changes in the existing political structure through a process outside
of the society's political system, often through military force or mass
demonstrations, riots, etc. |
|
|
The objectives of rebellions usually are to secure more favorable treatment,
or to replace a particularly tyrannical individual by someone less harsh |
|
|
Until 300 yrs ago, the majority of uprisings were rebellions rather
than revolutions |
|
|
The idea of action taken to radically alter the existing political
structure of society, that is, revolution, was virtually unthought of
throughout most of history |
|
|
While "revolutions" have occurred throughout most of history, these
were coup d' etats or politically based rebellions instigated by political
elites
against elites |
|
|
Historically, these coups or rebellions were by & among elites
& did not change things for the masses, thus technically speaking,
they were not revolutions |
|
|
See Also: The Socio Historical Development of Revolution |
|
|
5. A coup d'etat is a rebellion by a military leader
or leaders |
|
|
Some political movements that appear to be revolutions only change
a country's rulers |
|
|
Many Latin American political uprisings have replaced dictators without
making fundamental changes in governmental systems |
|
|
Political scientists call such movements rebellions rather than revolutions
but a rebellion sometimes leads to a political or social revolution &
is therefore a coup d' etat |
|
|
6. A mutiny is a revolt or rebellion against an
authority in power especially by soldiers, seamen, airmen, or other military
personnel |
|
|
A mutiny usually does not lead to a revolution, but rather removes
a tyrannical leader from power |
|
|
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A REV INCLUDE A MASS MVMT, MAJOR REFORM,
USE OF VIOLENCE OR THREAT OF VIOLENCE, & OFTEN INCLUDE THE USE
OF POLITICAL METHODS & POLITICAL CHANGE |
|
|
For a set of events to be a rev, they have to have several characteristics,
including being a mass movement, a major process of reform or change, using
the threat or use of violence, using political methods, & fomenting
political changes |
|
|
a. A rev is a mass social mvmt which means that instances
in which either party comes to power through electoral processes,
or a small group, such a army leaders seizing power in a coup, is
not a rev |
|
|
b. A rev leads to major processes of reform or change
(Skocpol, 1979) & thus those who seize state power must be capable
of governing, more capable that those they overthrew (Dunn, 1972) |
|
|
For a rev to succeed beyond the initial takeover, the leadership must
be able to achieve at least some of its targets |
|
|
A rev which succeeds in gaining power, but then is unable to rule,
cannot said to be a rev because it is likely that the society will disintegrate
into chaos |
|
|
c. A rev usually includes the threat or use of violence
by those participating in the mass mvmt |
|
|
d. Revs are political changes brought about in
the face of opposition by existing authorities, who cannot be persuaded
to relinquish their power w/o the threatened or actual use of violence |
|
|
In some rare cases, there have been peaceful revs, such as "the velvet
revolution" in Czechoslovakia |
|
|
Revs may vary in type by the types of goals they hope to achieve or
achieve in practice |
|
|
A political rev may change various ways of life in a country,
or it may have no effect outside the govt |
|
|
An example of a pol rev creating significant changes in society can
be seen in the Russian Rev of 1917 where not only was the czar deposed,
but there was also the beginning of major social changes, such as the elimination
of private property |
|
|
On the other hand, the Rev War in America (1775-1783) changed a political
system without causing basic social changes |
|
|
Many revolutions involve illegal uprisings, but some occur after
a legal transfer of power within the existing system |
|
|
An example of a legal transfer of power occurred when Hitler took power
as dictator of Germany soon after the country's president had appointed
him chancellor |
|
|
7. A velvet revolution is a rev that occurs w/o
much violence, & is usually the result of mass soc mvmts |
|
|
The term velvet rev was coined as a result of the peaceful rev in the
Czech Republic as it broke from the Soviet Block in 1992 |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on the
Socio Historical Development of Revolution
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project:
Revolution in the Core Nations |
Link
|
|
The nature of revs have changed over time being extremely rare
throughout most of history, then occurring sporadically in the early
industrial era, & these becoming plentiful in the industrial
age |
|
|
Until 300 yrs ago, the majority of uprisings were rebellions
rather than revolutions |
|
|
See Also: The Forms of Rev |
|
|
In medieval Europe, for example, serfs or peasants sometimes
rose up in protest, demanding freedom, against the policies of aristocracy
(Scott, 1986; Zaparin, 1982) |
|
|
The objectives the rebellions in medieval Europe were usually to secure
more favorable treatment, or to replace a particularly tyrannical individual
by someone less harsh, & not to achieve what we would today call a
rev |
|
|
Revs brought about historic & far reaching social change
over the past 2 centuries |
|
|
The Am & French Revs of 1776 & 1789 were the most important
revs of the 18th C & possibly of all time |
|
|
The ideals of those revs, liberty, universal citizenship & equality
are fundamental socio political values upon which modern society
is now based |
|
|
To assume rev, & to proclaim liberty, universal citizenship &
equality as the basis of modern society only 200 yrs ago, & to assume
that they could be realized through mass action represent a profound
historical innovation |
|
|
Prior to the 18th C, only idealistic dreamers suggested that human
being could or should establish a social order in which socio econ pol
participation was open to everyone & that rev was the path to this
goal |
|
|
The term revolution came to be employed in its modern sense at the
same time as the term democracy |
|
|
The term revolution was not widely used until the success of the Am
& Fr struggles made clear that a new system existed in the world |
|
|
Alexis de Tocqueville is credited w/ recognizing the important
of the revolutionary, democratic mvmt |
|
|
Tocqueville wrote, "What, to start with, had seemed to European monarchs
and statesmen a mere passing phase, not unusual symptom of a nation's growing
pains, was now discovered to be something absolutely new, quite unlike
any previous movement, and so widespread, extraordinary, and incalculable
as to baffle human understanding." (1955; orig 1856) |
|
|
In the 18th C the term revolution still meant "to move in a circle"
and the Am & Fr revolutionaries believed they were "turning back" to
a natural order of things |
|
|
Am & Fr revolutionaries believed people were born free & equal
& had been oppressed by the rule of kings & authoritarian
rulers, & rev was the means of restoring that happy, natural condition |
|
|
The innovative nature of the Am & Fr revs was not apparent even
to those who played the major roles in bringing them about |
|
|
As the Am & Fr revs & their ideals became permanent, the term
revolution came to mean mass action for bring about fundamental social
reconstruction (Abrams, 1982) |
|
|
While some revs since then attempt to restore a preexisting form of
society, such as the Islamic rev in contemporary Iran in the late 1970s,
the idea of rev is usually associated w/ progress, representing a break
w/ the past to establish a new order for the future (Arendt, 1977) |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Alternative
Movements
|
|
External
Links
|
|
Alternative mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is to bring
about change by securing partial change individuals |
|
|
Alt mvmts do not aim to achieve complete alteration in people's habits
or lifestyles, but are concerned w/ changing certain specific traits |
|
|
Alt mvmts want to create change in some peoples thoughts or behavior
in specific areas |
|
|
The goal of alt mvmts is to change the way specific groups think
about a particular behavior or category of behaviors |
|
|
Alt mvmts are not concerned w/ topics outside of their stated focus |
|
|
Generally alt mvmts are not threatening to the established social
order because they only want certain people to change & only in one
particular way |
|
|
Just because alt mvmts are not threatening to the established social
order does not mean that they cannot be extreme |
|
|
Some alt mvmts are considered mainstream because they are not extreme,
while others are considered radical because they advocate extreme change
even though that change is limited & applies to only a small group
of people |
|
|
Examples of an alt mvmts include Alcoholics Anonymous, the health mvmt,
abstinence groups, or any group that is concerned w/ changing one characteristic
of people |
|
|
Alt mvmts such as Drug Abuse Resistance Education ( DARE ) Program
& Students Against Drugs & Alcohol ( SADA ) exist to keep
the young from getting involved w/ drugs & alcohol |
|
|
DARE & SADA are alt in that they aim at one specific segment of
the population ( children, teens, & young adults ) & only seek
change in one aspect of their behavior & attitudes, those related to
drugs & alcohol |
|
|
While DARE is widely accepted in society, groups such as People for
the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA ) is not as widely accepted
since its agenda is considered to be more radical, & thus some alt
grps are accepted & some are not |
|
|
A typical alt mvmt is not concerned w/ issues outside of their specific
focus |
|
|
Neither DARE nor PETA tries to change people's religious beliefs, exercise
habits, or dental care practices because they have a specific area of interest
& that is where their focus stays & thus most alt grps have a narrow
focus |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on the
Explanations of
the Development of Social Mvmts & Revolutions
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project: Explanations
of Revs |
Link
|
|
- Project: Explanations
of Soc Mvmts & Your Term Paper Topic |
Link
|
|
Some of the explanations of social mvmts attempt to articulate the
interests of the developing historical actor |
|
|
Giddens notes that articulating interests may seem simple in retrospect,
but it is very difficult to read the present & the future |
|
|
A common post modernist critique is that social theorists rationality
"draws straight lines of historical action" in the past & then projects
that into the future when in fact there are no straight lines in the past,
present or future |
|
|
For Farley the necessary conditions for the formation of a soc mvmt
include... |
|
|
1. Dissatisfaction: - that people must be
dissatisfied |
|
|
2. Communication: - that people who are dissatisfied
must be able to communicate w/ each other |
|
|
3. Survival of repression: - that people must
be able to survive attempts at repression |
|
|
4. Perception of chance for success: - that
the mvmt must seen by participants & potential participants as having
a reasonable chance for success |
|
|
5. Adequate resources: - that people must
have adequate resources including leadership, money, supporters, etc. |
|
|
Any one of the necessary conditions, or several of them, are not by
themselves adequate for the formation of a soc mvmt; a soc mvmt requires
all of the necessary conditions to form; however, the necessary conditions
do not guarantee success |
|
|
Most revolutions occur because of widespread dissatisfaction
w/ an existing system |
|
|
Social conditions such as poverty & injustice under cruel, corrupt,
or incapable rulers may contribute to revolution, but in most cases,
social problems alone do not cause revolutions |
|
|
Poor social conditions lead to despair rather than a will to fight
for something better |
|
|
Revolutions need strong leaders who can use unsatisfactory conditions
to unite people under a program that promises improvements |
|
|
Many revolutions occur after rulers begin to lose confidence in themselves
& yield to various demands from their rivals |
|
|
Compromises by rulers, or rapidly improving social conditions, create
a revolution of rising expectations as people begin to see hope
for a better life |
|
|
If changes do not keep pace w/ people's expectations, the people lose
faith in their rulers & start listening to revolutionary leaders |
|
|
The French Rev of 1789 & the Russian Rev both began after
the rulers agreed to the people's demands for representative assemblies |
|
|
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred after the govt released
some of its strongest opponents from prison |
|
|
Not all revolutions have led to improved conditions because
some revolutionaries have worked for change only to gain political power
for themselves or because the goals were unattainable under the circumstances |
|
|
A number of conservative rulers have called themselves revolutionaries
simply to convince the public that they support social & economic
changes |
|
|
THERE ARE MANY EXPLANATIONS OF THE FORMATION OF SOC MVMTS INCLUDING:
1. PERSONALITY
THEORY
2. MASS SOCIETY
THEORY
(MST)
3. MARX'S
THEORY OF REVOLUTION
4. JOHNSON'S
DISEQUILIBRIUM THEORY
(DET)
5. RELATIVE
DEPRIVATION THEORY
(RDT)
6. TILLY'S
REV THROUGH COLLECTIVE ACTION
7. RESOURCE
MOBILIZATION THEORY
(RMT)
8. POLITICAL
PROCESS THEORY
(PPT) |
|
|
The various explanations of the formation of soc mvmts each consider
one or more of the necessary conditions for soc mvmts: |
|
Link
|
1. Personality Theory holds that soc mvmts were the outgrowth
of the personality characteristics of their participants, or of
their psychological response to social conditions |
|
Link
|
2. In Mass Society Theory (MST), Kornhauser
holds that the organization of a society may create alienated citizens
& collective behavior by members & leaders who have direct influence
over society's elites & who are unduly influences by those leaders,
leading to the formation of a mass mvmt |
|
Link
|
3. In Marx's Theory of Revolution, Marx holds
that the development of societies is marked by periodic class conflicts
which may terminate in a process of revolutionary change |
|
|
4. Johnson's Disequilibrium Theory holds that the disequilibrium
of a society is a necessary condition for the occurrence or revolution.
The main source of disequilibrium, according to Johnson, is the dislocation
btwn the major cultural values of the society & the system of economic
production |
|
Link
|
5. Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) holds that soc mvmts
emerge when people feel deprived or mistreated relative to either how others
are treated or how people feel they should be treated |
|
|
6. Charles Tilly, in Revolution through Collective Action,
holds that effective col action that culminates in rev usually moves through
FOUR main phases to overthrow an existing social order, including organization,
mobilization, common interests, & opportunity |
|
Link
|
7. For Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT), it is
not the level of alienation in a society that leads to a soc mvmt, rather
it is the org & leadership, or lack thereof, that make or break a soc
mvmt. RMT's central assertion is that no matter how alienated, exploited,
angry, etc. people feel, w/o org & leadership they cannot produce soc
change. |
|
Link
|
8. Political Process Theory (PPT) posits that opportunities
for soc mvmts are created by the larger social & political processes.
Important factors for PPT include org strength, cognitive liberation, ideology,
beliefs, political connections, social structure, & political opportunities |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Personality
Theory of Social Movements
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project: The Personality
of an Organizer |
Link
|
|
Early theories of soc mvmts held that: |
|
|
- soc mvmts were the outgrowth of the personality characteristics
of their participants, or of their psychological response to social conditions |
|
|
- people participate in soc mvmts to satisfy a personality need
rather than to address a real grievance (Adorno, et al, 1950, et
al) |
|
|
- people participate in soc mvmts because they feel isolated &
alienated in today's large-scale & often impersonal society |
|
|
At the psychological level, the assumptions of the early soc mvmts
are valid in that people do participate at least in part for personal
reasons |
|
|
At the social level, people participate in soc mvmts for more than
personal reasons |
|
|
Research on the Personality Theories of Soc Mvmts shows that soc mvmt
participants are not very different from the rest of the population
in terms of personality or psychological makeup |
|
|
Soc mvmt participants are not more alienated than other
people; rather they are drawn into mvmts by friends & family |
|
|
Kornhauser's Mass Society Theory presents a decidedly negative
view of participants in soc mvmts & mass society that is useful for
examining dangerous, extreme, & potentially destructive mvmts
such as Fascism, Nazism, Stalinism, McCarthyism, et al |
|
|
For Kornhauser a major psychological factor in the formation of soc
mvmts & mass society is atomization, which is similar to alienation |
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A lack of intermediate group connections makes people feel unable
to participate in their social world |
|
|
Lack of participation in intermediate groups leads to a poor self-image
because the individual feels cut off from society |
|
|
Individuals w/o connections to intermediate groups are more eager for
activist
solutions due to the anxiety caused by their alienation |
|
|
Atomized individuals become highly suggestible & believe mass opinions,
desires, etc. are their own, developing what Kornhauser calls a mass
personality |
|
|
For Kornhauser, "mass men" are selfish & unhappy because
they do not have close or personal ties to their communities & have
given up their thoughts to those of the mass |
|
|
The masses main focus is personal satisfaction, & they can't find
it because they are self-alienated |
|
|
Multiple & varied social connections allow people to form distinctive
self-images |
|
|
Social connections produce autonomous people who have respect for themselves
& therefore respect for others |
|
|
In normal society, people are connected to their community which connects
them to society & humanity |
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|
People w/ a myriad of connections tolerate disagreement & understand
that everyone does not have to like the same things or want the same things |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Mass
Society Theory of Soc Mvmts
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project: Mass Society
in the USA |
Link
|
|
Kornhauser's mass society theory ( MST ) ( 1959 ) holds that the organization
of a society may create alienated citizens & collective behavior
by members & leaders who have direct influence over society's elites
& who are unduly influences by those leaders, leading to the formation
of a Mass Mvmt |
|
|
MST is intended to explain one particular type of soc mvmt:
dangerous extreme, & potentially destructive mvmts such as Fascism,
Nazism, Stalinism, McCarthyism, Khmer Rouge ( Cambodia), Earth First, PETA,
& others |
|
|
MST is not useful for analyzing the more common scale, local
mvmts such as Reform Mvmts or grassroots political mvmts |
|
|
Kornhauser attempts to show how social structure can produce the cultural
conditions & personal attitudes that made fascism rise in Italy,
Nazism in Germany, Communism in Eastern Europe, the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia,
the Shining Path in So Am, etc. |
|
|
MST is useful for understanding why mass mvmts, as opposed to transformative,
reformative, redemptive, etc. mvmts form or why particular types of mvmts
tend to appear over & over in the same society |
|
|
For Kornhauser, |
|
|
- a mass society creates mass mvmts |
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- Mass mvmts are anti democratic & seek to destroy or totally
transform their society |
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|
- the members of mass mvmts believe they are creating a perfect
society & often lead to restriction of personal freedom & make
their culture an oppressive & sometimes dangerous one |
|
|
- Mass mvmt is a negative term that connotes a "herd society"
where everyone wants the same material goods, has the same ideas, &
pursues the same lifestyle |
|
|
- Mass soc is dull, uniform, & mediocre |
|
|
- in a mass soc, people do not think for themselves |
|
|
- Mass soc is the opposite of a "pluralistic society," in which
a wide variety of different people & orgs all exist together but are
independent of each other |
|
|
- the soc structure determines whether a society becomes a mass
soc or a pluralistic soc |
|
|
- Mass mvmts are "popular mvmts" that operate outside of &
against the social order & they tend to consume an entire society |
|
|
- Mass mvmts can be terribly destructive especially when a society
is vulnerable to mvmts which aim to eliminate freedoms |
|
|
WW 2 is a strong influence for Kornhauser & MST, especially those
events & mvmts which created Fascist Italy & Nazi Germany |
|
|
Another strong influence on MST was that after WW 2, large parts of
Europe fell under despotic Soviet rule & people learned of the horrors
of Stalin's regime |
|
|
It is because of the despotic transformations of Italy, Germany, &
Russia that MST focuses on the social structure as a source of mass mvmts
that can tear entire societies apart |
|
|
The characteristics of a society's social structure that influence
its susceptibility to destructive mass mvmts include atomization, intermediate
groups, access, & availability, cultural uniformity, & crisis politics |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Marx's
Theory of Revolution
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|
External
Links
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Marx's theory of rev was based on his interpretation of human history |
|
|
For Marx, the development of societies is marked by periodic class
conflicts which may terminate in a process of rev change |
|
|
Class struggles derive from the contradictions, i.e. unsolvable
tensions, w/in societies that result from the inevitable divergent interests
of the major classes in society |
|
|
For Marx, the serfs, aristocrats, & church leaders of the Middle
Ages had inevitably divergent interests |
|
|
For Marx, the proletariat & the bourgeoisie of the Early Industrial
Era had inevitably divergent interests |
|
|
Marx would probably agree that the middle & upper classes of today
have inevitably divergent interests |
|
|
The source of contradiction is found in econ changes, i.e. change
in the forces of production |
|
|
See Also: Marxist Economics |
|
|
In a stable society, there is a balance btwn the econ structure, i.e.
the base, & the superstructure which includes the social
relationships & the political system of the society |
|
|
For Marx, the forces of production experience continual change
& development & as they do so, contradiction is intensified, leading
to open clashes btwn classes, which then may provoke social change via
rev or peaceful political change |
|
|
Marx applied his theory of social change to nearly every historical
era from the Early Empire Era circa 3000 BC to his contemporaneous Early
Industrial Era of the 1800s |
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|
FEUDALISM |
|
|
Feudal society in Europe was based on production by serfs who
were ruled over by two warring classes, the aristocrats & the church
leaders |
|
|
Econ changes going on w/in feudal societies gave rise to towns,
cities, freemen, merchants, artisans, etc., in which trade & manufacturing
developed |
|
|
The new econ system w/in feudal societies, which was the nascent pure
capitalism, threatened the very basis of feudalism |
|
|
The nascent pure capitalism was not based on the lord serf relationship
& a command econ, rather it was based on the open mkt & the worker
( proletariat ) owner ( bourgeoisie ) relationship |
|
|
The contradictions btwn the old feudal econ & the new pure capitalist
system taking the form of the Enclosure, violent conflicts btwn the rising
capitalist calls & the feudal landowners, mounting debt owed by aristocrats
to capitalists, freemen demanding rights, etc. |
|
|
The outcomes of the contradictions w/in feudal society included some
societal evolution through social & political change w/ varying degrees
of violence & social chaos, as well as outright revolution |
|
|
THE TRANSITION TO CAPITALISM |
|
|
The French Revolution of 1789 occurred as a process that began
in the 1600s & was still occurring in Napoleonic France of the 1800s |
|
|
As changes occurred in Europe either through rev or social & political
development, Marx argued that the capitalist class achieved dominance |
|
|
The development of capitalism presented new contradictions in the form
of class conflict btwn workers & owners as well as struggles btwn the
capitalists themselves for dominance |
|
|
Early in his career, Marx believed that the contradictions of capitalism
would lead to revolution; however, as the development of capitalism embraced
the reforms of the Labor Mvmt, Marx recognized that social, econ,
& political development was transforming society making rev unnecessary |
|
|
Marx believed that rev or social development would only occur in totally
developed capitalist nations |
|
|
Early on, Marx believed that workers & capitalists would come into
more & more intense conflict |
|
|
Marx believed that labor mvmts & political parties representing
the mass of workers would mount a challenge to the rule of the capitalists |
|
|
If the capitalists resisted change & were powerful, violence was
needed to bring about the required transition into socialism or communism |
|
|
If the capitalists could not or would not resist change, the development
of society might happen peacefully, using parliamentary /legislative
mechanisms |
|
|
THE TRANSITION TO SOCIALISM |
|
|
For Marx, the transitions to socialism or communism were inevitable
& would occur w/ or w/o rev; however, rev was in essence a short-cut
to the next stage of human social development which could avoid decades
or even centuries of the enmiseration of capitalism |
|
|
Early on, Marx expected revs to occur in some Western countries during
his lifetime |
|
|
Towards the end of his life, when it became apparent that parliamentary
induced change & not rev, Marx looked towards Russia & other
nations as the most likely site for rev |
|
|
Marx held that Russia was an econ retarded society which had
new forms of commerce & industry along side of its Czarist / feudalist
system |
|
|
The mixture of feudalism & pure capitalism proved to be explosive
& armed w/ Marxist theory, Lenin, et al, organized the Russian Revolution
of 1917 thirty four yrs after Marx's death |
|
|
Marx held that the revolution would only be successful if it spread
to other Western nations & thus Lenin, et al, tried to foster world
rev, but failed |
|
|
Post rev Russia took advantage of the developed econs of Europe to
enhance its modernization |
|
|
Contrary to Marx's expectations & Lenin's aspirations, revs did
not occur in the advanced, industrialized societies of the West |
|
|
In most Western nations, except the US, there are politically influential
socialist & communist parties which have realized some socialist goals |
|
|
Even the US has accepted components of socialism such as Social
Security, unemployment insurance, etc. |
|
|
Given socialist parties & the components of socialism in Western
nations, Marx's contention that mature capitalist nations would be those
most likely to move to the stage of socialism is partially correct |
|
|
Where socialist parties have gained power, they are less rather than
more radical |
|
|
The development of capitalism has created contradictions btwn workers
& owners but these contradictions have been mediated by the Labor
Mvmt, socialist political parties, & even the reform of govt &
capitalism itself |
|
|
GLOBALIZATION |
|
|
Marx's views on social development & revolution are useful in understanding
conflict in peripheral nations because few of these have developed
the mediating social structures that function to resolve conflict in the
core nations |
|
|
Contradictions in peripheral nations exist because of the expansion
of modern industry at the expense of traditional systems |
|
|
As traditional modes of life dissolve or are destroyed, those affected
become a source of potentially revolutionary opposition to govts
which try to preserve the existing power structure |
|
|
CONDITIONS FOR REVOLUTIONS |
|
|
For Marx & many other social scientists, rev depends on |
|
|
- class consciousness |
|
|
- historical circumstance |
|
|
- political organization |
|
|
- repression of the working class |
|
|
- the global context: Marx & Engels assumed
that the revolutionary collapse of capitalism would occur in core states
such as France or Britain |
|
|
For Marx, whose ideas were later expanded by such theorists /activists
as Gramsci, it is necessary to break the hegemony of the dominant class
by a combination of political violence & education. |
|
|
Althusser, 1966, said revolution is most likely to occur in the weak
link in the chain of capitalist society where social contradictions are
most prominent |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Relative
Deprivation Theory
|
|
External
Links
|
|
Relative Deprivation Theory (RDT) holds that soc mvmts emerge when
people feel deprived or mistreated relative to either how others
are treated or how people feel they should be treated |
|
|
Note that RDT refers to relative & not absolute deprivation |
|
|
Tocqueville noted in his travels in Am in the mid 1800s that
in a country where everyone is poor, there is great absolute deprivation,
but no relative deprivation |
|
|
Where wealth & poverty exist side by side the poor are very conscious
of their different situation & come to feel deprived |
|
|
When people are led to believe that there lot is going to improve
& it does not, they feel deprived |
|
|
The revolution of rising expectations is the label Davies, 1962,
gives to social protest or revolution that occurs when the expectation
gap btwn the rich & poor becomes more important as a result of rising
expectations |
|
|
For a social mvmt to form, the sense of relative deprivation the individual's
view of the situation must make it seem as a collective & not
an individual problem |
|
|
Given the necessity of the collective perception of deprivation, Turner
& Killian, 1987, prefer to use the label Fraternal Relative Deprivation
Theory to emphasize the shared feelings of deprivation |
|
|
Merton & RDT |
|
|
RDT builds on Merton's reference group theory which holds that
feelings of deprivation depend upon what groups people compare themselves
with |
|
|
For Merton, & RDT, discontent is a consequence of relative deprivation
rather than absolute deprivation |
|
|
For Merton a major question that RDT must answer is why do people choose
the reference groups that they do? |
|
|
Runciman found that people choose a particular reference group, which
influences feelings of deprivation based on: 1. class consciousness;
2. status; 3. sudden disappointment shared by a group;
4. rising expectations |
|
|
1. People normally compare themselves to in group members
& if they feel relative deprivation compared to them, then they feel
competitive, or resentful toward people in their own group |
|
|
Class consciousness embodies combinations of a sense of injustice
and class solidarity based on ethnicity, religion, race, occupation, "recreational
group," etc. |
|
|
See Also: Class Consciousness |
Link
|
|
In group comparisons which lead to feelings of victimization
often stifles class consciousness, the development of a larger group solidarity,
& a shared sense of injustice |
|
|
So long as workers are jealous of their own, there is no solidarity |
|
|
The basis for a social mvmt occurs if people & their in group compare
themselves to an out group that is similar, & feel deprivation |
|
|
If many members feel deprivation, then just this common consciousness
is the basis for class consciousness & for social action, & the
possibility of organizing a soc mvmt |
|
|
2. Status inconsistency fosters unfavorable comparisons
with other groups and creates a sense of injustice and deprivation |
|
|
Status inconsistency is created by a lack of consistency between education,
training, socioeconomic status, & income |
|
|
Lower status is, in a sense, a built in relative deprivation |
|
|
3. Sudden disappointment, shared by group, of stable expectations
may lead to unfavorable comparisons with other groups |
|
|
Sudden disappointments magnify a relative deprivation |
|
|
Econ depression hits the wage earner & inflation hits the pensioner
& forces a downward revision in living standards |
|
|
There was a widespread conviction in the US during the Great Depression
of the 1930s that the nations' wealth was concentrated in the hands of
the well to do & that econ problems could be resolved by "soaking the
rich" |
|
|
4. Rising expectations may lead to comparison with a better situated
group |
|
|
Improved circumstances permit members of the rising group to assume
many of the characteristics of a group above them |
|
|
When people begin to dress like a higher group, drive similar cars,
live in similar neighborhoods, & speak w/ similar accents, they adopt
the higher category as a comparison group |
|
|
If their progress is reversed, they are thrown back w/ former members
& feel a relative deprivation |
|
|
RDT & Revolution |
|
|
James Davies examined the factors leading to revolutions |
|
|
During innumerable periods in history, people lived in dire poverty,
or were subject to extreme oppression, but did not rise up in protest |
|
|
People tend to endure such conditions w/ either resignation or mute
despair |
|
|
Revolutions are more likely to occur when there is a rise of people's
living conditions |
|
|
Once standards of living consistently go up, people's expectations
also rise |
|
|
If improvement in actual conditions subsequently slows down, propensities
to revolt are created because gains are less than expectations |
|
|
Social protest & ultimately revolutions tend to occur in circumstances
in which there is some improvement in people's conditions of life |
|
|
Examples of RDT & revolution can be seen in the collapse of the
Soviet Union |
|
|
Research on RDT |
|
|
The research on RDT is inconsistent |
|
|
Research has not shown a strong relationship btwn peoples' feelings
of deprivation & their participation in soc mvmts |
|
|
Regardless of how people feel, they are equally likely to participate
in a soc mvmt |
|
|
People who participate in soc mvmts often feel quite discontented while
many of those who do not participate share the same feelings |
|
|
The discontented who do not participate in soc mvmts often face barriers
to taking action |
|
|
The discontented who do not participate in soc mvmts often do not get
support from other around them |
|
|
Development of a collective identity is crucial step in becoming involved
w/ a soc mvmt |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Resource
Mobilization Theory of Social Mvmts
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project:
Which Resources are Critical? |
Link
|
|
Resource Mobilization Theory ( RMT ) gained prominence w/ the publication
of Social Conflict and Social Movements by Anthony Oberschall (1973) |
|
|
Mass society theory ( MST ) was still the dominant perspective and
Oberschall criticized Kornhauser's theory as failing to account for the
social
processes that make it possible for a mvmt to form & succeed |
|
|
Research done during the 1960s contradicted MST on anti-democratic
mvmts such as McCarthyism and the Radical Right in the US or Nazism in
Germany |
|
|
RMT pays attention to political & economic factors while
MST does not |
|
|
RMT pays much less attention to psychological traits of member
& makes no assumptions about individual motivations for joining |
|
|
Individual alienation is considered irrelevant because RMT assumes
that all societies contain enough discontent for social mvmts to arise
at any time |
|
|
For RMT, it is not the level of alienation in a society that leads
to a soc mvmt, rather it is the org & leadership, or lack thereof,
that make or break a soc mvmt |
|
|
RMT's central assertion is that no matter how alienated, exploited,
angry, etc. people feel, w/o org & leadership they cannot produce soc
change |
|
|
While discontent is always present in a society, the resources
necessary to form soc mvmts are not always available |
|
|
For RMT, in order for any mvmt to succeed, the org must acquire physical
power, political power, or social support form a majority of citizens &
or elites, political leaders, or other social leaders |
|
|
Mobilization refers to the process of forming crowds, groups,
associations, & orgs for the pursuit of collective goals |
|
|
Resources for mobilization include people, time, labor, money, communications,
technology, intellectual elites, leadership, etc. |
|
|
RMT focuses most heavily on mvmts that succeed through the persuasion
& conversion |
|
|
Social support has become the most valued resource for many
movements |
|
|
Research demonstrates that the most successful mvmts are those
that organize themselves in specific ways & manage available resources
to their max efficiency |
|
|
Average people w/ little or no individual power join together, &
thus combine resources, to influence regional or national policy |
|
|
Soc mvmts oppose legitimate authorities as well as any individuals
or groups, who usually have significant resources, who benefit from the
status quo |
|
|
For RMT, the term Soc Mvmt refers to the presence of beliefs
w/in a population that support soc change |
|
|
For resource mobilization theory, the term counter movement
refers to beliefs in a population opposed to a social movement |
|
|
A Social mvmt org ( SMO ) is a complex or formal org which functions
to carry out a plan of action representative of the beliefs of a soc mvmt
or a counter mvmt |
|
|
For example the civil rights mvmt desires racial equality & opportunity
& w/in that mvmt there are the SMOs of the National Assoc for the Advancement
of Colored People ( NAACP ), the Congress of Racial Equality ( CORE ),
& the Southern Christian Leadership COnference ( SCLC ) |
|
|
The civil rights mvmt gained strength from significant resources offered
by sympathetic whites who were conscious constituents |
|
|
The mobilization of white resources did not generate the civil rights
mvmt, but it did help to sustain & strengthen it once it had become
large & influential |
|
|
Adherents are individuals & groups who believe in the goals
of the mvmt & will benefit from it |
|
|
Conscious adherents are people who believe in the goals of the
mvmt even though they personally will not benefit if it succeeds |
|
|
Constituents are adherents who provide resources such as time,
labor, money, etc. to specific SMOs & benefit from it |
|
|
Conscious constituents are people who help out SMOs even though
they have nothing personal to gain from the group's success |
|
|
Bystander publics are outsiders who don't care about the mvmt |
|
|
Free riders are outsiders who don't care about the mvmt but
who will personally benefit from it |
|
|
Opponents are outsiders who actively try to block the mvmt;
opponents often form counter mvmts |
|
|
Because resources are more available in a prosperous econ, growing
prosperity is associated w/ protest mvmts |
|
|
An important resource for any mvmt is interpersonal contacts which
are a major source of new recruits, as well as of money, & other resources |
|
|
Activities such as recruitment & fundraising are facilitated by
modern communication tech |
|
|
In modern society, like minded people are often concentrated in the
same place & by other social factors such as networks form orgs or
past mvmts |
|
|
Characteristics of the soc mvmt org itself, the SMO, influence its
ability to mobilize resources |
|
|
An example of an SMO characteristic that is beneficial to the mvmt
is when leadership teams include "insiders" & "outsiders" thus representing
a broad base of constituents |
|
|
Critique of RMT: |
|
|
Oberschall insists that outside assistance is required for the
success of most soc mvmts & thus many soc theorists believe RMT is
elitist in that outsiders, especially powerful outsiders are critical for
soc mvmts success |
|
|
Oberschall believed that the desegregation achieved as a result of
the Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 was the result of "...reform
from above by means of legal and institutionalized channels for bringing
about social change sponsored primarily by the progressive elements w/in
the ruling groups and elites..." |
|
|
Oberschall concludes that the civil rights mvmt would not have succeeded
w/o the work of powerful whites |
|
|
However, many social theorists believe that the mvmt led by black attorneys
forced the Supreme Court, Pres. Eisenhower & other key players in the
sense that black power made it politically expedient for these players
to support civil rights |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Political
Process Theory of Social Mvmts
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project: Can Soc
Mvmts Save Politics? |
Link
|
|
McAdams is considered the founder of Political Process Theory ( PPT
) |
|
|
McAdams critiques Mass Society Theory ( MST ) & Relative Deprivation
Theory ( RDT ) for focusing on the psychological dynamics of followers,
& Resource Mobilization Theory ( RMT ) for focusing on material resources
& outside assistance, & ignoring political & social factors |
|
|
Opportunities for soc mvmts are created by the larger social &
political processes |
|
|
Internal & external factors are considered equally important
in PPT |
|
|
Important factors for PPT include org strength, cognitive liberation,
ideology, beliefs, political connections, social structure, & political
opportunities |
|
|
PPT combines the best of MST, RDT, & RMT into a more historical
& political perspective |
|
|
Like RMT, PPT focuses on the factors that make it possible for a mvmt
to form & to succeed |
|
|
PPT examines the social factors that allow ordinary citizens
to form soc mvmts in opposition to the dominant society |
|
|
For PPT, political & econ factors are considered much more
important than personal factors |
|
|
PPT assumes that society is controlled by a small group of powerful
elites |
|
|
For PPT, popular opinion becomes one tool in the quest for power |
|
|
Social changes does not occur because the people want it, but because
a specific group manages to get enough political clout to make it
happen |
|
|
Soc mvmts are in situations in which common people join together
to fight the elite forces that rule society |
|
|
In PPT, mvmt members are somewhat viewed as folk heroes |
|
|
Because of the focus on on political & econ factors, the potentially
revolutionary power of ordinary people, & the control of society by
elites, PPT is considered to be aligned w/ various conflict theories such
as Marxism, Mills' Power Elite Theory, Domhoff's Pluralistic Theory &
so on |
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See Also: Conflict Theory |
Link
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PPT's factors of soc mvmts include org strength, cognitive liberation,
ideology, beliefs, political connections, social structure, & political
opportunities |
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See Also: PPT's Factors of Soc Mvmts |
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PPT focuses more on political connections than psychological
or material resources |
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A soc mvmt is a political phenomenon, not a psychological one &
is in a continuous process from formation to decline which does not develop
in a set of rigid stages |
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McAdams assumes that wealth & power are concentrated in
the hands of a few groups & that most people have little say in the
major decisions affecting their lives |
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Soc mvmts are rational attempts by excluded groups to gain sufficient
political leverage to advance their collective interests |
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All soc mvmts are in a struggle for social & political power
against oppressors |
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A social structural factors considered by PPT is that the absence of
repression of societies that are democratic, industrial, or urbanized
makes it easier for soc mvmts to emerge |
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When people believe the system is vulnerable or amiable to protests
& other tactics of soc mvmts, mvmts are more likely to emerge |
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People make cost benefit assessments of their potential participation
considering whether a potential mvmt will succeed or just make a different
or fail |
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The anti nuclear mvmt failed in France but succeeded in Germany because
the German govt's procedures provided opportunities for intervention by
the public |
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In Germany, people perceived that the govt was amenable to change &
this fostered their empowerment & activism which changed Germany's
policies on nuclear power |
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During the Iranian rev of 1979, people believed the monarchy was weak
& vulnerable, though by objective measures it was not, & because
people acted on their beliefs, they created a power soc mvmt that unexpectedly
succeeded in toppling the monarchy |
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External
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Terrorism is the use of violence, usually against civilian targets,
as a means of intimidation or social control |
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Terrorism is the use of violence usually by nongovt groups to achieve
political
ends |
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Terrorism is the use of terrorizing methods to produce a state of
fear & submission |
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Terrorism is the use or threat of violence to create fear & alarm |
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Terrorists murder and kidnap people, set off bombs, hijack airplanes,
set fires, and commit other serious crimes |
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But the goals of terrorists differ from those of ordinary criminals
in that most criminals want money or some other form of personal
gain |
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But most terrorists commit crimes to support political causes |
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The word terrorism first appeared during the French Revolution (1789-1799) |
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The term terrorism came into use in the modern sense during the Reign
of Terror in France & also in Russia to describe a political party
who aimed at the demoralization of the govt by terror |
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Some of the revolutionaries who seized power in France adopted a policy
of violence against their enemies |
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The period of the rule of Fr Revolutionaries became known as the Reign
of Terror |
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Link
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See Also: The History of Terrorism |
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Terrorism can be committed either by clandestine orgs or by govts,
or by the two in cooperation |
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Clandestine orgs that commit terrorism are usually associated
w/ insurgent groups, militant & highly ideological protest groups that
are generally revolutionary |
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See Also: Rationality & Collective Behavior |
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Clauswitz ( 1780-1831 ) held that war is "nothing but a continuation
of political intercourse w/ an admixture of other means;" i.e. war is politics
by other means, or war is an extension of politics |
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In the Clauswitzian sense, terrorism is war by other means;
terrorism is politics by other means |
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While in many cases the line btwn behaviors that are labeled as terrorism
or war is clearly understood by all, there are nearly as many cases
where it is not |
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Often the labeling of a behavior as war or terrorism is drawn by the
more
powerful, the victor |
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For Clauswitz, "War is thus an act of force to compel our adversary
to do our will." Force, "that is to say physical forces, [is the]
means; to impose our will upon the enemy is the object." |
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The goals of war & terrorism are often the same, thus the
causes of war are often similar in form to the causes of terrorism |
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The participants in war are often different than the participants in
terrorism because war is by definition, conflict conducted by states,
& while some terrorism is conducted by states, it is often conducted
by nongovt orgs |
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Terrorism is often used as an alternative to war since terrorists
have no state resources & few other resources w/ which to conduct war |
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States & terrorists sometimes use terrorist tactics when their
primary objective is intimidation or fear because they believe war would
be ineffective or possibly too costly |
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Terrorists: |
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International terrorists are generally well educated rebels,
& not poor, who act on behalf of an ideology, are "true believers,"
are "ideological purists," & see their own view as "correct" &
see those who disagree w/ them as being in need of "education" |
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Terrorists groups often form among ethnic or religious separatists
or nationalists who seek to create their own state apart form the
larger society in which they live |
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Osama Bin Laden's Al Queda network is based on fundamentalist Islamic
nationalism |
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French speaking separatists in Quebec, Canada are united by
their common heritage |
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Basque separatists in Spain are an ethnic group |
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Palestinians in the Mideast share a common religion & nationalistic
group |
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In general, domestic terrorists in the US such as the Ku Klux Klan,
various neo Nazi & "skinhead" groups, radical environmentalists groups
such as the ELF, & radical animal rights groups are linked less by
religion & ethnicity than by ideology |
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Domestic terrorists in the US tend to be poor & relatively
uneducated although their leaders probably have more ed |
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Counter mvmt terrorists in the US include antiabortionists & the
Ku Klux Klan |
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Terror Tactics: |
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Terrorists tend to specialize in one or a few types of violence
such as bombings, assassinations, armed assaults, kidnapping, hostage taking,
hijackings, etc., however, terrorists may also use crimes of opportunity
such as bioterrorism, nuclear terrorism, chemical terrorism, using airliners
as missiles, etc. |
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Internal
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Outline on Govts
& Terrorism
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External
Links
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While terrorism is often associated w/ non govt orgs, govts also
commit terrorism |
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Often govt sponsored terrorism takes the form of counter mvmt
terrorism which aims to intimidate its opponents |
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Govt sponsored counter mvmt terrorism is most common in authoritarian
& totalitarian govts though some democratic govts also engage is
terrorism |
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Govts engage in terrorism through their police, intelligence, &
military, as well as through shadow, non govt groups which they sponsor,
encourage, or simply allow to operate w/ impunity |
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The US supported El Salvador w/ millions of dollars of aid, & extensive
military training when it was known that the govt had conducted 37,000
political murders from 1979 to `1984 |
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The most common forms of govt sponsored terrorism are political executions,
death squads, torture, imprisonment w/o trial, & military attacks against
civilian targets |
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Govt also assist insurgent groups in other countries as Iran
has in Lebanon, Libya & the US have in Afghanistan w/ the Taliban regime,
the US in Nicaragua, the US in Cuba, etc. |
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Govts do not usually participate directly in insurgent terrorism; rather,
they assist underground terrorist orgs who carry out the actual
attacks |
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Govts also engage in terrorism when the attempt to intimidate military
opponents by bombing entirely civilian targets |
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Attacks on civilians by govts were common early in history as is documented
by Roman attacks against Europeans, Atilla the Hun's decimation of cities,
etc. |
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In the middle ages, war came to be fought almost exclusively btwn armies |
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During WW2, Germany fire bombed London & the US fire bombed Dresden,
Germany, Tokyo, Japan, & more |
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The US dropped nuclear bombs on the cities of Hiroshima & Nagasaki |
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Many critics of war believe massive, overwhelming attacks on civilians
are terrorism, while other note that civilians today are an integral
part of the Military Industrial Congressional Complex |
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The labeling of who is a terrorist & who is a solder
is often done by the more powerful, the victor |
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Both govts & advocacy groups characterized their opponents as "terrorists"
& their supporters as "freedom fighters" |
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For Farley, it should be behavior & not ideology which defines
a terrorist act |
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For Farley, attacks on civilians are terrorism no matter who
commits them |
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For Farley, Palestinian bombing attacks by undercover, men, women &
children on Israeli civilians and Israeli military attacks on Palestinian
refugee camps are properly classified as terrorism |
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Internal
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Top
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Outline on the
History of Terrorism
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External
Links
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What is now considered to be terrorist behavior is as old as humanity,
though these acts were considered neither terrorist nor abnormal |
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Terrorist tactics have been used for millennia |
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In the early days, the customs of armies depended on might, rather
than right & there were no Laws of War as we know them today |
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Prisoners of war were slain or made slaves & captured towns &
cities were sacked, ravished, & burned & the conqueror's will was
supreme |
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Over the centuries, civilization brought ameliorating changes &
proper treatment of prisoners, the sick & wounded, & the civil
population became recognized sometimes by special agreement or conventions
btwn belligerents or local commanders, sometimes because of a more civilized
influence of the victory |
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Ancient Greek, Assyrian, & Roman soldiers used carcasses of animals
that had died of anthrax to poison wells |
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Sparticus pillaged the Roman countryside & slaughtered 10's of
thousands of solders who had surrendered & Rome responded in kind &
then crucified over 6,000 of the insurgents |
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Atilla the Hun would command a city to surrender, & if they did
not he would have everyone killed |
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When laying siege to a castle or city, attackers would catapult anthrax
bearing animals, or diseased human over the walls to infect the population |
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Political assassination, ambushes, guerilla warfare, torture, mass
murder, etc. all were common |
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It was not until the middle ages when some limited rules of war
were developed that some behaviors became unacceptable |
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It was not until the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution,
1789, that the term terrorism came to have its modern meaning as
a crime, a war crime |
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The US revolutionary army including the Minute Men all who utilized
guerilla
war tactics were considered terrorists by the British who preferred
the "field of honor" battlefield |
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During the Indian wars, British & Am soldiers & intentionally
infected Native Americans w/ measles |
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The Molly McGuires were inspired by a group of insurgent terrorists
in Ireland in the 1840s who in the 1860s & later engaged in terrorism
in the coal fields to win worker rights |
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The coal companies responded in kind & all the Mollies were killed
or executed |
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See Also: Molly McGuires |
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An American group, the Ku Klux Klan, used violence to terrorize blacks
and their sympathizers in the late 1800's and the 1900's |
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For many, slavery itself, as well as the methods used to maintain it
are a form of terrorism |
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From 1885 to 1900, over 2,500 lynchings of Blacks occurred |
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In 1886 the Haymarket Square riot was instigated by a terrorist bomb |
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The perpetrator of the Haymarket bombing will be forever one of history's
mysteries but he/she was either a low level labor advocate or an anarchist |
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See Also: Haymarket Square |
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In 1910, union activists bombed the Los Angeles Times newspaper, killing
21 |
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In 1914, a Serbian national assassinated the Archduke Ferdinand of
Austria, providing the spark that started WW 1 |
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In the 1930's, the dictators Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini
of Italy, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union used state terrorism to
discourage opposition to their governments |
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After centuries of conflict w/ Britain, in 1920, Ireland was divided
into Ireland & Northern Ireland, & guerilla war broke out |
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Terrorist bombing by Irish Catholics, & military domination by
British soldiers continues today |
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Operations of war by civilized countries are governed by rules known
as the Laws of War |
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Some of the Laws of War, like the British or Am common law, are unwritten,
although generally recognized while others are set in treaties &
conventions to which many nations are parties |
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The bases of the laws of war are military necessity, humanity, &
chivalry |
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Many of the important written laws of war are contained in the Hague
conventions of 1899 & 1907 which deal w/ the opening of hostilities,
the laws & customs of war on land, the duties & rights of neutrals,
submarine mines, bombardment by naval forces, & projectiles from balloons,
& the Geneva conventions of 1929 on the treatment of prisoners |
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Violations of the Hague & Geneva conventions by sneak attacks
& other terrorist methodologies are considered to be war crimes |
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During WW 2, the fire bombing of London, Dresden, Germany, Tokyo,
etc. were considered by some to be terrorist acts since they were attacks
on civilian centers, while others maintained that since civilians were
now an integral part of the Military Industrial Congressional Complex,
such attacks were justified |
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After WW 2, the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg was composed
of one Am, Brit, Fr, & Russian judge |
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Nuremberg confirmed older policies that there is a distinction btwn
just & unjust war in that the unjust war is a war of aggression or
a war which violates a peace treaty while just war is one that defends
or responds to an attack on an ally |
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Nuremberg also developed the concept of crimes against humanity which
include murder, extermination, deportation, torture, & other mass atrocities,
persecutions of entire racial, religious, & political groups provided
such crimes are committed w/ crimes against peace, i.e. during a war of
aggression |
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Nuremberg thus left open the question of whether the complicity
of govt against entire groups of its own population constitutes a crime
against humanity |
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Many terrorist acts can be considered war crimes as in crimes against
peace & the more massive terrorist attacks could be considered as crimes
against humanity |
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Before the independence of Israel in 1948, a Jewish group used
terror to speed the end of British rule in Palestine and create a Jewish
homeland |
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As recently as the 1950s, terrorism in the form of lynchings
of Blacks continued in the US |
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Another wave of terrorism began in the 1960's which had operations
in many western nations & was politically inspired |
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Terrorist groups included the Red Brigades in Italy, which was active
until the late 1980's, and the Red Army Faction in West Germany, which
was active until the early 1990's |
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Both the Italian Red Brigade & the German Red Army Faction sought
the destruction of the political & econ systems in their home countries
& the development of new systems |
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Since 1960, Palestinian groups, including Hamas and Hezbollah, have
carried out campaigns of terrorism aimed at establishing an independent
Palestinian state |
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In 1972, Palestinian Terrorists murdered Israeli Olympians |
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Since the inception of Israel, terrorism has become a method of war
of Arab groups against Israelis |
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In the 1970s, "DB Cooper" developed the innovation of airline hijacking
& since then it has become an important terrorist weapon |
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|
Recent Terrorist Acts Against the US: |
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198?: Bomb in German nightclub kills Am servicemen |
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198?: Truck bomb in Lebanon against Am barracks |
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1993: Bombing of Airliner over Lockerbee, Scotland |
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1993: Truck Bomb attack on the WTC by Mideasterners. A
bomb exploded in the parking garage of the World Trade Center in New York
City. The next year, a federal court convicted four men, including
two Palestinians, of planning the bombing |
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1995: Truck bomb attack on the Murrah Fed building by Am anti
federalists, w/ 168 fatalities |
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1996: Package bomb attack at Atlanta's Olympic Centennial Park
by an Am |
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1998: Bombing of a US embassy in Kenya & Tanzania, Africa,
w/ 224 fatalities |
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2000: Small boat, suicide bomb on the USS Cole in Yemen by Mideasterners |
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2001: Airliner attacks succeed against the WTC & Pentagon,
fail against the Capital Bldg, by Mideasterners, w/ over 3,000 fatalities |
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Internal
Links
Top
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Outline on the
Causes of Terrorism
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External
Links
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The causes of terrorism parallel those of war, & thus are
similar but not the same as the causes of war |
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Theories of terrorism must be tailored to account for the different
groups that practice terrorism, ranging from anarchists to traditional
religious groups, as well as the aims they hope to achieve, including revenge,
publicity, organizing, social change, etc. |
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Whatever the causes of war, the aim is to intimidate the enemy &
force them to submit to your will, as is the aim of terrorism |
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If one follows Clauswitzian theory in that 'war is politics by other
means,' & build on him to say that 'terrorism is war by other means,'
& extending further, that 'terrorism is politics by other means,' then
the aim of terrorism is political in nature usually attempting to bend
the will of a larger or more powerful force |
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Terrorism occurs when war is considered to be ineffective because
the enemy is superior in size, strength, etc. |
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The most widely accepted view of terrorism is that it is caused by
socio
political econ factors in that one party desires to force its society,
its way of life on another group |
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Early theories of war, which may be applied to terrorism, are social
psychological in nature as seen in McDougall's (1871-1938) view that
tendency to war can be traced to an "instinct of pugnacity," an instinct
not triggered by specific stimuli but by the blocking of other instincts |
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The theory that humanity is inherently aggressive is difficult
to prove or disprove & it is not even clear if more or less people
are engaged in war & war related activities & it is not clear whether
the number of people killed in war as a percentage of the population is
going up or down |
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War & terrorism are influenced by many of the same principles that
influence other forms of collective action |
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Terrorists, people engaged in war, & people engaged in collective
action generally have grievances; however, only terrorists &
people engaged in war use violence |
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While the frequency & pervaisiveness of war is not clear,
terrorism, social mvmts, & collective action in general are increasing |
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Terrorism, & social mvmts in general, can more easily occur in
democratic,
modern, industrial, global societies because freedom allows one to
take advantage of the system |
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Post modernists note that as society has become more fragmented,
soc mvmts have become less coherent & structured, thus becoming more
expressive & less instrumental or effective |
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W/ the fragmentation of society, comes the fragmentation of systems
of knowledge resulting in people having fundamentally different ways of
knowing, ways of interpreting & acting in the world |
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Terrorism grows when diverse groups hold radically different
views of the world |
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However, it must be noted that it is only in the modern age that humanity
has had the hubris to posit one, or even a few ways of knowing,
i.e. rationalism, & that historically the fragmentation of systems
of knowing is much more common than the harmony of systems of knowing |
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The causes of terrorism can be understood in light of political economics
in that if a system functions to keep particular classes, ethnic groups,
religious groups oppressed economically, socially, politically,
etc., then it is likely that they will try to change their system |
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If an oppressive group perceives that there is no legitimate route
to change w/in the system, & if they perceive that war is not an
option, then the opportunities offered by democratic, modern, industrial
society offer the avenue of terrorism through which to pursue social change |
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Globalization itself is often seen as so oppressive to traditional,
or tribalist groups, that it fosters hate toward the engines of globalization,
i.e. the core nations & the multinational corps, & the ensuring
terrorism |
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Some terrorists seek equal opportunity in the global competitive
system, others are counter mvmts who seek to establish theocracies,
still others want one particular govt brought down, others want one policy
changed |
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Political economic solutions are seen as addressing all of these grievances
in that equal opportunity allows for the growth of a middle class who to
date has always preferred democracy, the separation of church & state,
equality for all parties & other core values of the modern system |
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Political economic solutions create the moderate middle class
who can serve as a bulwark against radical tribalists, religious mvmts,
and so on |
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Internal
Links
Top
|
Outline on Countering
Terrorism
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|
External
Links
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- Project: Counter Measures
to Terrorism |
Link
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1. MILITARY SOLUTIONS |
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|
Almost all of the work on counter terrorism focuses on insurgent
& transnational terrorism & typically ignores vigilante &
state terrorism |
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There cannot be an all purpose solution to terrorism because
there is no unified terrorist thereat & because of the diversity of
objectives (short & long term) |
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Law enforcement & military approaches discourage attacks,
stop attacks, & respond to attacks & while their actions are important,
we must look to other sources for a more comprehensive view |
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Target hardening includes making targets more secure & safe |
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The law & the legal system may discourage attacks, but more importantly,
it has the ability to defuse the structural causes of terrorism |
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The effectiveness of pre emptive strikes is in doubt since they
often cause more animosity |
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The Israeli invasion of the West Bank in 2002 destroyed some bomb factories
& capturing some leaders, but history will tell whether it is radicalizing
an entire generation of Arabs |
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Is the American attack against Afghanistan in 2001-2002 effective? |
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The US bombings in Afghanistan & Africa in retaliation to the bombing
of the USS Cole are generally thought to be counter effective |
|
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The US bombing of Libya in response to the Berlin attacks is thought
to have caused the Flight 103 bombing |
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Counter terrorism poses a threat to our civil liberties though
the implementation of such policy options as
- the universal ID
- video surveillance
- treasury surveillance of all of our financial transactions
( begun in 2004 )
- lax restrictions of wire tapes, surveillance, incarceration,
etc. in the name of national security |
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2. ECONOMIC & SOCIAL SOLUTIONS |
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If inequality, oppression, & other social problems lie at
the heart of terrorism, then this is where the solution lies |
|
|
Rubenstein argues that terrorism derives from US imperialism
& that an end to US involvement in other nations would do much to end
terrorism |
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|
Most experts on globalization agree that economic & social
conditions around the world are worsening |
|
|
Amnesty International documents the worst examples of govt violence |
|
|
There is always the question of whether terrorists can be assuaged
or where they desire the downfall of western society |
|
|
Many social analysts including significant actors in the political
& military sectors of western society recognize that law enforcement
& military solutions to terrorism, war & other forms of collective
violence are merely addressing symptoms of collective violence |
|
|
Reducing poverty, exploitation, & oppression is the ultimate
solution to terrorism & war |
|
|
However, law enforcement & military solutions are easier
in that social solutions are less developed & much more complex |
|
|
Social solutions to poverty, exploitation, & oppression on a global
scale have only been developed in the last few decades through orgs
such as the UN, the Peace Corp, & other such efforts as the program
to establish free nations in the Balkans after the Balkan war of
the 1990s, & Iraq in the 2000s |
|
|
And nation building in Iraq certainly focused more on a military
solution than a nation building solution, at least in the beginning |
|
|
It is not clear how to establish a nation in Iraq at this time |
|
|
Perhaps when nations spend as much money on their equivalent of the
State
Department, focusing on diplomatic & economic development, as on
the Department of Defense, nation building will be as viable & effective
a solution as military domination & war |
|
|
It is important to note that in general the economic elite of the world
both benefit from war because supplying the military industrial
complex is highly profitable, & because they have a secured grip
on the wider economy |
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|
Because the world elite classes would lose their advantages of the
profitability of the military industrial complex & the wider economy
if solutions to poverty, if exploitation, & oppression were to be eliminated,
some social analysts view the elite as actively working to preserve
their interests & inflame war & conflict, while other social
analysts disagree |
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|
3. RELIGIOUS SOLUTIONS |
|
|
While some maintain that religious radicalism is also a root
cause to terrorism, war & other forms of collective violence, this
has not been conclusively demonstrated |
|
|
Throughout history, in nations throughout the world, radical, violent
religious sentiments have lessened as economic & social justice
have expanded |
|
|
An example of the lessening of radical & violent tendencies of
religion can be seen in the development of Christianity which in
the Middle Ages & the Early Industrial Era was a factor in centuries
of warfare around the world but now is not generally seen as an important
factor |
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|
Radical, violent religious sentiments increase under conditions of
social & economic oppression & lessen under favorable social
& economic conditions |
|
|
The role of religion in collective violence is often confused
because religious, race, & ethnic lines often parallel class lines |
|
|
The parallel of religious, race, & ethnic lines w/ class lines
can be seen in the situation of Northern Ireland where the Protestant
British upper class exploited & militarily dominated the Catholic Irish
in their own nation of Ireland |
|
|
This Protestant - Catholic war which has raged & cooled
over centuries has on the surface appeared as a religious war when it has
as much to do w/ economic & social exploitation of a poor nation by
a powerful one in order to be able to economically exploit the conflicted
territory |
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|
The Arab - Israeli conflict in the middle east appears as a Islamic
- Jewish religious war when it has has as much to do w/ economic &
social exploitation |
|
|
While there is no doubt that ideologies of religious & moral
tolerance are an important part of ending collective violence, most
social analysts believe that these messages must be combined w/ economic
& social solutions |
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