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  Review Notes on  IS 5:   Introduction to Groups & Organizations
External 
Links
  Syllabus, Online Course 
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Resources 
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Outline on IS 5:  Intro to Groups & Organizations
 
  ORGANIZATIONAL CONCEPTS   
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         Why study orgs?   
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         Primary & Secondary Groups   
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         Styles of Leadership   
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         Conformity in Groups, Organizations, etc.   
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         Cohesion in Groups, Organizations, etc.   
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         Group Size   
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         Human Formations   
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         Etzioni's 3 Types of Organizations   
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         Organizational evolution   
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BUREAUCRACY by Weber   
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         Departments   
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         The Dysfunctions of Bureaucracy   
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         Iron Law of Oligarchy   
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         MICEC:  The Military Industrial Congressional Executive Complex   
           MICEC:  Data 
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  CURRENT ORGANIZATIONAL ISSUES   
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         The Organizational Environment   
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         Scientific Management   
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         Ouchi & Theory Z Orgs   
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         Race & Work   
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         Gender & Work   
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         McDonaldization   
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         The Future of Work   
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DEMOCRATIC ORGANIZATIONS   

 
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Outline on the Importance of Organizational Studies or Why Study Organizations?
External
Links
  -  Project:  Why Study Orgs? 
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  -  Video:  Office Space 
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  INTRODUCTION   
 
 Organizations are simply people in relatively fixed social relationships
 
 
Orgs are reified, i.e. abstract relationships endowed w/ "life, reality, etc."  
 
Orgs are made of people, their social relationships, & buildings; in this sense, there really are no organizations  
 Link
There are NINE reasons organizational studies are important  
  1.  ORG'S IMPORTANCE IS WIDELY RECOGNIZED   
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The importance of orgs & org studies is widely recognized  
  2.  ALL SOCIAL LIFE OCCURS IN ORGS   
  Nearly all life & social action takes place in orgs:   Orgs, orgs, everywhere...  
  "I am a rock.... I am an iiiiiiiisland"-- NOT! (w/ apologies to Simon & Garfunkel)
Almost all human activity takes place in orgs:      birth, play, work, marriage, education, taxes, death
Orgs have outcomes for individual & for other orgs & societies
We spend most of every day in orgs
 
  3.  ORGS LINK THE PERSONAL & THE SOCIAL   
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Org studies address one of the major problems in the social sciences, i.e., the micro macro problem
 
  Orgs are crucial part of micro macro connection because they actually connect individuals w/ the larger world  
  Mid range theory addresses issues of everyday life, as does micro level theory, but instead of focusing on the individual, mid range theory focuses on everyday life at the group, organizational & structural level  
 
Orgs are the link btwn individual & the world, btwn biography & history 
 
  Orgs are a social tool for development the sociological imagination  
 
See Also:  the Micro Macro Problem  
  4.  SOCIAL STRUCTURES ARE DETERMINANTS OF SOCIAL LIFE, & THEY ARE MADE OF ORGANIZATIONS   
 
Social structures represent the way we usually do things such as raise a family or get an education & changing the family is nearly impossible & the changing educational system is very difficult   
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5.  THE RELATIONSHIP BTWN ORGS & STRATIFICATION SUGGESTS THAT WEALTH, POWER, STATUS, ETC. ARE DISSEMINATED THROUGH ORGS   
 
Thus orgs are the means by which we socially measure, or rank, people
 
 
Stratification is social process where scarce social & physical resources such as wealth, income, power, status, etc. are non randomly distributed among members, groups, classes etc. of society  
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6.  ALL SOCIAL PROBLEMS HAVE AN ORGANIZATIONAL COMPONENT   
  The discussion of many social problems is unrealized because they are not recognized as orgl problems such as control of the police, prisons, the military, etc. 
 
  There is little recognition of orgl constraints in many problems; e.g., changing the US environmental problem requires changes in the orgl structure of the EPA, the USFS, & more orgs   
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7.  ORGANIZATIONS ARE A TOOL FOR SOCIAL CHANGE   
 
Social change comes through organizations 
Orgs respond to social problems & to their environment 
 
 
While organizations are inherently conservative, they are also the locus of social change 
 
 
See Also:  Social Change   
 
See Also:  Social Movements   
 
See Also:  The Importance of Soc Mvmts   
  8.  ORGANIZATIONS ARE THE SOURCE OF CATASTROPHIC HUMAN ERRORS   
  See Also:  Perrow:  Normal Accidents
 
  Errors come not only from "operator error" but because of "systemic or organizational problems" such as a chain or cascade of errors, orgl myopia that chooses not to see problems, etc.   
  We accept larger accidents, i.e. normalize them, everyday  
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9.  THE GOVT RULES & MISRULES THROUGH ORGANIZATIONS   
  Govts / public orgs are more often seen as being harmful as a result of inaction, as opposed to their actions
 
  In Love Canal, a city near Niagara Falls, NY,  the govt denied the effects of toxic wastes buried under a subdivision   

 
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1. The importance of orgs is widely recognized

Many sociologists & leaders recognize the imp of orgs
Who's Who in Orgl Analysis?
Many sociologists & leaders recognize the importance of orgs
Sociologists & Orgs:
Classical

  •   Weber
  •   Michels
  •   Mannheim

  • Modern
  • Blau
  • Gouldner
  • Etzioni
  • Goffman
  • Herbert Simon
  • Collins:  'Org'l analysis has made more progress in accumulating explanatory knowledge than perhaps any 

  •     other part of sociology'
    Leaders:
    (we did not have society as we know it until we advanced beyond tribal orgs)
    Pharaohs
    Persians
    Greeks
    Rome:  Caesar
    The Popes
    Kings & Queens of Western societies
    What do leaders do?  They organize
    Org members  do things? 

     
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    3. The micro - macro problem

    Micro macro problem
    Structure:  the macro ordering of micro processes
    Durkheim & Marx had little orgl theory         Both had micro & macro theory
    Durkheim:  ritual density model on micro level        Div of labor model at macro
    Marx:  alienation of species being as micro- problem
    Political  economy as macro
    Both could not connect this, hence problems of

  • Reification of social structure
  • Romanticization of personal relationships

  • Orgl Analysis lets us conceptualize macro orgs from micro interactions
    First level:  orgs:  UVW, McDonalds, Norton Community Hospital...
    Next level is interorg relations, which is itself a 'mega - org' networks of ed orgs, bus orgs....:
    Networks of el schools, mid schools, HS, Community College, Un &  network of all of them.....
    Next  is 'social structure:'  family, ed, econ....
    Next  is society:  Western, Eastern....   Am, UK, Japan....
    Next:  World systems:  development & interaction of societies

     
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    5. Orgl stratification
  •   income/wealth
  •   race
  •   gender
  •   status....

  • Example:  Macro:  social classes are based on (control) positions w/in orgs (including ownership)
    State is center for political control & a prop for the property system & a locus of struggle
    Capitalism itself is a kind of interorganizational network
    Society, the World System runs via orgs
    Example:  Micro:  where I end up in my org (wk) is a primary determinant of my income (class) & status

     
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    6. All social problems have an  organizational component Most social issues in sociology are orgl problems
     
    deviance discrimination:  gender, race....
    police control of the military
    corrections environmental degradation
    medical sociology / epidemiology operation of democracy
    educational problems urban

     
    Top  
    7. Organizations are a tool for social change
    See Perrow, 1984 for example of orgl analysis & public issues from R Collins:  Theoretical Sociology, 1988, p. 450

     
    Internal
    Links

    Top

    Outline on    Primary & Secondary Groups 
    External
    Links
      -  Supplement:  Study Reports People Have Fewer Friends 
    Link
      -  Monkey Sphere   
      1.  PRIMARY GROUPS ARE CHARACTERIZED AS HAVING PERSONAL, REGULAR, FACE TO FACE CONTACT   
      Primary groups: 
    Small, close knit group 
    Members interact because they value or enjoy one another 
    Primary groups are always small 
    Usually made up of significant others & some role models 
    Relationships are the most important purpose of the group's existence 
     
      A primary group may be a social group, or a small group   
      Primary groups are usually not very large  
      Examples:  family, friends, close workmates, etc.  
      A primary group is a small social group whose members share personal & enduring relationships  
      People in primary groups share many activities, spend a great deal of time together, & feel they know one another well  
      Members think of the primary group as an end in itself rather than as a means to other ends & they view each other as unique & irreplaceable  
      2.  SECONDARY GROUPS ARE CHARACTERIZED AS HAVING IMPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS THAT EXIST FOR PURPOSES BEYOND THE PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP AMONG GROUP MEMBERS   
      Examples of secondary groups include businesses, political organizations, schools, voluntary orgs, etc.  
      Secondary groups include generalized others & some role models  
      Personal or primary relationships become secondary to the goal of the group  
      Secondary groups are large & impersonal social groups devoted to some specific interest or activity  
      Secondary groups involve weak emotional ties  
      See Also:  The Strength of Weak Ties  
      Secondary groups are commonly short term; they are goal oriented; & they are typically impersonal  
     
    Primary groups can & do form w/in secondary groups 
     
      SECONDARY GROUPS HAVE PROLIFERATED AS SOCIETY MODERNIZED   
      Secondary groups have proliferated as society modernized  
      Secondary groups have been added to primary grouping
    But do we have less primary relationships?
     
      Secondary groups may be a social group, a small group or a large group
     
     
    There is a continuum from primary to secondary groups & therefore the line btwn them is never clear
     
     
    We have the same amount of primary relationships today as we did in the past
     
      A secondary group is the most important group in a workplace  
      Examples of secondary groups include the Chamber of Commerce, Walmart, a religion, the Army, etc.  
      A secondary group has members who may not know each other very well  
      A secondary group is one in which the relationships among people are less personal  
      Secondary groups have grown but have not replaced primary groups in industrial societies  

     
    Internal
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    Top

      Outline on  Leadership Styles
    External
    Links
      -  Project:  Styles of Leadership 
    Link
      INTRO:  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF EXCELLENT LEADERSHIP HAVE NEVER BEEN QUANTIFIED, THOUGH MANY HAVE TRIED   
      The characteristics of excellent leadership have never been quantified, though many have tried 
     
      Leadership may be as much a product of a situation as of any individual characteristics   
      One common belief is that first born children are more likely to be leaders, though evidence for this is weak   
      It is very difficult to teach leadership skills   
      THERE ARE FOUR STYLES OF LEADERSHIP, INCLUDING AUTHORITARIAN, LAISSEZ FAIRE, DEMOCRATIC, & OLIGARCHIC   
      There are FOUR styles of leadership / decision making 
     
    Link
    A.  AUTHORITARIAN LEADERS TELL THE GROUP WHAT TO DO   
      In the authoritarian style of leadership, the leader tells group what to do w/ little or no input from others 
     
      Best for quick decisions   
    Link
    B.  LAISSEZ FAIRE LEADERS GIVE LITTLE DIRECTION   
      b. In the laissez faire style of leadership, the leader leaves things up to the group; gives no direction 
     
      Best for quality decisions   
      Laissez faire leadership allows the group to function more or less  on its own   
    Link
    C.  DEMOCRATIC LEADERS ATTEMPT TO GET THE GROUP TO MOVE ON ITS OWN   
      c. In the democratic style of leadership, the leader attempts to get the group to move on its own toward their ideas 
     
      Best for consensus decisions   
    Link
    D.  OLIGARCHIC LEADERS FORM A SMALL GROUP TO MAKE DECISIONS   
      d.  In the oligarchic style of leadership, a small group of people decide what to do, usually has an authoritarian leader 
     
      Capable of quick & quality decisions   
      Used by most democratic govts, "the old boy system," tribes, etc.   
     
    INSTRUMENTAL LEADERS EMPHASIZE TASK COMPLETION & EXPRESSIVE LEADERS FOCUS ON THE GROUP'S WELL BEING 
     
      Groups typically benefit from two kinds of leadership   
      Instrumental leadership refers to group leadership that emphasizes the completion of tasks   
      Expressive leadership focuses on collective well being   
      Authoritarian leadership focuses on instrumental concerns, takes personal charge of decision making, & demands strict  compliance from subordinates   
      Democratic leadership is more expressive & tries to include  everyone in the decision making process   

     
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    1. Authoritarian
    Hitler, Stalin

     
    Top  
    2. Laissez faire
    Jimmy Carter
    Many professionals & professional mgrs.

     
    Top  
    3. Democratic
    FDR on entering WW2

     
    Top  
    4.  Oligarchic: 
    Most US Presidents

     
    Internal
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    Top

    Outline on  Conformity in Groups, Organizations, etc.
     External
    Links
     
    DEFINITION:  CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE 
     
    Link
    Conformity:  ( Voluntary ) Adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )
     
      When a group majority forms, this leads to conformity w/in the group
     
      If a group has a clear majority, the group will generally move toward consensus  
     
    THE SOLOMON ASCH EXPERIMENT DEMONSTRATES THAT PEOPLE CONFORM TO GROUP PRESSURE 
     
      In the Solomon Asch Experiment, when confederates made mistakes in comparing the lines, the subjects conformed
     
      The Solomon Asch Experiment demonstrates conformity in that subjects conformed to group pressure  
      Solomon Asch found that one in three people would conform to the group's opinion even when the group was wrong  
      Asch's research into group conformity showed that many of us are willing to compromise our own judgment to avoid being different, even from people we do not know  
      Groups influence the behavior of their members, often promoting conformity   
     
    THE STANLEY MILGRAM EXPERIMENT DEMONSTRATES THAT PEOPLE CONFORM TO SCIENTIFIC AUTHORITY 
     
    Link
    In the Stanley Milgram Experiment, researchers used scientific authority to convince students to conform
     
      In the Stanley Milgram Experiment, subjects were pressured into electrocuting others in order to further a research project!  
     
    The Stanley Milgram Experiment demonstrates conformity in that subjects conformed to authority
     
      Milgram's research into obedience suggests that people are likely to follow directions from "legitimate authority figures" even when it means inflicting harm on another person  
     
    GROUP THINK IS THE TENDENCY OF THE GROUP TO ADOPT A NARROW CONFORMING VIEW 
     
      Janis' research involved what he called groupthink, the tendency of group members to conform by adopting a narrow view of some issue   
      Groupthink is a form of conformity where people adopt the view of a powerful member in the group because they believe they agree w/ them   
      See Also:  Groupthink   
     
    CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE & COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP 
     
      Conformity is not cohesion   
      Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion  
            Conformity is adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )   
            Cohesion is to be of the same group   

     
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    Conformity defined
    ( Voluntary ) Adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )
    Of the same form or character
    Similar
    In agreement or harmony
    Consistent
    To become the same in form

     
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    Stanley Milgram experiment
    Researcher
    Student Assistant  ( experimental subject )
    Student subject      ( confederate )

    Researcher tells two students one is to be the Assist & one the Subject
    Assist is to administer shocks to the Subject
    No real shocks
    Some Assistants shocked the Subject into unconsciousness

    Internal
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    Outline on   Group Cohesion 
    External
    Links
      -  Project:  Conflict & Cohesiveness 
    Link
      COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP   
    Link
    Cohesion is people willingly forming a unit 
     
      People consistently holding together & willingly forming a unit experience cohesion   
      COHESION ENHANCES CONFORMITY   
      Cohesive groups have a high level of conformity 
     
      Thus factors which cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity   
      Factors that cause conformity alone, may or may not lead to cohesiveness   
      AN IN GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE BELONGS TO, & AN OUT GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE DOES NOT BELONG TO   
      A social group that a person belongs to or identifies with is called an in group   
      A social group that a person does not belong to or identify with is called an out group   
      In situations where conflicts of values, personality, or interest can lead to division within a group, sociologist refer to the group to which a person belongs as the in group and to other groups as the out group   
      Because of ethnocentrism, an out group that does things differently, or looks different, will often be seen as inferior   
      In groups are seen as having high cohesion   
      COHESION INCREASES AS GROUP MEMBERS SPEND TIME TOGETHER, & / OR WORK TOGETHER   
    Link
    Spending time together increases cohesion   
      Working together increases cohesion 
     
      Working at any task, forced or by free will, will increase cohesion   
      Working together voluntarily increases cohesion the most 
     
      OUTSIDE THREATS INCREASE COHESION   
    Link
    An outside threat can be so powerful on group dynamics that even groups or members that are hostile to each other may join / become cohesive to fight a common enemy 
     
      An outside threat, such as natural disaster or war, can serve as a unifying force in societies   
      CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE & COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP   
    Link
    Conformity is not cohesion   
      Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion   
      Conformity is adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )   
      Cohesion is to be of the same group   
      All cohesive groups have conformity, but a conforming group is not necessarily cohesive   

     
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    Cohesion defined
    To be united
    To hold fast, as parts of the same mass
    To be naturally or logically connected
    People willingly forming a unit
    Being consistent
    Holding together

     
    Top  
    Time together increases cohesion 

    Simply spending time w/ another,  /\ likelihood you will stand by them
    True for guard/prisoner relations, etc.


     
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    Outside threats /\ cohesion
    Outside threats pull people & groups together
    Conflict of interests, values, personality, etc. can lead to a division within a group. 
    Divisions can be minimized through outside threats
    Grade school teacher:  brown eyes   blue eyes
    Weathering a storm

     
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    Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion 

    Groups that are cohesive, conform
    But groups that conform, are not necessarily cohesive

    Factors that cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity
    However, the coercive factors demonstrated above generally do not cause cohesion


     
    Internal
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    Top

      Outline on     Group Size
    External
    Links
    Link
    1.  A DYAD IS TWO PEOPLE   
      A dyad is the smallest possible group   
      A dyad is Georg Simmel's term for a social group w/ two members   
      Social interaction in a dyad is typically intense & dyads are typically less stable than larger groups   
      For most people, the dyad is the basis of the strongest human bond   
      The dyad is the organizational form which has the most relationships that are delineated / protected by law   
      Examples of a dyad:  marriage, parent & child, friends, doctor & patient, etc.   
      2.  A TRIAD IS THREE PEOPLE   
      A triad is a social group w/ three members   
      Triads are more stable than dyads & any two members can form a majority coalition   
      One person can w/draw & you still have a group  
      In a triad, coalitions can be formed which can be balanced or unbalanced   
      If all the relationships in a triad are positive, the triad is said to be balanced  
      If one of the relationships in a triad turns negative, the triad is said to be unbalanced   
    Link
    3.  A SMALL GROUP IS MADE UP OF 3 TO 12 PEOPLE AS AN EFFECTIVE, SMALL, INFORMAL GROUP 
     
      Important changes occur in small groups such as coalitions forming   
      In a small group:   
      - it is common to have two or more coalitions   
      - unbalancing becomes more possible   
      - there is the need for the formal recognition of speakers   
      - people speak differently when talking to the group   
      - a leader often emerges   
      - opposition groups often emerge   
    Link
    4.  A MEDIUM GROUP IS MADE UP OF 12 TO 500 PEOPLE & IS INEFFECTIVE WHEN OPERATING AS A SMALL GROUP   
      Because a medium group is ineffective when operating as a small group, it therefore must formalize its operation   
      While a medium group must formalize its operation, it is still possible to know everyone, i.e. remain on personal level   
      In our society, most medium size groups are impersonal & thus have the characteristics of a large organizations   
      Without a formal org structure, medium groups are generally ineffective unless they are extremely cohesive   
      Most business & govt orgs in our society fall into the medium sized category   
    Link
    5.  A LARGE GROUP IS MADE UP OF OVER 500 PEOPLE & IT IS VERY DIFFICULT FOR ALL THE PEOPLE TO KNOW EACH OTHER  
      Because it is very difficult for all the people to know each other in a large group, this size group is characterized by impersonality   
      It is very difficult to personalize a large group   
      Studies have shown that the optimal maximum size for the most effective org is 500 people because w/ more than 500 people it is very difficult for all people to know each other & function cohesively   
      In our society, in most medium & even some small groups, we do not know each other   
      It is very difficult to be on a personal level, know, with more than 500 people in an org because 
    - there is not enough time to meet everyone 
    - people come & go & thus a high  % of the 500 people is always new 
     
      SOCIAL DIVERSITY:  RACE, CLASS, & GENDER, ETC. ALL CAN IMPACT GROUP DYNAMICS  
      There are many ways in which social diversity influences group contact   
      Large groups turn inward thereby limiting participation by outsiders   
      The larger a group, the more likely members  will maintain relationships only w/ other group members   
      Heterogeneous groups, i.e. those groups w/ diversity in their membership, are more likely to turn outward   
      The more internally heterogeneous a group, the more likely that its members will interact w/ outsiders   
      Physical boundaries foster social boundaries   
      Physical space affects the chances of contacts among groups   
      REFERENCE GROUPS INCLUDE THAT GROUP OF PEOPLE TO WHICH WE COMPARE OURSELVES   
      Stouffer's research on reference group dynamics showed that we do not make judgments about ourselves in isolation, nor do we compare ourselves with just anyone   
      IN GROUPS & OUT GROUPS ARE GROUPS TO WHICH WE BELONG, OR DO NOT BELONG, RESPECTIVELY   
      An in group is a social group commanding a member's esteem & loyalty   
      An out group, in contrast, is a social group toward which one feels competition or opposition   

     
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    1. Dyads 
    Smallest possible group
    What are some examples of a dyad?
    Mother      child                            Partners
    Parent       child                            Doctor     patient 
    Husband   wife                             Lawyer    client
    Best friends                                  Teacher   student

     
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    3. Small group
    size of btwn 7 & 12: 
    Examples?       Families       Friends       Businesses

     
    Top  
    4. Medium groups
    Examples?      Recreation groups       Businesses       Churches     Schools

     
    Top  
    5.  Large groups

    Nations,   Major Corporations,   Governments,   Governmental Agencies 


     
    Internal
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    Top

      Outline on   Human Formations    From Aggregates to Social Structures
    External
    Links
      Project:  Draw the Org Structure of an Org You Know 
    Link
      SUMMARY   
    Link
     Summary:  There are SIX fundamental types of human formations: 
    1.  Aggregate 
    2.  Social Group 
    3.  Formal Orgs 
    4.  Institutions 
    5.  Social Structures 
    6.   Networks 
     
      1.  AGGREGATE:  CLUSTER OF COMPLETELY UNRELATED, UNINVOLVED PEOPLE   
    Link
    An aggregate is a cluster of people who are not a group 
    -  informal structure 
    -  do not have a common purpose, or have a very limited common purpose 
    -  may interact but who do not have any division of roles & statuses 
    -  Example:  People waiting in line for a concert 
     
      2.  SOCIAL GROUPS:  HAVE A PURPOSE, NORMS, ROLES   
    Link
    Social groups are groups of people who are a 
    -  set of 2 or more: 
    -  interact regularly
    -  engaged in some common purpose 
    -  a set of norms 
    -  a structure of status's & roles 
     
      Most peer groups are informal groups   
      3.  FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS:  OFFICIAL PURPOSE & WRITTEN RULES   
      Formal organizations: 
    - large scale group 
    - has a name 
    - official purpose or goals 
    - structure of status's & roles 
    - set of rules to promote these goals 
    - rules are written 
    - self perpetuating 
    - leader (s)   &  authority structure (formal or informal) 
    - formal 
     
      The dominant type of formal organization in modern society is the bureaucracy   
      Formal orgs are large, secondary groups that are organized to achieve goals efficiently   
      4.  INSTITUTIONS:  A SET OF ORGS   
    Link
    An institution is a set of organizations   
      An institution is an enduring set of ideas about how to accomplish goals generally recognized as important in a society 
     
     
    Most societies have family, religious, economic, educational, healing, & political institutions that define the core of its way of life 
     
     
    Like most aspects of social life, institutions are experienced as external to the individuals who participate in them; but they are also shaped & changed by that participation 
     
     
    For example, the family in the US is still defined institutionally in terms of the nuclear family (a heterosexual, married couple w/ children), but as single parent families grow rapidly in number & lesbians & gays demand social recognition for marriages & parenthood, it is inevitable that the institution itself will change, however slowly 
     
      5.  SOCIAL STRUCTURES:  A SET OF INSTITUTIONS   
     
    A social structure is a  set of all the organizations & / or institutions in an area   
      Social structure is the patterned & relatively stable arrangement of roles & statuses found w/in societies & social institutions   
      The idea of social structure points out the way in which societies, & institutions w/in them, exhibit predictable patterns of organization, activity & social interaction   
      This relative stability of org & behavior provides the predictability that people rely on in every day social interaction   
      Social structures are inseparable from cultural norms & values that also shape status & social interaction   
      6.  NETWORKS:  A SYSTEM OR ARRANGEMENT OF ORGS   
     
    A network is a human formation which consists of any combination of the other human formations in a relatively organized, unified system which is formal & informal, but mostly informal 
     
     
    A network is a web of weak social ties 
     
     
    See Also:  The Strength of Weak Ties   
     
    A network is a "fuzzy" group 
     
     
    Some networks come close to being social groups 
     
     
    Network ties often give us the sense that we live in a "small world" 
     
      Network ties may be weak, but they can be a powerful resource   
      Some people have denser networks than others   
      Gender also shapes networks   
      HUMAN FORMATIONS DEFINED   
     
      A human formation is 
    -  a collectivity, 
    -  w/ somewhat of a boundary, 
    -  a normative order (formal & informal rules), 
    -  which exists relatively continuously, 
    -  in an environment, 
    -  pursues formal & informal goals, 
    -  & has outcomes for members, the organization & society 
     

     
    Top  
    1.  AGGREGATES

    An aggregate is a cluster of people who are not a group        Informal
    How might an aggregate become a group? 
    Some common experience that units them.
    Robbery, disaster, breakdown


     
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    2.  SOCIAL GROUPS
    Formal or informal
     People on a corner waiting for a stop light?

     
    Top  
    4.  INSTITUTIONS
    Institutions are sets of organizations
    Institutions exist w/in the social structures: 
          - a family:  Rockefellers
          - a religion or church:  Baptists
          - an educational institution:  UVa & UVaW
     
    Social structure:     (PF REG M CEML)
    1.   Peers
    2.   Family
    3.    Religion 
    4.    Work / econ
    5.    Govt
    6.   Military
    7.   Charity
    8.   Media
    9.    Education
    10.   Recreation / leisure
    Institution: 
    a generation
    a family:  the Rockefellers
    a religion:  Baptists
    a workplace:  IBM
    a govt:  state of VA
    a military:  VA National Guard
    a charity:  the Red Cross
    a media outlet:  the NY Times
    a school:  Harvard
    a recreational institution:  baseball

    Institutions are both formal & informal, but mostly formal


     
    Internal
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      Outline on  Etzioni's   Organizational Typologies
    External
    Links
       Etzioni believes there are THREE fundamental types of orgs including normative, utilitarian, & coercive orgs   
      A.  NORMATIVE ORGS PURSUE MORAL INTERESTS W/ HUMANITARIAN METHODS   
      Normative orgs have members who are primarily interested in the organization's purpose or activity   
             Voluntary orgs, etc.         Red Cross, church, bicycle club, etc.   
      In normative orgs people pursue goals they consider morally worthwhile   
      B.  UTILITARIAN ORGS PURSUE RATIONAL GOALS W/ RATIONAL METHODS   
      Utilitarian orgs are primarily designed to accomplish some task   
             Business orgs, etc.          Microsoft   
      People join utilitarian orgs in pursuit of material reward   
      While the typical business firm has a calculative, self interest incentive, the voluntary organization has a moral incentive 
     
      C.  COERCIVE ORGS SEEK CONTROL ORIENTED GOALS W/ FORCE ORIENTED METHODS   
      Coercive org's members are compelled to participate
     
              Prisons, etc.                     Red Onion  
      Coercive orgs are distinguished by involuntary membership  
      IN PRACTICE, MOST ORGS ARE PREDOMINATELY NORMATIVE, UTILITARIAN, OR COERCIVE BUT HAVE SECONDARY QUALS OF ALL   
      Etzioni identified moral involvement, calculative involvement, & alienative involvement on the part of lower participants as they comply w/ the various forms of power used  
      People in normative orgs comply w/ org demands based on moral imperatives  
      Compared to the hierarchical leadership structure of a business firm, the voluntary organization is more collegial  
      People in utilitarian orgs comply w/ org demands based on calculative self interest  
      Whereas a voluntary organization almost always has a turbulent environment, a business organization's environment is frequently more stable  
      Compared to the goals of a business, the goals of a voluntary organization are difficult to quantify  
      People in coercive orgs comply w/ org demands based on alienative coercion or force  
    Link
    Etzioni recognizes that lower level participants comply in orgs for a variety of reasons  
      Etzioni's analysis demonstrates that when orgs can develop moral involvement, members will have a higher commitment to the org  

     
    Top
    Examples of a variety of reasons for complying in an org
    Children generally admire teachers, normative compliance
    But teachers use punishment:  alienative coercion / force
    & teachers use rewards, & reward of career, success:  calculative self interest

     
    Internal
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     Outline on  Organizational Evolution
    External
    Links
        -  Project:  Orgl Evolution
    Link
     
     
    -  Video: Lou Dobbs on the Power of NGOs    May 4, 2004   3:47
    Link
        ORGS HAVE EVOLVED OVER TIME, DEVELOPING AS A RESULT OF THE INTERACTION OF PRIOR ORGL STAGES & OTHER SOCIETAL FACTORS SUCH AS CULTURE, POLITICS, ETC.   
        Orgs have evolved over time
     
        The structure of each type of organization today is affected by its socio historical origins
     
        The times of emergence for orgl formations are the time at which the org emerged as a relatively autonomous entity
     
        Almost all of the organizational formations listed below existed earlier, nested w/in another org  
     
    Historical Era
    OVERVIEW OF THE EVOLUTION OF ORGS
     
     
    1.  Geologic Era  
     
     
    2.  Pre Human 
         Evolutionary Era
    1.  PEER GROUPS ARE PEOPLE OF THE SAME OR EQUAL RANK W/ REGARD TO ANY NUMBER OF QUALS
     
        Peer groups develop as the practice of social cooperation evolves in the context of a competitive evolutionary dynamic  
        The family / clan was the first human formation/organization to evolve after peer grouping  
     
    3.  Hunter Gatherer Era Our ancestors lived together in small hunter gatherer tribes, & spanned most of the globe
     
     
     1.5 mm BC - 10K BC
    2.  FAMILY / CLAN:  A FAMILY IS PARENTS & THEIR CHILDREN, POSSIBLY W/ SEVERAL GENERATIONS; A CLAN IS GROUPS OF FAMILIES 
     
     
     
    The family / clan is the first human formation/organization
     
     
     
    The family is the oldest & most important organization
     
     
     
    Religion, military, charity, & the company/enterprise developed almost simultaneously w/in the clan
     
     
     
    The orgs of the clan, religion, the military, charity, & the company/enterprise were all one org w/in the clan that developed as separate entities later in history
     
    Internal
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     4.  Pre Empire Era "The dawn of civilization" occurs around 10,000 BC in Northeast Africa & the Middle East
    External
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     10 K BC - 3 K BC
    3.  RELIGIOUS ORGS ARE STRUCTURED TO BRING THE DEVOUT TOGETHER TO ACHIEVE THEIR WORSHIP GOALS 
     
     
     
    Religious leaders were often closely tied to the city state govt, but also frequently to the military
     
     
     
    Thus, as civilization advanced, the govt, the military, & religion became the nexus of social power
     
        4.  THE ECONOMY IS A SYSTEM OF ORGS WHICH AIMS TO CREATE PRODUCTION & / OR WEALTH   
        The workplace, company, or enterprise develop  
        As civilization began, the social structure of work was predominately, marginally, supra subsistence herding & agriculture  
        Work first developed as the family business  
        In early HG society, work could only produce subsistence level existence, precluding slavery or assistance to the weak, old, or infirm  
        5.  GOVT IS A SYSTEM OF ORGS WHICH ADMINISTERS WHAT THE PEOPLE DETERMINE TO BE THE PUBLIC DUTY OF THE STATE   
     
     
    CITY STATE:  While the tribal system is the first form of govt, the city state is, while still marginally linked to the family social structure, primarily independent of the tribal system
     
     
     
    Babylon, etc.
     
     
     
    Religion, military, charity, the company/enterprise, & the city state all emerged as relatively autonomous entities almost simultaneously w/ the dawn of civilization
     
        6.  THE MILITARY IS A SYSTEM OF ORGS WHICH DEFENDS THE PEOPLE & / OR THE STATE   
        The military remained wholly integrated w/ the city state govt & there was pratically no separation among many of the early social structures   
        7.  CHARITY IS A SYSTEM OF ORGS WHICH FORMED TO ASSIST NEEDY PEOPLE   
        Charity began in wholly integrated in religious orgs, but became separate during the period of the early industrial revolution   
     
    5.  Early Empire Era The first important empires are formed in Sumeria Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc. 
     
     
     3 K BC - 200 BC
    The primary forms of authority / organization in early civilization were based on charisma & tradition, but the first rational organizational structure also emerges, the bureaucracy
     
     
     
    BUREAUCRACY:  Bureaucracy emerges, to eventually evolve, during the early Industrial Revolution, into the most important form of organization since the family
     
     
     
    THE STATE:  Some city states grow to become what would be recognized today as nation states
     
     
    6.  Roman Era Social tolerance becomes a state policy, fostering growth of the empire  
     
    200 BC - 500 AD
    Leisure & recreation become a major part of Roman society, but fall w/ the Roman Empire, not to be seen again until the mid Ind Age  
     
     
    Limited forms of democracy develop & fall will the Roman Empire
     
     
    7.  Middle Ages After the "fall of the Roman Empire," the "Dark Ages" begin in the West, while the Mideast continues modern development
     
     
    500 - 1300
    8.  EDUCATION IS A SYSTEM OF ORGS WHICH FORMED TO EDUCATE PEOPLE   
     
     
    Private education is, at first, only for the wealthy & for women primarily is concerned w/ etiquette while public education develops in the Industrial Age
     
        9.  THE MEDIA IS A SYSTEM OF ORGS WHICH FORMED TO EXPLORE & PUBLISH PUBLIC AFFAIRS INFO, ESP THE NEWS   
     
     
    A limited print media in the form of newspapers develops & continues to slowly develop as technology allows & as the middle class gains enough disposable wealth to purchase it
     
     
     
    The media & private education were at first, only for the elites
     
     
     
    In the late Mid Ages or Early Indl Age, the instits of ed & the media began to become available to an emergent middle class
     
     
     
    THE CORPORATION:  Early corps were closely held by groups of wealthy investors
     
     
     
    Example:  The Dutch Trading Co
     
      8.  Early Industrial Age The "proto factory" develops
     
     
    1300 to 1700
    The division of labor, intellectual property, guilds, monopolization, wage labor, profit, capitalism, all become important developments
     
      9.  Industrial Age The "Industrial Revolution" & "Globalization" begin, catalyzing the development of the corp  
     
     1700 to present
    PUBLIC EDUCATION:  Public ed becomes available to the mid class, but at first women, some religions, non whites, etc.  were excluded  
        Public ed begins during the indl age   
        Widespread public education for the mid class begins in the US & Europe & spreads around the world  
        SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:  Social movements develop during the Industrial Age  
        Early soc mvmt include the democratic revolutions & the labor mvmt  
        Contemporary social movements include the civil rights movement, the women's movement, the anti war movement, the environmental movement, & many more  
        10.  LEISURE & RECREATION IS A SYSTEM OF ORGS WHICH PROVIDES RECREATION FOR PEOPLE IN THEIR SPARE TIME   
        Leisure & recreation become part of everyday life for the middle class, & thus become available for the middle class, fostering a new dynamic sector of the economy  
    Internal
    Links
     10. Era of 
            Global Capitalism
    The effects of the Industrial Revolution & Globalization have become pervasive & substantial around the globe
    External
    Links
     
    1910 to present
    MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS ARE THOSE ORGS CONSISTING OF SEVERAL PEOPLE, LEGALLY EMPOWERED TO ACT AS ONE, TO CONDUCT BUSINESS, GENERALLY THROUGHOUT MANY NATIONS   
        While early forms of the multinational corp existed centuries earlier, the truly multinational form developed in the West in the early 1900s  
        UN  
        The League of Nations first developed after WW 1  
     
     
    The UN developed after WW 2
     
     
     
    GLOBAL REGULATORY STRUCTURES ARE THOSE AGENCIES FORMED BY SEVERAL NATIONS, & / OR THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY WHICH ARE EMPOWERED TO GOVERN ACCORDING TO AGREED UPON RULES 
     
     
     
    Global regulatory structures developed after WW 2 
     
        Examples of global regulatory structures include the World Bank, the IMF, GATT, etc. 
     
        Network / charity / social orgs develop as an evolution of social mvmts   
        NGO stands for non governmental organization  
        Examples of NGOs which have a global influence include everything from OPEC to the Red Cross, to Amnesty International, to the Sierra Club   
      11. Post Industrial Age The first industrial nations experience "deindustrialization" & move to service & high tech economies  
     
     1970 to present
    TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS ARE THOSE ORGS THAT ARE EVEN MORE GLOBALIZED THAN MULTINATIONAL CORPS   
        Transnational corporations are those that have globalized & that have totally integrated into the system of an international division of labor  
        Examples of transnational corporations include GE, GM, IBM, Toyota, BP, etc.  
        TRADING BLOCKS ARE NATIONS WHICH AGREE TO HAVE FREE TRADE OR LITTLE TRADE RESTRICTION   
        In the 1990s the many trading blocks such as NAFTA, EU, ASEAN developed   
        SUPRANATIONAL CORPORATIONS ARE THE MOST GLOBALIZED FORM OF CORPS, WHICH OFTEN HAVE NO TIES TO ANY NATION   
        Supranational corporations are those that have all the globalized features of the transnational corporation, but have lost any national allegiances & culture   
        All transnational corporations are evolving into supranational corporations because of the structure of the global economy   
        An example of a supranational corporation is Fox   
     
    12. The Future THE POSSIBILITY OF WORLD GOVT IS ONLY BEGINNING AS SEEN IN A FEW GLOBAL REGULATORY AGENCIES 
     
     
      Most organizational experts believe some type of world govt will evolve in the future 
     
     
      Orgl experts vary widely on the extent to which they believe supranational corps & orgs, NGOs, the UN & other forms of globalized organizations will continue to gain power & dominate the everyday life of humanity 
     
        THE ORIGINS OF FORMAL ORGS ARE ANCIENT BUT IT IS ONLY IN THE LAST FEW CENTURIES THAT THEY HAVE BEGUN TO DOMINATE SOCIETY, ESP IN THE FORM OF CORPS   
        The origins of formal orgs date back thousands of years & their development spans all of human history   
        The efficiency of early formal orgs was limited   
        In early formal orgs, people lacked the technology to travel over large distances, to communicate quickly, & to collect & store information on a large scale   
        Preindustrial societies usually have a traditional character which often results in opposition to the rationalization of orgs & other spheres of  society   
        See Also:  Weber:  A  Comparison of Charismatic, Traditional, & Rational Authority   
        Tradition, according to Max Weber, is sentiments & beliefs about the world passed  from generation to generation   
        Weber pointed out that the modern worldview is rationality, deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient means to accomplish a particular task   
        The rise of the “organizational society” rests on what Weber termed the rationalization of society, the historical change from tradition to rationality as the dominant mode of human thought  
        The transition from traditional to rational mode of thought on the societal level lays the groundwork for the orgl structure called bureaucracy  

     
    Internal
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    Top

      Outline on    Bureaucratic Orgs & Rational Authority   by Max Weber
    External
    Links
      -  Project:  Weber on Rational / Bureaucratic Orgs
    Link
      -  Project:  Your Bureaucracy
    Link
      -  Video:  The Corporation 
    Link
      -  Project:  Video:  The Corporation & Bureaucracy
    Link
     
    There are THREE types authority
    a. Rational or bureaucratic authority 
    b. Traditional
    c. Charismatic
     
     
    Weber's definition of bureaucracy is an "ideal type"
    i.e., an abstract definition based on a set of characteristics
    i.e., a pure type
     
      Bureaucracy is an orgl model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently  
     
    Weber developed, what may be called, a functionalist analysis of bureaucracy
     
     
    Bureaucracy, for Weber, is the development of legal / rational authority in social life
     
     
    For Weber, bureaucracies exhibit formal rationality, which means decisions are made purely on the basis of following the rules & procedures in order to accomplish organizational goals
     
    Link
    For Weber, conceived as a pure type, the modern bureaucratic org has nine distinctive characteristics
    1.  Division of Labor  2.  Hierarchy 3.  Rules  4.  Merit System  5.  Mgt 6.  Tenure 
    7.  Wages & Salaries  8.  Technical Competence  9.  Formal Communications
     
     
    1.  DIVISION OF LABOR IS THE ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION BASED ON SPECIALIZED POSITIONS
     
     
    In a bureaucracy, positions may require technical qualifications that require training (OJT or higher ed)
     
     
    Bureaucracy consists of positions bound by rules
     
     
    Positions have specialized spheres of competence w/ set of obligations & authority to carry it out
     
     
    2.  HIERARCHY IS AUTHORITY SPECIFIED VIA A TOP DOWN CHAIN OF COMMAND 
     
      In a bureaucracy there is a hierarchy of offices & positions  
     
    Each official in a hierarchy has specific scope of authority
     
     
    In a hierarchical bureaucracy, each position commands those below it & takes commands from those above it
     
      The bureaucratic characteristics of the division of labor & hierarchy results in the pyramidal shaped org w/ which we are all familiar  
     
    Note:  militaristic chain of command
     
      3.  RULES ARE PRINCIPLES MADE TO GUIDE & CONTROL ACTION; STANDARDS OR REGULATIONS   
     
    Rules include administrative acts & decisions that are formulated & recorded in writing
     
      Rules are usually written today, but this is a recent innovation  
      In most forms of organization, including bureaucracy, there are many informal, i.e. unwritten rules  
     
    4.  A MERIT SYSTEM IS EVALUATION ON THE BASIS OF ACHIEVEMENT 
     
     
    Impersonality & universality in the merit system holds that people should be evaluated on the basis of achievement
     
     
    5.  THE JOB OF MANAGEMENT & ADMINISTRATION IS COORDINATION 
     
      In early orgs, mgt was often done by the owner who many times was also a worker, who usually had the 'master' status   
      As orgs became larger, mgt was separated from the workers, but usually the owner still participated in mgt   
      Today there are some large orgs where the owner has little or no mgt duties; the owner hires a mgr just as they would a worker  
     
    6.  TENURE MEANS HAVING A LIFELONG CAREER / JOB SECURITY 
     
      Job security / tenure has not been widely practiced in US since the Reagan era ( 1980s ) of downsizing began   
     
    7.  PAYING WAGES / SALARIES WAS A COMPENSATION INNOVATION WHEN COMPARED TO PIECE WORK, DAILY PAY, BARTER, OR 'UNCOMPENSATED' WORK BASED ON TRADITION, E.G. SERFS, SLAVES, ETC. 
     
      Paying wages / salaries developed in the late middle ages since before that most people were either owners or unpaid serfs, peasants, etc.  
      Before bureaucratization, salaried positions were often bought but Weber believed that bureaucratization should eliminate this practice, & it did   
      8.  TECHNICAL COMPETENCE IS THE POSSESSION OF SKILL BASED ON EDUCATION & / OR EXTENSIVE TRAINING   
    Technical competence is the ability to do the job whether that is an actual technology related job or an admin job  
      As the division of labor advances, the degree of technical competence also increases in that expertise rises & versatility falls & experts have less ability to talk & work together   
      Traditional methods of education, training, & certification are being rationalized to ensure people are technically competent   
      9.  FORMAL, WRITTEN COMMUNICATION IS THE PRACTICE OF RECORDING COMMUNICATIONS IN A FORMALIZED, STANDARDIZED MANNER   
      Formal, written communication is seen in the practice policy of writing everything down in order to allow all relevant parties to have access to the info   
      The present era is an info era in that more info is available to more people than ever before both because people generate more info & because that info is available to more people   
      The practice of formal, written communications by bureaucracies is the cause of the privacy crisis; for example, many orgs know more about a person than that person knows about themselves   
      WEBER BELIEVES BUREAUCRACY IS THE MOST POWERFUL SOCIAL INVENTION SINCE THE FAMILY & RELIGION   
      Though modern people equate bureaucracy w/ red tape & inefficiency, bureaucracy is the most efficient form of organization ever devised   
      Weber saw rationalization as one of the most significant trends in modern society, & bureaucracy was the means by which it occurs   
      Rational authority is based on a claim by leaders, acknowledged by the followers, that decisions made in the organizations are the most efficient in achieving the goals of the organization   
     
    For Weber, Boeing is a rational, bureaucratic organization 
     
     
    The dominant type of organization in modern society is the bureaucracy, i.e. the bureaucracy has great power, it is the most common, & is becoming more common 
     
     
    Bureaucracy is one example of the rationalization of society 
     
     
    Bureaucracy / rationalization is replacing tradition, religion, common sense & all other methods of knowledge & organization 
     
     
    For Weber, bureaucracy was modeled after the Prussian military 
     
     
    Historically speaking, bureaucracy is the most efficient system of organization 
     
     
    Compare it to your family, church or unorganized group of people trying to accomplish a task 
     
     
    Bureaucracy has displaced force, patrimony, loyalty, graft, corruption, etc. as methods of organization 
     
     
    BUREAUCRACIES ARE EFFECTIVE FOR THREE REASONS, INCLUDING THE ELIMINATION OF IRRATIONAL AUTHORITY, A FOCUS ON TASKS, & COORDINATION
     
     
    a.  Bureaucracy eliminates charismatic & traditional forms of authority which are usually seen as personal favoritism, nepotism, ethnocentrism, etc. 
     
     
    b.  Bureaucracy identifies tasks that need to be done & assigns someone to do them, & monitors how well they get done 
     
     
    c.  Bureaucracy provides a way to coordinate activities of a large number of people so that each effort contributes to the common task, goal or product rather than to individual tasks, or rather than working at cross purposes 
     
     
    But there are also many inefficiencies of bureaucracy which overlap w/ many of the inefficiencies of the division of labor 
     
     
    Bureaucracy destroys meaning & reason for work, people become interchangeable components 
     
     
    For Weber, the bureaucratic organization is ‘the worst form of organization except for every other kind.’ 
     

     
    Internal
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    Outline on   Organizational Departments 
    External
    Links
      Organizations today are rational, bureaucratic, corporations which are organized into departments   
     Link
    In general, the corporation today is organized into TWELVE departments, but there may be more or less.  They are listed in approximate order of historical appearance   
     
    1.  OPERATIONS   
      Originally the owner was the manager in charge of operations   
      Operations had the most influence in early organizations   
      2.  ENGINEERING   
      3.  MARKETING   
      4.  FINANCE   
      5.  ACCOUNTING   
      6.  SALES   
      Sales has the most influence in orgs today   
      In the 1970s, Perrow believed the sales department had the most power in organizations, but he believes that today management has the most power   
      7.  ADVERTISING   
      8.  PERSONNEL   
      9.  PURCHASING   
      10.  RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT   
      11.  SHIPPING / DISTRIBUTION   
      12.  MANAGEMENT / ADMINISTRATION   
      INFORMAL STRUCTURES PERMEATE & LINK THE FORMAL STRUCTURES / DEPTS OF ORGS   
      The informal structure is made up of the things people actually do on a day to day basis in an organization   
      The informal structure operates in contrast to what the official rules say organizational members should do   
      The informal communications system in an org is also known as the grape vine   
      The grape vine is made up of the communications that occur outside of the formal channels of communication   
      The grape vine can either support or hinder the operation of the formal or informal org structures   
      PYRAMIDAL STRUCTURES ARE THE MOST COMMON & TYPICALLY DEPICT A HIERARCHY OF AUTHORITY   
      Org depts are typically organized into the traditional orgl pyramid   
      There are THREE basic types of pyramidal structures which organize the departments   
      In the functional design the departments are organized based on what they do   
      In the geographic design the departments are organized based on where they are located   
      In the matrix design the departments are organized on functional & managerial lines   

     
    Internal
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    Top

     Outline on the  Dysfunctions of Bureaucracy
    External
    Links
      -  Supplement:  President Dwight D. Eisenhower:  Farewell Radio & Television Address to the American People.       January 17, 1961 
    Link
      -  Video:  Why We Fight:  Now:  David Brancaccio analyzes the reasons we fight.         February, 2006       13:48 & 9:12 
    Link
      -  Project:  Video: Why We Fight:  The Dysfuncions of Bureaucracy 
    Link
      WHILE BUREAUCRACY IS A NEUTRAL TOOL, & ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL INSTITUTIONS, & ONE OF THE MOST PERVASIVE INSTITUTIONS TODAY, IT DOES HAVE MANY WEAKNESSES / DYSFUNCTIONS   
      Bureaucracy is a neutral human tool 
    Bureaucracy's positive features include its unsurpassed efficiency 
    Bureaucracy's negative features include its capacity for inefficiency & error 
     
      There are TWELVE dysfunctions of bureaucracy: 
    1.  Decision Avoidance 
    2.  Ritualism 
    3.  Trained Incapacity 
    4.  Self perpetuation & Goal Displacement 
    5.  Tendency to Expand 
    6.  Alienation of workers 
    7.  Groupthink 
    8.  Group Polarization 
    9.  Oligarchy 
    10.  Red Tape 
    11.  Systems Failures / Catastrophe 
    12.  Rationalization 
     
    Link
    See Also:  The Chart of Bureaucratic Dysfunctions   
      The Chart on Bureaucratic Dysfunctions demonstrates that bureaucracies have a wide range of serious weaknesses that may result in inefficiency, domination, or riskiness   
     
    1.  DECISION AVOIDANCE OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE IN ORGS ONLY MAKE ROUTINE DECISIONS WHERE THEY MIGHT BENEFIT & NOT BE PUNISHED 
     
    blank
    Decision avoidance is usually practiced by lower or mid level people in an org because they do not have the expertise to make the decision 
     
      Decision avoidance is practiced by lower or mid level people in an org because they do not wish to take responsibility for the decision   
      Decision avoidance is often practiced when lower or mid level people in an org perceive little reward & / or a high risk   
     
    2.  RITUALISM IS THE PROCESS OF PLACING THE PROCEDURES OF THE ORG AHEAD OF THE PURPOSES FOR WHICH THE PROCEDURES WERE DESIGNED 
     
      Merton coined the term bureaucratic ritualism to describe a preoccupation w/ rules & regulations to the point of thwarting an org's goals   
      Ritualism is following all the rules all the time   
      Research has shown that very few workers in organizations develop ritualistic behaviors   
      Parkinson's Laws, which are tongue in cheek business admonitions, are often based on the concept of  ritualism   
      According to Parkinson's Law work expands to fill the time available   
      Robert Merton developed the concept of the bureaucratic personality, which essentially means rule follower 
     
      William Whyte developed the concept of the organization man, which essentially means rule follower 
     
     
    3.  TRAINED INCAPACITY OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE HAVE A NARROW RANGE OF TRAINING SO THEY CANNOT DEAL W/ ANY ISSUES OUTSIDE OF THEIR PURVIEW 
     
      Trained incapacity is the organizational dysfunction whereby because people are trained in extremely narrow fields, they cannot respond to unfamiliar situations 
     
      Trained incapacity is the failure to adapt to new conditions   
      Trained incapacity often occurs when people in bureaucracies are faced with an unfamiliar situation, they try to fit the situation into an area for which they do have guidelines   
      In 1921, Veblin found that people may be well trained, but they are usually not taught to handle unfamiliar situations 
     
      People in bureaucracies try to force the situation fit one within the guidelines 
     
      Individuals in orgs do not make bold or innovative decisions, because it implicitly challenges "the way we do things" 
     
      Trained incapacity means people in orgs are socialized to try to fit decisions into the old patterns, or are taught to kick them upstairs 
     
      People in bureaucracies do not adapt well to change 
     
      Note:  A liberal arts education combats the dysfunction of trained incapacity because it is designed to create independent thinkers 
     
     
    See Also:  Hurricane Andrew   
     
    See Also:  USS Vincennes   
     
    4.  SELF PERPETUATION & GOAL DISPLACEMENT OCCURS WHEN ORGS CHOOSE SURVIVAL OVER ALL OTHER GOALS, & DISPLACE THEIR ORIGINAL GOALS FOR ANY GOALS THAT WILL HELP THEM SURVIVE 
     
      The organizational dysfunction of self perpetuation & goal displacement denotes that frequently the overriding org focus becomes survival at all costs  
     
    Goal displacement occurs when the original goals of the organization are subverted and the primary goal quickly becomes preservation of the organization
     
     
    Examples:  The US Calvary;  WTU & the YWCA
     
     
    5.  THE TENDENCY TO EXPAND OCCURS WHEN ORGS PURSUE EXPANSION OVER EFFICIENCY OR NEED 
     
      The orgl dysfunction of the tendency to expand is the orgl dysfunction whereby the org puts the goal of expansion ahead of its original purpose  
     
    Bureaucrats frequently are not rewarded directly on outputs or profits, but on such bureaucratic indicators as the number of people managed, the size of the budget, etc.
     
     
    Because prestige for administrators is often determined by the number of people supervised, a common administrative goal is to gain more workers
     
      Bureaucratic inertia refers to the tendency of  bureaucratic orgs to perpetuate themselves  
     
    Parkinson's Law:  Example: Computers do not save time, $  
     
    6.  THE ALIENATION OF WORKERS OCCURS WHEN THE WORKERS ARE NOT CONNECTED TO THE ORG IN ANY SENSE EXCEPT A MONETARY SENSE 
     
     
    As defined by Karl Marx, alienation is the separation or isolation of workers from the products of their labor, or more broadly, the feelings or experience of isolation, powerlessness, or loss of control
     
     
    Marx found that alienation is the result of separating the worker from the process of the work (control) the product the surplus other workers
     
      Weber was also keenly aware of bureaucracy's potential to dehumanize the people it is supposed to serve  
     
    Alienated workers are unmotivated
     
     
    Alienated workers become separated from their "humanity"
     
     
    For Marx, bureaucracy only meets the needs of the rich and powerful
     
     
    See Also:  Alienation  
     
    7.  GROUPTHINK OCCURS WHEN PEOPLE CHOOSE, W/O CRITICAL THOUGHT, TO TAKE THE GROUP'S POSITION DESPITE MISGIVINGS 
     
     
    The organizational dysfunction of groupthink is the process whereby a group collectively arrives at a decision that individual members privately oppose but do not challenge
     
     
    Groupthink is the result of over conformity & cohesion
     
     
    Groupthink happens in small, cohesive groups w/ powerful leaders
     
     
    Under conditions of groupthink, people with different opinions do not want to break cohesion or challenge a leader 
     
     
    Examples: 
     
      Lyndon Johnson's Vietnam Policy  
     
    See Also:  Bay of Pigs invasion  
     
    Counter Example:  Cuban Missile Crisis
     
     
    See Also:  Space Shuttle Challenger explosion  
     
    8.  GROUP POLARIZATION OCCURS WHEN MEMBERS OF AN ORG MOVE TO EXTREME POSITIONS RATHER THAN MOVING TOWARD COMPROMISE 
     
      The organizational dysfunction of group polarization occurs because groups tend to make decisions that are extreme, rather than the middle or compromise decisions  
      Group polarization is the process in which a group moves toward a stronger position or more extreme course of action than its members individually favor  
      Group polarization may be though of as the orgl  "Digression from the Mean"  
      One type of group polarization is the risky shift  
      The effects of group polarization were first discovered in the form of the risky shift   
      The type of group polarization called the risky shift occurs when groups make decisions that are more unsafe or extreme than those that members would make individually   
      Examples:  young men on a night out;  lower level employees in high reliability organizations:  firefighters, etc.   
      One type of group polarization is the cautious shift   
      The type of group polarization called the cautious shift occurs when groups make decisions that are more conservative than those that members would make individually   
      Examples:  The Bureaucratic Personality, The Organization Man   
      9.  OLIGARCHY OCCURS WHEN AN ORG IS RUN / MANAGED BY A FEW PEOPLE WHO HAVE CONCENTRATED POWER   
      The organizational dysfunction of oligarchy occurs when power becomes concentrated in the hands of a few people  
      See Also:  Michels' Iron Law of Oligarchy   
      10.  RED TAPE IS THE COMMON USAGE NAME FOR THE INTRICATE PROCEDURES / FORMS THAT MUST BE FOLLOWED IN MANY ORGS   
      The organizational dysfunction of red tape occurs because orgl decisions are much slower than individual decisions  
     
    Org decisions may take months, even years or decades
     
     
    Many times decision are purposely buried in red tape so that an unpopular or dangerous decision does not have to be made
     
     
    Thus some red tape is really decision avoidance
     
     
    Criticism of the govt response to the hurricane disaster of 2005 pointed to the problem of bureaucratic inefficiency
     
     
    The failure of a formal organization to carry out it's work as illustrated by the response to Hurricane Katrina is a familiar problem, & illustrated in the concept of red tape
     
     
    11.  SYSTEM FAILURES / CATASTROPHES OCCURS AS A RESULT OF "SWISS CHEESE" ERRORS & CASCADING ERRORS 
     
      Swiss cheese errors occur when several factors line up to magnify a problem such as when a pilot is tired, turns over duties to a co-pilot, who does not have experience w/ in a particular location, & thus makes an error (Exxon Valdez, 1989)  
      In a Swiss cheese error, several weaknesses in the system 'line up' to create the error; any one of them could probably be overcome   
      Cascading errors occur when one error leads to a worse error, which leads to a worse error, etc. as when wkrs make a mistake in the test run of a power plant which causes overheating, when they attempt to cool the plant, it causes a small explosion, when they attempt to deal w/ the fire, they blow the electrical system, etc.  (Chernobyl, 1986)   
      In a cascading error, w/o the first error in the chain of events, it is unlikely the other errors would have occurred   
     
    The orgl dysfunction of system failures /catastrophes occurs because complex orgs create complex disasters 
     
     
    Modern major disasters always have a strong orgl component 
     
     
    Systems failures occur because of cascading errors and trained incapacity 
     
     
    Perrow has come to call systems failures "normal accidents" because modern people have come to accept that complex systems will fail 
     
     
    See Also: Perrow's Normal Accidents 
     
      See Also: The Organizational Component of   9 - 11   
      12.  RATIONALIZATION CAN COME TO DOMINATE AN ORG'S DECISIONS ESCHEWING ALL OTHER FACTORS, SUCH AS THE HUMAN OR ENVL COSTS   
      The organizational dysfunction of rationalization occurs because logic is only one way of knowing, and when it displaces other ways of knowing the organization experiences the weaknesses & threats associated which a loss of knowledge / understanding   
      Weber held that through rationalization, bureaucracies are specifically designed to address the problems inherent in charismatic & traditionally based orgs, however, this destroys humanity, "enchantment"   
      Weber described bureaucracy as an iron cage   
      Examples of the rationalization of orgs displacing other ways of operating can be seen when: 
    -  chain stores have a difficult time giving personal service 
    -  large universities cannot offer individual attention to students 
    -  the Bank of America cannot take character into account for a loan 
    -  modern doctors in HMOs do not know their patients 
     
      See Also: Weber on the Disenchantment of the World   
      See Also: Post Modernism   
      NOT INCLUDED from Hodson & Sullivan: top heavy mgt, centralization & control of the econ, ruling elite, reduced creativity, rigidity, corp accountability, externalizing costs   

     
    Top  
    The Chart of Bureaucratic Dysfunctions 
    Type of Dysfunction
    Description
      1.  Decision Avoidance   Only make routine decisions
      2.  Ritualism: The Bureaucratic Personality   Only follow the rules
      3.  Trained Incapacity   Trained in extremely narrow field
      4.  Self Perpetuation & Goal Displacement   Overriding org focus = survival @ all costs
      5.  Tendency to Expand   Org puts expansion goal ahead of original purpose
      6.  Alienation of Workers   Wkrs not connected to org;
      Wkrs separated from their "humanity"
      7.  Groupthink   Over conformity & cohesion
      8.  Group Polarization   Digression from the mean
      9.  Oligarchy   Power becomes concentrated
      10.  Red Tape   Too many rules to follow, stifling action
      11.  System Failure / Catastrophe   Complex orgs = complex disasters
      12.  Rationalization   Planning at the expense of intuitive action may lead to alienation
    The Chart on Bureaucratic Dysfunctions demonstrates that bureaucracies have a wide range of serious weaknesses that may result in inefficiency, domination, or riskiness

     
    Internal
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    Outline on the     Iron Law of Oligarchy    by Robert Michels
    External
    Links
      -  Project:  Michels' Iron Law of Oligarchy 
    Link
     
    INTRO:  THE IRON LAW OF OLIGARCHY HOLDS THAT ALL ORGS WILL DEVOLVE TO BEING RULED BY A FEW 
     
      'Oli' means few   
      Oligarchy is the tendency to be ruled by a few 
     
     
    Oligarchy is rule by a small group of leaders w/ little or no effective influence on the part of its members   
      Oligarchy is a small group of people who rule  w/ absolute power   
      The term oligopoly is commonly used to describe a group of dominate businesses, that are not a monopoly, but together, control an entire market:  e.g. airlines, steel, auto, etc.   
      See Also:  Forms of Govt   
      THE IRON LAW OF OLIGARCHY POSITS THAT POWER & AUTHORITY IN ORGS TENDS TO BE CONCENTRATED IN THE HANDS OF A FEW TOP PEOPLE, WHICH DOMHOFF LATER COMES TO CALL THE 'DOMINANT COALITION'   
      Michels pointed out the link btwn bureaucracy & political oligarchy, the rule of the many by the few   
      Michels conceived of the idea of the iron law of oligarchy in 191l 
     
      The "iron law of oligarchy" refers to the pyramid shape of bureaucracy placing a few leaders in charge of orgl resources   
      In any organization, power becomes concentrated in hands of the leaders, who may then use that power to protect their own interests   
      The iron law of oligarchy holds that even in democratic orgs, democracy devolves into oligarchy   
      For Michels & many other social theorists, power has a self perpetuating aspect   
     
    Michels found that the socialist parties of Europe, despite their democratic ideology & provisions for mass participation, seemed to be dominated by their leaders, just like the tradl conservative parties 
     
      Studying political parties, Michels concluded that the problem lay in the very nature of orgs   
      Modern democracy allowed the formation of orgs such as political parties, but as such orgs grew in complexity, they paradoxically became less & less democratic  
      The iron law of oligarchy states that all forms of org, regardless of how democratic or autocratic they may be at the start, will eventually & inevitably develop into oligarchies   
      THE OLIGARCHIC PROCESSES OCCUR AS A FEW PEOPLE GAIN POWER VIA THE DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY, ACCESS TO RESOURCES, LEGITIMACY, INCUMBENCY, & THE PURSUIT OF SELF INTEREST   
      The reasons for the development of oligarchy are the technical indispensability of leadership, the tendency of the leaders to organize themselves & to consolidate their interests; the gratitude of the led towards the leaders, & the general immobility & passivity of the masses   
     
    Michels developed the iron law of oligarchy which demonstrates that oligarchic power emerges & is maintained through FIVE processes, including 
     
      a.   the delegation of authority or tasks via the division of labor   
      b.   that those in power have access to resources ( info, $$, people, the hierarchy, etc.) that others do not have   
      c.   the followers confer both legitimacy & a sense of obligation on their leaders   
      d.   incumbency   
      An Incumbent is someone who is already in office, or any position   
      e.   human "self interest" in that once power emerges, people & orgs seek to preserve & then expand it   
            See also Power   
            See also Organizational power   
      FOR MICHELS, OLIGARCHY & BUREAUCRACY ARE ESSENTIALLY THE SAME, & BOTH SEEK TO MAXIMIZE EFFICIENCY   
      For Michels, oligarchy & bureaucracy are essentially the same, & both seek to maximize efficiency  
      However oligarchy & bureaucracy are quite different & any org may be more or less bureaucratic, & more or less oligarchic, independent of each other   
      Oligarchy develops out of a desire to be effective   
      Michels was a student of Weber & his analysis of oligarchy is built on Weber's theories of bureaucracy   
      The simple observation is that the day to day running of a complex org by its mass membership was impossible & therefore, professional full time leadership & direction was required   
      In theory the leaders of the org were subject to control by the mass membership, through delegate conferences & membership voting, but, in reality, the leaders were in the dominant position   
      Leaders possess the experience & expertise in running the org, they came to control the means of communication w/in the org & they monopolized the public status of representing the org   
      It became difficult for the mass membership to provide any effective counterweight to professional, entrenched, leadership   
      Michels also argued that these inherent orgl tendencies were strengthened by a mass psychology of leadership dependency  
      He felt that people had a basic psychological need to be led   
      Michels lived at a time when mass demo & the political party were new political & social phenomena  
      In mass demos the individual is powerless on his/her own to get their voice heard & their demands met   
      In mass demos, a basic need for org in that to get their voice heard & their demands met, individuals must organize themselves collectively   
      In any type of org, the elites tend to look after their own personal interests   
      The elite use their own set of knowledge & expertise to influence the decision making process w/in the org   
      'Ordinary members' of the org may be excluded effectively from the decision making processes of the org   
     
    IS OLIGARCHY AN IRON LAW OR A TENDENCY?  MOST EXPERTS AGREE IT IS A STRONG TENDENCY THAT MUST BE PURPOSELY BE GUARDED AGAINST VIA VARIOUS DEMOCRATIC STRUCTURES   
      The iron law of oligarchy is just a social tendency, but a very strong, inevitable tendency that becomes reality unless steps are taken & institutions & policies are developed to resist it  
      Our nation is based on belief that the iron law of oligarchy is just a tendency  
      Govt has extraordinary controls to limit oligarchy  
    Link
     What are the systems in govt that maintain democracy?
     
      EXAMPLES DEMONSTRATE THAT THE GERMAN SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY, THE INTL TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION, & THE GREEN PARTY ALL SUCCUMBED TO OLIGARCHY 
     
      An example that Michels used in his book was Germany's Social Democratic Party  (SDP)   
      Early on in his adult career Michels himself was an active socialist & a member of the SDP  
      Michels' 'iron law of oligarchy' can, in some senses, be seen as the product of Michels' personal experiences as a socialist member of the German SDP   
      His 'iron law' is based upon Michels empirical study of the German SDP & a number of associated trade unions   
      Michels concluded from his studies that the German SDP whilst proclaiming a 'revolutionary' program & manifesto was quickly becoming part of the German 'establishment'   
      One of the most known exceptions to the iron law of oligarchy was the now defunct International Typographical Union, (ITU) described by Seymour Martin Lipset in his 1956 book, Union Democracy  
      The size & complexity of a group or org is important to the iron law as well   
      During the 1970s & early 1980s, the Green Party of Germany made a conscious effort to try & break the iron law   
      In the Green Party, anyone could be or could remove a party official   
      In the Green Party, there were no permanent offices or officers   
      In the Green Party, even the smallest, most routine decisions could be put up for discussion & to a vote   
      When the Green Party was small, these anti oligarchic measures enjoyed some success   
      But as the org grew larger & the party became more successful, the need to effectively compete in elections, raise funds, run large rallies & demonstrations & work w/ other political parties once elected, led the Greens to adapt more conventional structures & practices   

     
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    Orgs rarely operate w/ system's to maintain democracy as does govt
    What are these systems that maintain democracy?

    The systems in govt that maintain democracy include the separation of powers, checks & balances, the free press, fundamental rights (i.e., the Bill of Rights), two thirds majority to change the system, the vote


     
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     Outline on the  MICEC:  The Military Industrial Congressional Executive Complex
    External
    Links
      -  Video:  Why We Fight:  Now:  David Brancaccio analyzes the reasons we fight.         February, 2006       13:48 & 9:12 
    Link
      -  Video:  The Fog of War 
    Link
      -  Video:  Dragon Scales:  Body Armor
    Link
      -  Supplement:  President Dwight D. Eisenhower:  Farewell Radio & Television Address to the American People.       January 17, 1961
    Link
      -  Supplement:  The V-22 Osprey
    Link
      -  MICEC Data 
    Link
      The Military Industrial Congressional Executive Complex (MICEC) (pronounced 'mices') is that network of organizations from the military, industry, the US Congress, & the executive branch which procures, produces, & maintains the physical supplies & services for the US military as well as many militaries around the world 
     
     
    Of all the enemies to public liberty war is, perhaps, the most to be dreaded because it comprises and develops the germ of every other. War is the parent of armies; from these proceed debts and taxes … known instruments for bringing the many under the domination of the few.… No nation could preserve its freedom in the midst of continual warfare.
    President James Madison, Political Observations, 1795

     
    This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience. The total influence-economic, political, even spiritual-is felt in every city, every state house, every office of the Federal government. We recognize the imperative need for this development. Yet we must not fail to comprehend its grave implications.  Our toil, resources and livelihood are all involved; so is the very structure of our society. 

    In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist. 

    We must never let the weight of this combination endanger our liberties or democratic processes. We should take nothing for granted only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together. 

    President Dwight D. Eisenhower 
    Farewell Radio and Television Address to the American People. 
    January 17, 1961 
     
     
    World military expenditures in 2006 were estimated to have reached $1204 billion in current dollars 
     
      World mil expenditures  increased 3.5 % increase in real terms since 2005 & a 37 & increase over the 10 yr period since 1997   
      The US is responsible for about 80 % of the increase in 2005   
      The US is the principal determinant of the current world trend, and its military expenditure now accounts for almost half of the world total   
      A small number of countries spend the largest sums   
      The 15 countries with the highest spending account for 83 % of the total world mil spending   
      The US is responsible for 46 % of the world total, distantly followed by the UK, France, Japan & China with 4-5 % each   

     
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     Outline on Organizational Environments
    External
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      IT IS NOW RECOGNIZED THAT ORGS ARE, LIKE ALL LIVING THINGS, A PRODUCT OF THEIR ENV, & LIKE SOME THINGS, ORGS ALSO CAN HAVE A  PROFOUND  EFFECT ON THEIR ENV   
      For Hawley, 1968, an environment is "all phenomena that are external to & potentially or actually influence the population under study"  
      How any org performs depends not only on its goals & policies but also the orgl environment, a range of factors outside the org that affect its operation, including:
    a.  technology 
    b.  economic & political trends
    c.  population patterns
    d.  other orgs
     
      Fennell found that hospitals' env are not dominated by costs (supply) or their customers (demand), rather they are status rather than market or price oriented  
      Hospitals therefore raised prices not because expenses went up or demand went up, but because they feared they would not be judged as fit if they were more economical  
      The env of hospitals includes other hospitals, community leaders who have budgetary authority over the hospital, insurance firms, medical societies, legislative bodies, courts, etc.  
      Freeman, 1979, studied schools & found that "rational" decisions were not made during a period of decline because of demands for programs from fed govt  
      Freeman found that another actor in the orgl env, interest groups, were able to maintain their programs of choice while the schools themselves could not maintain the curriculum  
      Thus the cuts in school budgets found by Freeman reflected external, envl pressures rather than the decisions that the school administrators might have made themselves   
      Whetten, 1978, found that directors were subject to role conflict based on env pressure from the staff, community leaders, regional & state govt, et al   
      Pearson, 1978, found that uranium mines did not make medical expenditures until forced to do so by the fed govt   
      ORG RESPONSES TO THE ENV ARE NEITHER AUTOMATIC, NOR NECESSARILY RATIONAL 
     
      McNeil & Miller, 1980, documented the non response of the US auto makers to foreign importers 
     
      US firms use short term accounting w/ an emphasis on cost control   
      This short term accting system blinded the industry to the long term ramifications   
      The short term accting system was a response to the crisis of the 1920s   
      UNCERTAIN ENVS CREATE UNCERTAINTY IN DECISION MAKING   
      Leblebici & Salancik, 1981, 82, examined banks' actions in uncertain envs   
     
    When uncertain envs created vague or weak decisions this lead bankers to develop procedures to deal w/ the uncertainty 
     
      An outcome of an uncertain env can be design misfit & lower org performance   
      An envl jolt (Meyer, 1982) is something from the env that is totally unexpected   
      When facing an envl jolt, orgs w/ slack resources, or who were diversified, fared better than orgs w/o extra resources or who were tightly focused   
      Swzwajkowski, 1975, found that illegal acts are related to env conditions 
     
      When resources in the env are scarce, there is a greater tendency for illegal actions to occur   
      Note also as Enron & other corps reveal their illegal acts in 2002, these firms envs may be characterized as excessively greedy in a climate of historical growth, of deregulation, & w/ a friendly fed admin   
      Staw, et al, 1981, found that orgs become rigid when faced w/ adversity   
      Envl dimensions include: 
    1.  orgl technical conditions 
    2.  legal conditions 
    3.  political conditions 
    4.  economic conditions
    5.  demographic conditions 
    6.  ecological conditions 
    7.  cultural conditions 
     

     
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     Outline on  Frederick Taylor:
    Scientific Management & Taylorism
    1856  -  1915
    External
    Links
    Link
    -  Biography & Major Works   
     
    INTRO: TAYLOR DEVELOPED THE IDEA THAT WE CAN STUDY THE PROCESS OF HOW WORK IS DONE IN ORDER TO LEARN TO DO IT MORE EFFICIENTLY 
     
      Frederick Taylor is considered to be the father of such fields as work design, ergonomic, bio-mechanical engineering, & human resource mgt   
      Taylor developed the field of work process engineering in the 1800s   
      Scientific management refers to the application of scientific principles to the operation of a business or other large organization   
     
    The field of work process engineering that Taylor developed was called Scientific Management, & was sometimes called Taylorism 
     
      Scientific mgt involves several steps, including the: 
    a.  observation of the tasks performed by the wkrs 
    b.  analysis of their data to discover ways for wkrs to become more efficient 
    c.   provision of guidance & incentives to wkrs to be more efficient 
     
     
    Scientific management refers to the application of scientific principles to the operation of a business or other large organization 
     
      Mgrs. & engineers recognized that they needed to control/coordinate mass-production   
      Work process engineers needed to get the knowledge from the best workers & teach it to the other workers   
      To acquire the knowledge of the workers, Taylor developed Time & Motion Studies   
      In Time & Motion Studies an efficiency expert clocks each step in a job & looks for ways to reduce the time needed to do the job 
     
      In Taylor's words, "The managers assume ... the burden of gathering together all of the traditional knowledge which in the past has been possessed by the workmen & then of classifying, tabulating, & reducing this knowledge to rules laws, & formulae...  All possible brain work should be removed from the shop & centered in the planning or laying out department..." 
     
     
    The image of the researcher, in a white lab coat, w/ a clip board & stop watch observing hard working blue collar men in the 1800s & early 1900s is one that was disturbing to most workers, including Labor leaders 
     
     
    THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MGT INCLUDE:  SCIENTIFICALLY STUDY TASKS, TRAIN WKRS, ENSURE QUAL PRACTICES ARE FOLLOWED, & EQUALLY DIVIDE THE LABOR 
     
      Taylor's scientific management consisted of four principles where mgrs:   
      a.  replace rule of thumb wk methods w/ methods based on a scientific study of the tasks  
      b.  scientifically select, train, & develop each wkr rather than passively leaving them to train themselves   
      c.  cooperate w/ the wkrs to ensure that the scientifically developed methods are being followed   
      d.  divide wk nearly equally btwn mgrs & wkrs, so that the mgrs apply scientific mgt principles to planning the work & the wkrs actually perform the tasks   
      THE TENETS OF SCIENTIFIC MGT SEEK TO RATIONALIZE THE MANNER IN WHICH WORK IS DONE BY BREAKING TASKS & SKILLS DOWN INTO THEIR COMPONENT PARTS IN ORDER TO TRAIN WKRS TO PERFORM OPTIMALLY 
     
      The tenets of Scientific Mgt include:   
      1.  that there is one best way to do a job   
      In contrast to the theory of one best way to do a job, the Japanese embrace the theory of continuous improvement, believing that there is always room for improvement   
      2.  pick the best workers   
      3.  observe them   
      4.  appropriate their knowledge & skills   
      5.  use the best workers' knowledge & skills to devise the most efficient method   
      6.  standardize the most efficient method   
      7.  train all workers in the most efficient method   
      8.  the belief that the piece rate would eliminate soldiering   
      9.  profit sharing would eliminate soldiering & build team work   
     
    TAYLOR WAS A INDUSTRIAL ENGINEER VISIONARY WHO WANTED A BETTER WORKPLACE FOR THE WKRS, BUT HIS VISION WAS CORRUPTED AS MANY CORPS USED HIS PRINCIPLES ONLY TO EXPLOIT WKRS, & NOT FAIRLY REWARD THEM 
     
      Taylor's methods were well ahead of his time   
      In one study, Taylor & his engineers examined the different ways of holding cutting tools on metal lathes  
      In one study, Taylor & his engineers examined the way gangs of men would load 90 lbs. ingots of pig iron on a railroad flat car   
      In one study, Taylor & his engineers examined the way gangs of men would dig   
     
    SOLDIERING IS THE PRACTICE BY WORKERS OF INTENTIONALLY RESTRICTING OUTPUT, E.G. SANDBAGGING OR SLACKING   
      Taylor was concerned w/ performing work processes in the one best way as well as eliminating any soldiering   
      Soldiering occurred when men worked well below their capacity:  "The greatest part of systematic soldiering... is done by the men w/ the deliberate object of keeping their employers ignorant of how fast work can be done.  So universal is soldiering for this purpose, that hardly a competent workman can be found in a large establishment... who does not devote a considerable part of his time to studying just how slowly he can work & still convince his employers that he is going at a good pace."   
      Taylor fired anyone who he believed was soldiering, replaced them w/ less skilled workers, trained the replacement workers w/ the old workers' knowledge & skills   
      Taylor's replacement workers would be paid a piece rate & profit sharing   
      Taylor's replacement workers could generally be paid less than the old skilled workers   
     
    CRITICS OF SCI MGT ACCUSE IT OF THE 'APPROPRIATION' OF KNOWLEDGE & CONTROL OF THE WORKPLACE 
     
     
    One of the impacts of Scientific Mgt is that the control of the knowledge of the work process which had previously only been available to each worker, craft, guild, or trade union, now became available to mgt. & its Scientific Mgt. engineers   
      Scientific Mgt. appropriated knowledge, & economically damaged the worker, craft, guild, or trade union   
      Through the development of Scientific Mgt, mgt & engineers controlled the pace of work   
      Following this, machines & assembly lines controlled the pace of work   
      Scientific mgt is the beginning of the modern process of industrial engineering, HRM, etc.   
     
    SCI MGT'S CONTROL OF THE WORKER SOMETIMES WENT BEYOND WK TASKS TO CONTROL OF THE WKR'S ENTIRE LIFE, INCLUDING 'MORALITY' 
     
      Taylor, like Henry Ford & many other industrialists embraced the ideology of the time which held that control of the workplace went far beyond what occurred at work   
      Taylor, Ford, & others also believed in developing the moral character of the workforce & thus they punished or fired people for "immoral activity" & instituted citizenship & morality courses that the workers & their families had to attend   
      Another part of the industrialist ideology which Taylor, Ford, & others embraced was that   
      - workers responds only to money   
      - workers want to be told what to do   
      - workers are happiest when they are doing simple work   
      Taylor, Ford & others embraced many of the tenets of Social Darwinism   

     
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    Frederick Winslow Taylor
    1856  -  1915     b. Germantown, PA
    Taylor was an Am engineer & efficiency expert. Born on March 20, 1865, into an upper class liberal Philadelphia family. His father, a Princeton graduate & lawyer, made enough money from mortgages & did not have to keep a regular job. His mother was a spirited abolitionist & feminist who was said to have run an underground railroad station for runaway slaves. Both parents were Quakers & believed in high thinking & plain living. Parental authority was not questioned & children were seen & not heard in the Taylor family. Family members referred to each other as "thee" & "thou". At an early age Taylor learned self-control & his Quaker upbringing helped him to avoid conflicts w/ his peers & to resolve disagreements among them. 

    Joined Midvale Steel Works in Philly in 1878 as a worker.  After his apprenticeship at the hydraulic works plant, he became a common laborer at the Midvale Steel Company. He started as shop clerk & quickly progressed to machinist, foreman, maintenance foreman, & chief draftsman. W/in six years he advanced to research director, then chief engineer. While working there he introduced piece work in the factory. His goal was to find the most efficient way to perform specific tasks. He closely watched how work was done & would then measure the quantity produced (Kanigel 44). Left in 1890 as chief engineer. 

    Taylor became an independent consulting engineer, focusing on efficiency.  His most important client became Bethlehem Iron Company.  In his last years Frederick felt misunderstood by quick fix managers & zealous unionists, & wronged by consultant imitators. His energy was sapped by the constant attention he paid to his wife's severe illnesses. While on a speaking tour in the Midwest, in 1915, he contracted influenza. He was admitted to a hospital in Philadelphia & celebrated his fifty ninth birthday there. He died the next day.

    Top
       
    Major Works of Frederick Taylor

    Taylor, Frederich W.  The Principles of Scientific Management.  1911.  NY:  Harper & Row. 


     
    Internal
    Links

    Top

     Outline on  Ouchi 1943  -
    Theory Z
    External
    Links
    Link
    -  Biography & Major Works 
     
      INTRO:  EARLY THEORIES OF WKPLACE MGT SAW THE WKR AS A PASSIVE VESSEL TO BE TRAINED BUT THEORY Z DEVELOPED THE IDEA OF THE 'PARTICIPATIVE WKPLACE,' WHICH SEES WKRS AS CAPABLE OF DEVELOPING THE WKPLACE THEMSELVES, & AS WANTING TO DEVELOP   
     
    HRM theories earlier than Theory Z still see the wkr as passive 
        ( McGregor's Theory Y, etc. ) 
    Ouchi's Theory Z holds that 
    a. productivity is embedded / controlled by wkrs 
    b. wk teams should control operations, as opposed to supervisors controlling operations 
     
      Ouchi highlights differences btwn formal orgs in Japan & in the US, including hiring & advancement, lifetime security, holistic involvement, broad based training, & collective decision making   
     
    THEORY Z HOLDS THAT WKRS & THE WKPLACE WILL DEVELOP IF WKRS ARE GIVEN THE FREEDOM & OPPORTUNITY TO DEVELOP THEMSELVES & THE COMMUNITY OF THE WKPLACE 
     
      Theory Z is touted as a response to Theory X, which stated that workers inherently dislike and avoid work and must be driven to it   
      Theory Z is touted as a response to Theory Y which stated that work is natural and can be a source of satisfaction when aimed at higher order human psychological needs   
      Theory Z focused on increasing employee loyalty to the company by providing a job for life with a strong focus on the well being of the employee, both on and off the job   
      Theory Z is the name applied to the so called "Japanese mgt" style popularized during the Asian economic boom of the 1980s   
      The Table Comparing American & Japanese Orgl Structures demonstrates that Japanese firms possess qualities of Theory Z, i.e. a participative orgl structure   
      W/ regard to supervisory practices, the Japanese approach takes the whole person into acct, including the concern w/ family members   
      Even Japanese firms in the US resembled the Japanese model more than the Am model, suggesting that the nation of origin is of critical imp   
      The characteristics of Theory Z include: 
    1.  long term employment 
    2.  collective responsibility 
    3.  implicit, informal control w/ explicit, formalized measures 
    4.  collective decision making 
    5.  slow evaluation & promotion 
    6.  moderately specialized careers 
    7.  a concern for a total person, including their family
     
      For Ouchi, Theory Z management tends to promote stable employment, hi productivity, and high employee morale & satisfaction   
     
    DEMING BROUGHT 'THEORY Z,' I.E. THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF THE WKPLACE, 1st TO JAPAN & THEN BACK TO THE US WHERE IT FELL UPON THE DEAF EARS OF AM MGT FOR SEVERAL DECADES 
     
      Ironically, "Japanese mgt" & Theory Z itself are based on Dr. W. Edwards Deming's famous "14 points"   
      Deming, an American scholar whose mgt & motivation theories were rejected in the US, went on to help lay the foundation of Japanese orgl development beginning his work there in the 1950s   
      Most scholars credit the Japanese econ expansion which began in the 1970s as strongly influenced by Deming's wk w/ Japanese businesses on participative mgt   
      Deming's theories are summarized in his two books, Out of the Crisis and The New Economics, in which he spells out his "System of Profound Knowledge"   
      See Also:  Deming   
     
    OUCHI'S OTHER WORK INCLUDES THE DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICIPATIVE MGT & METHODS TO TRAIN FOR TASK UNCERTAINTY 
     
     
    Ouchi also came up w/ his 3 approaches to control in an org's mgt, including: 
    a.  market control 
    b.  bureaucratic control 
    c.   clan control 
     
     
    Ouchi notes that orgs can monitor people's behavior or their wk outputs 
     
     
    A combination of large size & homogenous tasks contributes to the utilization of output controls, such as monitoring the number of units produced, sales transacted or cards punched 
     
     
    Like Ouchi, Taylor, 1971, found that participative mgt, which means that subordinates are consulted in regard to decisions that affect them, was more likely to be successful in situations involving advanced tech 
     
     
    The tech Taylor examined was that type concentrated at the work flow level & thus participative mgt is most effective in the more automated kinds of situations 
     
     
    Van de Ven & Koenig, 1976, found that as tasks increased in uncertainty, mutual wk adjustments via horz commo & grp meeting were used instead of hierarchical & impersonal forms of control 
     
     
    For Van de Ven & Koenig, as task interdependence increased, impersonal coordination decreased, while more personal modes of coordination in the form of meetings increased 
     
     
    Increasing size was related to an increased use of impersonal modes of coordination such as policies & procedures & predetermined wk plans 
     
     
    Ouchi, 1977, confirms the findings of Van de Ven & Koenig in that both size & task uncertainty were related to the style of output controls on wkrs 
     

     
    Top
       
    Table Comparing American & Japanese Orgl Structures
    External
    Links
    American 
    Japanese 
     
    Short term employment  Lifetime employment   
    Individual decision making  Consensual decision making   
    Individual responsibility  Collective responsibility   
    Rapid evaluation & promotion  Slow evaluation & promotion   
    Explicit, formalized control  Implicit, informal control   
    Specialized career path  Nonspecialized career path   
    Segmented concern  Holistic concern   
    The Table Comparing American & Japanese Orgl Structures demonstrates that Japanese firms possess qualities of Theory Z, i.e. a participative orgl structure   

     
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    William G. Ouchi
    1943  - 

    William G. Ouchi (born 1943) is an American professor and author in the field of business management.  Bill Ouchi was born and raised in Honolulu, Hawaii. He earned a B.A. from Williams College (1965), and a Ph.D. in Business Administration from the University of Chicago. He has been a faculty member of the Anderson School of Management at University of California, Los Angeles for many years.  Ouchi first came to prominence for his studies of the differences between Japanese and American companies and management styles

    Top
       
    Major Works of Ouchi: Theory Z

    Theory Z: How American Management Can Meet the Japanese Challenge
    The M Form Society: How American Teamwork Can Recapture the Competitive Edge


     
    Internal
    Links

    Top

     Outline on  Race & the Workplace
    External
    Links
      SEGREGATION IN THE WORKPLACE WAS ONCE COMMONPLACE, BUT IS NOW MORE SUBTLE IN THE FORM OF 'INSTITUTIONAL RACISM  
      During the 1960s, big businesses were inefficient & unfair in their hiring practices   
      By the end of the twentieth century, white men in the US still held 58 % of mgt jobs   
      Decisions about promotions are often made informally, behind closed doors by an executive group composed mostly by white men 
     
      SUBJECTIVE CRITERIA MAKE SUBTLE RACISM / DISCRIMINATION & PRESERVATION OF THE 'OLD BOY SYSTEM' POSSIBLE   
      Subjective decisions & evaluations are the method through which all types of discrimination enter into the workplace today, especially institutional discrimination, which is the most common type today 
     
      See Also:  Evaluation Criteria in the Workplace   
      See Also:  Discrimination   
      Overt expressions of racism have declined in the US & developed world in the 1980s & 90s but more subtle everyday expressions of racism are still common 
     
      Many people & groups make efforts to marginalize minorities & women, to identify them as the carriers of social problems, & to reject complaints about prejudice & discrimination as invalid (Essed, 1991) 
     
      Equal treatment for minorities & women often comes only when those w/in an org work actively to demand such changes (Baron, Mittman, & Newman, 1991) 
     
      TOKENISM OCCURS WHEN ORGS MEET MINIMUM INTEGRATION GOALS, BUT HAVE NO INTENTION OF FULL INTEGRATION   
      Kanter, 1977, notes that women & minority workers are highly visible representatives of their group when then enter new occupations 
     
      Tokenism is the policy of making only a superficial effort or symbolic gesture toward the accomplishment of a goal such as racial or gender integration   
      Tokenism occurs when there are only a few workers who are different because of race, gender, religion or any other identifiable cultural trait 
     
      Tokenism puts a worker under a spotlight & the pressure to overachieve 
     
      Tokenism need not be a bad experience as everyone has encountered a situation where they, for some reason, felt out of place or outnumbered, & yet were welcomed & accepted   
      W/ tokenism, there is often open hostility from majority workers who feel their position threatened by the incursion of "lower status" workers (South, et al, 1983) 
     
      EVOLVING CHANGE MEANS THAT AS EACH WKPLACE FACES INJUSTICES, SOME STRUGGLES ARE WON & SOME ARE LOST, FOR NOW   
      While women & minorities have continued to make progress, in that more sectors of society have become integrated & have less open & hostile discrimination, these changes & income changes have been slow 
     
    Link
    The Table on Median Family Income by Race, 1964 to 1997, indicates that during the last 40 yrs. blacks have earned btwn 50 & 60 % of what whites earned
     
      Farley, 1984, found that from 1959 to 1982 white income grew 1.1% & black income grew by 1.3% but because whites had more income initially, white income grew by $4,200 & black income grew by $2,600 thus increasing the absolute income gap 
     
      Hispanic families earn about 60% as much as white families 
     

     
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    Table on  Median Family Income by Race, 1964 to 1997
    HS0205
    Year
    Blacks
    Whites
    Black Income
    as a % of 
    White Income
    1964
    $ 4,646 
    $ 8,557 
        50 %
    1965
    4,849
    9,047
    50
    1966
    5,624
    9,722
    58
    1967
    6,083
    10,274
    59
    1968
    6,688
    11,151
    60
    1969
    7,485
    12,220
    61
    1970
    7,834
    12,772
    61
    1971
    8,035
    13,316
    60
    1972
    8,564
    14,410
    59
    1973
    9,070
    15,715
    58
    1974
    9,989
    16,730
    60
    1975
    10,954
    17,803
    62
    1976
    11,531
    19,386
    59
    1977
    11,932
    20,887
    57
    1978
    13,574
    22,918
    58
    1979
    14,529
    25,581
    57
    1980
    15,814
    27,330
    58
    1981
    16,552
    29,343
    56
    1982
    16,900
    29,720
    57
    1983
    16,610
    29. 474
    56
    1984
    16,884
    30,294
    56
    1985
    17,734
    30,799
    58
    1986
    18,247
    31,935
    57
    1987
    18,098
    32,274
    56
    1988
    19,329
    33,915
    57
    1989
    20,209
    35,975
    56
    1990
    21,423
    36,915
    58
    1991
    21,548
    37,783
    57
    1992
    21,103
    38,670
    55
    1993
    21,542
    39,300
    55
    1994
    24,698
    40,844
    60
    1995
    25,970
    42,646
    61
    1996
    26,552
    44,756
    59
    1997
    28,602
    46,754
    61
    Table on Income by Race, 1964 to 1997, indicates that during the last 40 yrs. Blacks have earned btwn 50 & 61 % of what Whites earned
    Blue indicates the lowest % of Black/White Income
    Red indicates the highest % of Black/White Income
    US Dept. of Commerce, Census, 2000; Statistical Abstract of the US, 1999, Washington, DC; US Govt Printing Office

     
    External
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      Outline on  Gender & Work
    External
    Links
      -  Project:  Gender & Race Socialization & / or Discrimination in the Workplace
    Link
      -  ProjectVideo:  North Country, Work, Gender
    Link
      -  Video:  North Country, Work, Gender
    Link
     
    -  Supplement:  Nontraditional Occupations for Women
    Link
      -  Supplement:  Male Scientist Writes of His Life as a Female
    Link
      -  Supplement:  Women Celebrate 20 Years of Smokejumping
    Link
      -  Supplement:  As Leaders, Women Rule      2000.  Business Week Online
    Link
      -  Supplement:  NYT: 'Comparable Worth' Makes a Comeback
    Link
      INTRO:  THERE ARE NOW MORE WOMEN IN THE WKFORCE THAN MEN, BUT THEY STILL HAVE LOWER PAYING JOBS BECAUSE SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION CREATES 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS'   
      In the US & other industrial societies, women working for income is now the rule rather than the exception 59% of Am women are in the labor force  
      Women continue to enter a narrow range of occupations, w/ almost half in clerical or service work  
      The greater a job's income & prestige, the more likely it is that the position will be held by a male  
      Sex role socialization makes women less likely to complain about job discrimination  
      Professional jobs in previously male dominated fields pose special problems of access to women  
      The role performance expected in previously male dominated jobs includes behavioral styles characteristically associated w/ men  
      Women in many professions face a dilemma in that they can either conform to the expected role behavior of the job & appear unfeminine or they can follow the expected role behavior of their gender in which case they may be acting out of character for their occupational role  
      The dilemma of "the opposite sex" in a gender typed occupation creates a "Catch 22" situation in which "the opposite sex" has limited options for achieving acceptance & recognition (Kanter, 1977)  
      A survey of male lawyers found that half believed women lawyers were "tough & masculine" while the other half believed women lawyers were "weak & feminine" & said that women go to law school to "catch a man" (Deckard, 1979, p. 128)  
      THE FEMALE ADVANTAGE IS THAT THEY ARE MORE FLEXIBLE, DEMOCRATIC, INTUITIVE, MULTITASKING, ETC.   
      Women bring a "female advantage" to companies striving to be more flexible & democratic  
      While women are still underrepresented as mgrs of businesses, some social commentators, such as Sally Helgesen, see women as the business leaders of the future  
      Women's style of mgt is more democratic & flexible, & therefore able to adjust more easily to the fast changing, dynamic business env, or thrive in a firm where educated young professionals expect to be treated as individuals   
      In a recent article summing up their book, Megatrends for Women, Aburdene & Naisbitt describe women leaders as sharing the qualities of: 
    a.  encouraging participation 
    b.  sharing power & info 
    c.  enhancing other people's self worth 
    d.  getting others excited about their work 
     
      While the qualities of effective women leaders, according to Aburdene & Naisbitt all sound "nice," the authors warn that this would be an oversimplification because these leader balance them w/ objectivity   
      Judith Hall, a psychology professor at Northeastern University, notes that women traditionally are better at interpreting body language & other non verbal cues   
      Women have a high tolerance for ambiguity & are able to juggle many things at once   
      People who see job performance as a series of transactions w/ rewards for services rendered or punishment for inadequate performance might misinterpret women's mgt style  
      People, both men & women often confuse a leader who is encouraging or sharing w/ a weak leader whom they do not take seriously only to find that they suffer the consequences  
      A female mgr's willingness to empower employees by asking them for help might, for example, look like ignorance, & as though she truly doesn't know what she is doing  
      Compared to male wkr/ supervisors / mgrs, other employees, male or female, often feel freer to criticize a female wkr / supervisor / mgr, or to challenge her authority  
     
    GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE WORKPLACE IS INFLUENCED BY FIVE FACTORS, INCLUDING: 
    a.  OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION 
    b.  COMPARABLE WORTH 
    c.  SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION 
    d.  SEXUAL HARASSMENT 
    e.  GLASS CEILING 
     
      a.  OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION ( OGS ) IS THE PROCESS WHERE WE ARE SOCIALIZED TO BELIEVE THERE ARE 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS'   
      OGS is socialized through the socialization processes of modeling & identification  
      Occupational gender socialization is a concept denoting that there are men's jobs, & there are women's jobs
    Doctor     Nurse          Manager    Worker
    Janitor     Secretary    Lineman    Operator
    Firefighters, police, soldiers are more likely to be men
    Teachers, daycare workers, elder care workers are more likely to be women
     
      Occupational segregation is a pattern whereby two groups, most often men & women, hold different kinds of jobs  
      Occupational segregation is the stratification ( system of division & differing rewards ) of the occupational system  
      Occupational gender segregation  denotes that our culture recognizes that there are male jobs & there are female jobs  
      Occupational gender segregation is the concentration of men & women into different occupations, even when they have similar levels of skill & training  
      For example, we "know" that janitoring is male & nursing is female   
      Over one half of all working women are employed in clerical & service jobs  
      In fact, nearly half of all working women have been concentrated in just three occupations: secretary, nurse, & teacher  
      Women who entered the world of work found that their experience was different from men, including occupational segregation, pay, promotions, training, etc.  
    Link
    What message does occupational gender socialization give?   
      b.  COMPARABLE WORTH DENOTES THAT WOMEN & MEN DOING THE SAME LEVEL OF WORK, SHOULD GET PAID THE SAME   
      Today women earn about 60 - 75 % of what men earn, & there has been little change in the last decade  
      The biggest actual change in status of women, so far, has been the large pay increases that have brought the salaries of women closer to men's  
      See Also:  Comparable Worth  
      c.  SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN WOMEN, OR OTHER GRPS, ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY   
      Sexual discrimination at work is the treating of people unequally based on their gender w/ respect to raises, promotions, perks, etc.  
      d.  SEXUAL HARASSMENT OCCURS WHEN A PERSON IN ANNOYED OR VEXED BECAUSE OF THEIR GENDER   
      Sexual harassment is a form of sexual discrimination where an employee is 
    - forced or asked by another employee or customer to give sexual favors
    - exposed to unwelcome behavior w/ sexual content
    - hired, promoted, etc. based on explicit or implicit sexual submission
    - subjected to sexual content which creates a hostile, intimidating or offensive environment
     
      Sexual harassment refers to comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, & unwelcome   
      Women are more likely to be sexually harassed & while the sexual harassment of men is rare, it is not unheard of   
      Some sexual harassment is blatant, but much of it is subtle, & thus difficult to prove in a court of law   
      See Also:  Sexual Harassment  
      e.  THE GLASS CEILING DENOTES THAT DISCRIMINATION INCREASES DRAMATICALLY AT OR ABOVE THE MID MGT LEVEL 
     
      The concept of the glass ceiling denotes that the "old boy network" is the most powerful at the top  
      The concept of the glass ceiling is consonant w/ the stratification theorists' position that an "inner group" of elite men are extremely powerful in western, industrial society  
     
    In its simplest form, the glass ceiling is the reluctance to place women in positions of authority
     
    Link
    For the courts to rule that gender discrimination has occurred, the plaintiff must show specific damage; i.e., the courts have not allowed statistical discrimination as proof  
      THERE ARE SIX CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SEGREGATION, INCLUDING: 
    1.  COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN
    2.  LESS ACCESS TO OJT 
    3.  INDIVIDUAL OR INSTITL DISCRIMINATION 
    4.  CULTURAL LAG 
    5.  HIGHLY UNIONIZED MEN'S JOBS 
    6.  SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION 
     
    Link
    1.  THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN, WHICH ARE OFTEN RELATED TO FAMILY & CHILD REARING, ARE OFTEN GREATER THAN THOSE FOR MALES 
     
     
    The practice of women leaving the work force to raise small children is becoming less common
     
      Women's entry into the labor mkt has not substantially reduced their involvement in housework, as husbands have resisted increasing their participation in these task  
      Women who live w/ significant other males & work equal or more numbers of hours outside the home typically perform over 70% of household chores  
      The household chores women perform on top of their full time job is frequently called the second shift by social scientists & feminists   
      2.  WOMEN HAVE LESS ACCESS TO OJT (On the Job Training ) BECAUSE OF THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS   
      Less OJT makes Women less competitive as workers  
      One of the most difficult problems to overcome in leveling the playing field on the job btwn men & women is that women have babies & men don't  
      What is the solution to this?   
     
    3.  INDIVIDUAL OR INSTITL DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN WOMEN, OR OTHER GRPS, ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY   
      Individual or institutional discrimination includes FOUR major types
         i. Less access to OJT
         ii. Hiring Patterns
        iii. Steering:  Channeling:  "men's" jobs pay better.
         iv. Occupational Segregation
     
     
    4.  CULTURAL LAG OCCURS WHEN DIFFERENT SPHERES OF SOCIETY, ESP W/ RESPECT TO CULTURE, DEVELOP AT DIFFERENT RATES, CAUSING CONFLICT BTWN THE SUBCULTURES OF SOCIETY 
     
      Cultural lag results in lower pay for women because better pay for men's work is partially a carry over from family wage days   
            See Fordism  
      5.  HIGHLY UNIONIZED MEN'S JOBS, HAVE THROUGH THEIR OWN HISTORIC STRUGGLE, EARNED HIGHER WAGES COMPARED TO THE NON UNIONIZED SECTOR   
      Men's jobs were more highly unionized creating a pool of male jobs w/ more pay & security
    Historically, unions were patriarchal & white
    Today unions are very active in women's sectors & non-white sectors of employment
     
      6.  SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION IS THE PROCESS WHERE WE ARE SOCIALIZED TO BELIEVE WE SHOULD TAKE 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS,' AS APPROPRIATE   
      Sex role socialization occurs in all the social structures & it: 
    - reinforces “correct” jobs for men & women
    - makes women less likely to complain
     
     
    GENDER PAY DIFFERENTIAL IS IMPROVING BUT AT THE CURRENT RATE WILL TAKE DECADES MORE TO EQUALIZE   
      The average female full time worker earns about 77 cents for every dollar earned by a male full time employee   
      In general it has been shown that the more women that work in an occupation, the lower the pay of that occupation  
      Historically, the movement of women into an occupation has lowered pay & status as is the case in secretarying, teaching, & nursing  
      Historically, the movement of women out of an occupation has increased pay & status as is the case w/ factory work  
      The best predictor of whether a family's income will fall below the federal poverty level is the sex of the primary breadwinner  
      The fact that being a woman has become associated w/ being poor is termed the feminization of poverty  
      Among families w/ a female householder, the poverty rate in 1986 was over  34%, which is over twice the total poverty rate  
      Working class women are especially hurt by the low wages earned by women  
      Occupational gender segregation explains some of the difference in pay for men & women  
      THE EIGHT REASONS FOR GENDER PAY DIFFERENTIAL,( besides occupational gender segregation ) INCLUDE:
    1.  HIRING PATTERNS 
    2.  COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN 
    3.  LESS ACCESS TO OJT 
    4.  OUTRIGHT DISCRIMINATION 
    5.  CULTURAL LAG 
    6.  HISTORICALLY LOW PAY 
    7.  FEW UNIONIZED FEMALE JOBS 
    8.  MEN W/ FEW COMPETING EXPECTATIONS & MORE OJT 
     
      All of the factors which cause genders socialization in the wkplace & OGS also contribute to gender pay differential   
      1.  HIRING PATTERNS REINFORCE GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE WKPLACE & OGS AS THEY HIRE MEN FOR 'MEN'S JOBS,' ETC.   
      Most of the gender pay differential results from the different kinds of jobs held by men vs. women  
     
    2.  THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN, BECAUSE OF FAMILY & CHILDREN, HAVE HISTORICALLY PULLED WOMEN AWAY FROM THE WKPLACE & THEREFORE MADE THEM LESS VALUABLE WKRS
     
      The greater responsibility for family & childcare tasks that our society has traditionally assigned to women is another factor explaining the earnings differential  
      3.  LESS ACCESS TO OJT REDUCES SKILL & EXPERIENCE   
      that women seem to have less access than men to OJT that increases their skills  
      4.  OUTRIGHT DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN MGRS BELIEVE WOMEN SHOULD BE PAID LESS BECAUSE THEY ARE SUBORDINATE TO MEN  
      Some male & female mgrs still see women's wk are a mere supplement or part time addition to family income because the man should still be the primary breadwinner   
      5.  CULTURAL LAG OCCURS WHEN SOME PEOPLE RETAIN TRADITIONAL PATRIARCHAL VALUES   
      Cultural lag; i.e., a carry over from the days when it was widely believed that men should be paid more because they were more likely to be supporting a family  
      6.  HISTORICALLY LOW PAY RESULTS IN THE FACT THAT WHILE WOMEN MAY GET RAISES EQUIVALENT TO THOSE OF MEN, THEY ARE STARTING AT A LOWER PLACE   
      The fact that employers do not want to raise pay in occupations that have historically had low pay  
      7.  FEW UNIONIZED FEMALE JOBS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO LOW FEMALE WAGES, BUT TODAY TRADL WOMEN'S JOBS ARE BEING UNIONIZED AT A HIGH RATE   
      The fact that predominantly male occupations are more highly unionized, & therefore pay better, than are predominantly female occupations  
     
    8.  MEN W/ FEW COMPETING EXPECTATIONS & MORE OJT CONTINUES TO BE THE NORM TODAY, GIVING THEM AN ADVANTAGE AT WORK, BUT IT IS SLOWLY EQUALIZING AS SMALLER FAMILIES BECOME THE NORM, & MEN CONTRIBUTE MORE TO THE FAMILY 
     
      Men do not bear children & therefore get more experience, OJT, etc.  
      One of the most difficult problems to overcome in leveling the playing field on the job btwn men & women is that women bear children, men don't   
      Pregnancy Leave Act of 1993 was passed by the Clinton Administration & it allows females 6 weeks unpaid leave following pregnancy, but allows men no leave  
      Our culture is now establishing norms over gender relations in the workplace, & YOUR generation will develop them more  
     
    WOMEN HAVE DEVELOPED STRATEGIES TO CONFRONT SEXUAL HARASSMENT WHICH RANGE FOR ACCEPTING IT TO FIGHTING IT ON THE SHOP FLOOR, TO LEGAL DEFENSES 
     
      Victims of sexual harassment find it very difficult to report the violation  
      Based on her study of an underground coal mine, Yount, 1991, developed a typology of three strategies that female coal miners used to confront sexual harassment  
      See Also:  Sexual Harassment  
      There are FIVE general strategies to confront sexual harassment in the workplace which include
     
      a.  LADIES USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF RESPECT FOR WOMEN TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
     
    Ladies confront sexists as gentlemen w/, for example, “Why sir, what would your mother say?”
     
      Yount found that Ladies cast their co-workers as gentlemen & socially w/drew  
      b.  FLIRTS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SEXUALITY TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
     
    Flirts confront sexists w/ sexuality w/, for example, “I save that for my favorite men, & you haven't qualified... yet.”
     
      Yount found that flirtatiousness encouraged come ons from men & sometimes resulted in more severe harassment if the men perceived that the women were using this strategy to gain preferential treatment  
      c.  TOMBOYS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF FEMALE TOKENISM TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
     
    Tomboys confronting sexists w/ balance w/, for example, “I would, but you're better suited for Joe!”
     
      Tomboys emphasized their occupational role & engaged in joking relationships w/ their male co-workers  
      d.  GIRLS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SUBMISSION TO TRY TO AVOID OR IGNORE SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
     
    Girls do not confront sexists but ignore it, or w/draw
     
      Girls' role of non confrontation & w/drawl may work if the harassment is not too severe; however, it risks the possibility that passivity may evoke more severe harassment  
      e.  TODAY'S WOMEN USE THE NON TRADL METHOD OF LEGAL REDRESS, IN THE ORG OR IN THE COURT SYSTEM, TO DEFEAT SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
     
    e.  Today's Woman confronts sexists w/ legal or formal action w/, for example, the statement that, “That's harassment.  I'm filing a complaint.” 
     
      Today's women's, strength & resolve of the direct confrontation of illegal & boorish behavior will cause most harassers to back down  

     
    Top  
    What message does OGS give? 

    Men are more capable, worth more, etc.


     
    Top  
    The courts & gender discrimination

    1970   ATT   $ 52 mm to 3,600 females
    1973   US Steel   $ 31 mm to 61,000 females & minorities
    1978   GE   $ 29 mm to females
    1980   Ford   $ 23 mm to minorities
    1996   Texaco agrees to pay  $ 1.5 bb for discrimination


     
    Top  
    a. Examples of Competing Expectations of Working Women

    Women miss more work to care for family
    Women have babies:  interrupted career track
    Women take principle responsibility for home duties      (see Gender & the Family      Link )
    But these are societal assumptions:
    Despite competing expectation, the reality is that Women devote more time to work than men


     
    Top

    External
    Links

    An Outline on    Ritzer's 
    McDonaldization of Society (1993), Expressing America  (1995)
    External
    Links
     
    In The McDonaldization of Society. (1993) & Expressing America:  A Critique of the Global Credit Card Society.  (1995) Ritzer examines the operation & impact of hyperrationality in Modernity   
      The McDonaldization of society involves three basic organizational principles, including: 
    a.  efficiency 
    b.  uniformity 
    c.  control 
     
      The organizational principles that underlie the McDonald's restaurant chain are coming to dominate our entire society   
      HYPERRATIONALITY IS THE COMBINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RATIONALITY WHICH CREATES A SYSTEM WHICH DOMINATES / IGNORES OTHER FACTORS SUCH AS LARGER COMMUNITY INTERESTS   
     
    A primary characteristic of advanced Modernity is hyperrationality   
     
    Hyperrationality is a process that combines all of Weber's forms of rationality 
     
        Review:  Rationality   
     
      Review:  Weber on Rationality   
     
      Review:  Weber on Bureaucracy   
     
    Example:  the US & Japanese global auto industries   
      MCDONALDIZATION IS A FORM OF HYPERRATIONALITY WHICH EXPANDS STANDARDIZED RATIONAL SYSTEMS INTO NEW ARENAS, USUALLY ELIMINATING TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS IN THE PROCESS  
     
    McDonaldization is an example of the application of formal rationality in the "High Modern Era" 
     
     
    McDonaldization is the further development of bureaucracy & the application of formal rationality but not the three other forms of rationality   
     
    McDonaldization applies four dimensions of formal rationality including efficiency, predictability, production of mass quantities, and the use of nonhuman technologies   
      The McDonaldization method of organization is Fordist in various ways including the use of assembly line principles & technologies and the utilization of industrial principles   
     
    The existence of McDonaldization negates the view that we have entered a post industrial society 
     
      While heavy industry has declined, McDonaldization is the application of industrial principles to a service industry   
      McDonaldization includes the process of making a generic, successful model, & then developing it for all it is worth   
      Many other sectors are emulating the McDonalds' plan   
      McDonalds actually fully developed the franchise which is the basis for many other businesses from fast food to real estate to even medicine   
      Will it succeed in education?   
      HYPERRATIONALIZATION OF THE CREDIT INDUSTRY HAS STANDARDIZED IT & DRAMATICALLY EXPANDED CREDIT INTO NEW ARENAS   
      Credit cards have McDonaldized the receipt & expenditure of credit   
      Modern banks are dispensing "fast money" like fast food   
      a. Efficiency in banking has been increased so that the entire process of obtaining a loan has been made more efficient   
      b. Predictability in banking makes consumption more predictable   
      Banks know their bad debt rate they know how much consumers will spend on average in a given situation   
      Banks want the right to collect & share data on spending habits to increase predictability   
      c.  Quantity:  Credit card companies mass market to gain market share   
      Is the credit card market saturated?   
      The credit card market may be saturated in the core, but globalization is in its infancy, as is cigarette globalization   
      Each credit card companies markets to try & get people to accept as much credit as possible   
      d.  Nonhuman technologies i.e., computerization & other technologies, now make many credit decisions   
      Banking was considered a very personalized profession as was medicine, & lawyering & education   
      In High Modernity, sophisticated computer programs w/ little or no input from humans decide the consumer's credit on a day to day basis   
      The credit / financial industry has been globalized   
     
    GLOBALIZATION & AMERICANIZATION HAVE SPREAD HYPERRATIONALITY, AS A PRACTICE, TO OTHER NATIONS   
      Visa, MasterCard & American Express are all rapidly seeking foreign markets 
    Other nations cards: 
    Japans JCB 
    Great Britain's Barclay Card 
     
      Hyperrationalization & McDonaldization all indicate an advancement in modernization   
      The hyperrationalization of the auto industry, the formal rationalization of fast food (McDonaldization) and the formal rationalization of the credit card industry all indicate advancement in rationality & therefore modernization over their predecessors:  the American auto, the local diner, the personal loan, etc.   
      The hyperrationalization of industries supports the belief that we are in the High Modern Age, not the Post Modern Age   
      If McDonaldization has occurred, the question becomes whether there is any hope for ameliorating the ills of the modern era 
     
     
    The Japanese industrial system is very stressful to workers where their level of speed-up has created the highest level of work related suicides known 
     
     
    McDonaldization is mgt. by stress:  "The goal is to stretch the system like a rubber band on the point of breaking." 
     
      McDonaldization & hyperrationality raise the question, 'Can rationality be irrational?' & the answer appears to be yes   
      Rationality, although efficient, may also be highly dehumanizing   

     
    Internal
    Links

    Top

     Outline on the  Future of Work
    External
    Links
      -  Supplement:  The Future of Work, Dept of Labor 
    Link
      -  Supplement:  The Future of Work, Dept of Labor:  The Economy 
    Link
      -  Supplement:  The Future of Work, Dept of Labor:  The Workforce 
    Link
      -  Supplement:  The Future of Work, Dept of Labor:   The Workplace 
    Link
      -  Supplement:  The Future of Work, Dept of Labor:   Work / Life Balance 
    Link
      THERE ARE OPPOSING TRENDS IN SOCIETY THAT ARE PULLING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WKPLACE IN DIFFERENT DIRECTIONS   
     
    The future of work will be the result of opposing trends in society including such areas as the economy, the family, demographics, culture, & others 
     
     
    "Intelligent" orgs have become more productive than ever 
     
     
    The postindustrial econ has created many highly skilled jobs, more routine service jobs, & offers many of the benefits that today's highly skilled wkrs enjoy 
     
     
    Orgl flexibility gives better off workers more autonomy but carries the threat of "downsizing" for rank & file employees 
     
      JOB SECURITY IS PRACTICALLY NON EXISTENT, W/ MANY PEOPLE WKING PART TIME, CONTRACTING, TEMPING, JOB HOPPING, ETC.   
     
    It is widely believed that the days of life long employment & corp career ladders are gone because there has been a decline, but it is not clear if this is temporary or permanent 
     
      Many people feel their jobs are less secure than in the past   
      Some groups of wkrs have suffered a drop in job tenure, but long term employment relationships appear to be more resilient   
     
    The number of non standard jobs, work that is not permanent & full time, is increasing 
     
     
    The 40 hour working week is not as popular as it used to be 
     
     
    More people are working over 40 hours, & more people are also working less than the "standard" week 
     
      People's need for flexibility is one of the key drivers of part time & self employed work   
      Temporary & casual wkrs are more likely to suffer job insecurity, low pay & poor wking conditions   
     
    In the 1990s media interest in job insecurity reached high levels because job insecurity was seen as a major new development in the modern wkplace 
     
     
    Economists generally agree that techl change has widened the earnings gap btwn the more & less educated wkrs 
     
      Orgl change might be having the same effect as techl change in widened the income gap btwn educated & less educated wkrs   
     
    THE CHANGING WORKFORCE CAN BE SEEN IN THE AGING POPULATION, IMMIGRANTS, THE NEW WORK ETHIC OF THE YOUNG, ETC. 
     
     
    An aging population & growing intl migration are set to change the shape of our workforce over coming years 
     
     
    On the aging population, the intl research suggests that in most developed nations, the number of young people entering the workforce over the next few decades will be considerably fewer than the number of people retiring 
     
     
    As a result of less young people entering the workforce while more old people leaving, there will be a decline in the workforce in many nations 
     
     
    Over the next couple of decades, the proportion of the workforce aged over 45 will increase significantly 
     
     
    An older workforce will have higher average levels of work experience &, potentially, higher productivity 
     
     
    An older workforce will need higher average levels of retraining for these wkrs to keep up w/ changing skill demands 
     
     
    Because fewer young people are joining the wkforce, recruiting is becoming more difficult 
     
      Because fewer young people are joining the wkforce, firms are creating more flexible wking arrangements to retain older wkrs & to attract younger ones   
      An increasing proportion of our wkforce is likely to be made up of migrants from non English speaking countries, particularly Asian countries   
      The globalization of the wkforce is going to affect people's work prospects, the strategies firms will put in place, & have a bearing on the sorts of jobs our nation does well   

     
    Internal
    Links

    Top

      Outline on  Democratic Organizational Structure
    External
    Links
      -  Project:  Bureaucratic & Democratic Orgs
    Link
      -  Project:  Govt Orgs & Democracy
    Link
      -  Project:  Democratic Orgs' Effect on Society
    Link
      MOST OF US ARE SOCIALIZED / ACCUSTOMED TO WKING IN AUTHORITARIAN ORGS & CANNOT CONCEIVE OF OR FUNCTION IN DEMOCRATIC WKPLACES   
      Democratic organizations use the structures & culture of democracy to disseminate power w/in the organization to achieve the advantages of democracy  
      Most orgs are authoritarian in that the boss/owner is the absolute ruler  
      Organizations range in political authority, as do countries, from authoritarian to democratic  
      Most organizations are totalitarian / authoritarian  
      Few people feel / see the contradiction of living in a democratic country & working in an authoritarian workplace  
    Link
    Democratic workplaces typically demonstrate increased efficiency  
      Productivity studies show a general increase in productivity when workers control the process of the work  
      During the 1960s & 1970s, the US fell behind Japan & Europe in terms of productivity  
      Japanese workplaces have made TWO democratic innovations  
      1.  QUALITY CONTROL CIRCLES  ( QCCs ) ARE A TYPE OF DEM WKPLACE WHERE WKRS HAVE CONTROL OF QUALITY ISSUES   
     
    QCCs are small to medium sized groups that make suggestions on how to improve the organization  
     
    QCCs have FOUR Functions
     
      a.  QCCs function to improve & develop the organization  
      b.  QCCs function to increase respects for workers, improve human relations & enhance worker satisfaction  
      c.  QCCs function to utilize workers full potential  
      d.  QCCs function to lower production cost, improve product quality, while taking into account worker needs  
     
    Thus the purpose of QCCs is both financial & psychological
    While Japanese wages quadrupled btwn 1969 & 1979, American wages fell during this time
     
      Formal orgs in Japan are like very large primary groups as described by Ouchi & his Theory Z type orgs  
      In developing his Theory Z type orgs Ouchi highlights five differences btwn formal orgs in Japan & in the US, including: hiring & advancement, lifetime security, holistic involvement, broad based training, & collective decision making  
      2.  LIFETIME EMPLOYMENT IS CONSIDERED TO BE ESSENTIAL FOR A DEM WKPLACE BECAUSE IT BUILDS WKR COMMITMENT   
    Link
    Lifetime employment, called tenure by Weber,  fosters loyalty & commitment
     
    Link
    One limitation of the Japanese innovations is that they are limited to the shop floor  
    Link
    Worker management relations in Japan are less conflicted than in US  
      Scandinavian workplaces have made TWO democratic innovations  
      1.  COOPERATIVE WORK AGREEMENTS CREATE DEM DECISION MAKING AT THE UPPER LEVELS OF THE WKPLACE   
      Cooperative work agreements are contracts designed to allow high levels of employee input/power in workplace usually resulting in innovative work processes  
      Example:  At Saab the workers did away w/ the "holy grail" of the assembly line & developed pod production  
      2.  DEMOCRATIC UNIONS MAGNIFY THE POWER OF WKRS WHO MUST DEAL W/ MGT AS EQUALS IN A DEM WKPLACE   
      Democratic unions are those that voice for workers at all levels of the firm, including the shop floor, middle mgt. upper mgt. & the board room  
      If democracy is to succeed as an alternative to bureaucracy, Rothschild-Whitt has found that FIVE characteristics are important
    1.  Small size
    2.  Sense of community
    3.  Socialize outside the job
    4.  Limits on terms of office
    5.  Organized political groups which were institutionalized
     
      'WORK W/O BOSSES' IS KANTER'S CONCEPTION OF A DEM WKPLACE WHERE THE WKRS MAKE ALL THE DECISIONS   
      Work Without Bosses: Organizational Democracy As the Alternative to Bureaucracy, by RM Kanter
    RM Kanter found that cooperatives & collectives utilize FOUR techniques
    1.  Minimum written rules
    2.  Shun specialization through the development of  job rotation & job enlargement
    3.  Eliminate formal positions
    4.  Democratic/consensus decision making
     
     
    RM Kanter found that in order to understand the fundamental differences btwn cooperatives & collectives & traditional organizations, one must distinguish among THREE types of rationality  
      Traditional orgs use either economic rationality or Formal rationality  
      Cooperatives & collectives utilize substantive rationality  
      Orgs that utilize economic rationality focus on developing the most efficient path to achieve a goal  
      Orgs that utilize formal rationality focus on adhering to rules & procedures, w/ goals being secondary  
      Orgs that utilize formal rationality focus on adhering to values over goals, rules, or procedures  
     
    Examples of democratic orgs
    a.  United Airlines            ( ESOP )
    b.  Saab                           ( team structure )
    c.  Saturn                         ( team structure )
    d.  Avis Car Rental          ( ESOP )
     
      There are FIVE orgl features that are important for orgl democracy to succeed  in the US & there are several types of each of these orgl features   
      1.  DEM ORGL STRUCTURE OPERATES DIFFERENTLY THAN THE COMMAND & CONTROL BUREAUCRACY   
     
    Democratic orgl structure has FOUR features
     
      a. Democratic orgl structure has the feature of direct or representative democracy  
      b. Democratic orgl structure has the feature of including democratic unions  
      c. Democratic orgl structure has the feature of supplementing democracy w/ cross division QCCs  
      d. Democratic orgl structure has the feature of bring democratic features to all areas of the organization  
      2.  EMPLOYEE OWNERSHIP, LIKE LIFETIME EMPLOYMENT, BUILDS WKR COMMITMENT   
     
    There are THREE major forms of employee ownership
    a.  Corporation w/ employee stock ownership of at least 51% w/ no one person w/ a controlling block
    b.  Cooperative
    c.  Partnership 
      3.  PAY IS LINKED TO  PRODUCTIVITY BECAUSE THE MOST DEM FORM OF COMPENSATION IS MERIT PAY   
     
    3. There are THREE major forms of  pay linked to productivity 
    a.  Piecework pay
    b.  Innovation pay
    c.  Org wide bonus 
    On average, top level managers cannot earn more than four times the pay of lower level workers
     
      4.  A COOPERATIVE ORGL CULTURE IS PERHAPS THE MOST DIFFICULT ASPECT OF DEMO ORGS BECAUSE PEOPLE ARE ACCUSTOMED TO BEING TOLD WHAT TO DO   
     
    4.  A cooperative orgl culture has SIX aspects
    a.  Psychologically prepared democrats
    b.  Internalized social controls are 
    c.  Commitment to participation
    d.  Ability to be proactive
    e.  Commitment to equality of opportunity & outcome
    f.  Commitment to social responsibility
     
      The informal side of bureaucracy is that members of organizations try to personalize their procedures & surroundings  
      5.  A MINIMUM DIVISION OF LABOR DEMOCRATIZES THE WKPLACE BECAUSE WKRS ARE EXPECTED TO BE ABLE TO PERFORM NEARLY ALL TASKS   
     
    A minimum division of labor may be accomplished through FOUR work processes
    a.  Rotation of work
    b.  Job enlargement
    c.  Work teams
    d.  Cross training
     

     
    Top  
    Democratic workplaces increase efficiency 
    Productivity studies find that workers w/ control of the work process show /\ prod
    Today:  greater competitive pressures so we are attempting to design more efficient workplaces
    US fell behind industrial world ( Japan & Europe ) in this is playing catch up now

     
    Top  
    2.  Lifetime Employment
    Has made Japanese work organizations more efficient 
    Workers are less likely to leave for a better job elsewhere
    The employer is expected not to lay off workers to cut costs
    Top mgt. takes wage cuts
    Workers are retrained & reassigned
    Japanese top execs earn less than American execs    3x   10x

     
    Top  
    Japanese Innovations are limited to shop floor

    Workers have power mostly at the shop floor level.  They still receive goals from top.
    QC circles act w/in framework of goals set by management


     
    Top  
    Worker Management Relationships in Japan are less conflicted

    Also, there is less of a history of worker management. conflict in Japan.
    QCCs have not been widely accepted by unions

    The End
     
    Top