Internal
Links
  Review Notes on  IS 4:   Social Theory
External
Links
 
 Syllabus, Online Course 
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  Resources 
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Outline on IS 4:   Social Theory
  
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 Social Structure   Status & Roles   
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 Intro to Symbolic Interactionism   
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      The Principles of Symbolic Interactionism   
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      Mead on the Genesis of the Self   
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      Cooley on the Looking Glass Self   
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      The Social Construction of Realtiy   
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      WI Thomas   
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      Ethnomethodology   
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      Dramaturgical Approach   
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      Social Analysis of Everyday Life:  Applying Theory   
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 Intro to Functionalism   
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      The Principles of Functionalism   
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      Introduction to Parsons on function & the functional imperatives: AGIM   
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 Intro to Conflict Theory   
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      The Principles of Conflict Theory   
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      Base & Superstructure   

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on  Social Structure
External
Links
  -  Video:  Society, Culture, & Social Structure        2:25
Link
  -  What is society?  Society is made up of social structure & culture  
  SUMMARY: Social Structures have the following characteristics: 
A.  Social grps or orgs
B.  Positions
      1)  Role 
           a. Role set
           b. Role strain
           c. Role conflict
           d. Role exit		 2.  Bases of a position
           a. Class
           b. Status
           i. Ascribed status
           ii. Achieved status
           iii. Master status
           c. Power		 C.  Regular relationships
      1)  Division of labor
      2)  Stratification
D.  Constant share of resources
E.  Historical development
 
  A SOCIAL STRUCTURE IS THE ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY, OUR PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR AS SEEN IN FAMILY STRUCTURE, EDUCATION, ETC.   
 
 Social structure is the organization of society, including institutions, social positions, the relationships among social positions, the groups or orgs that make up society, & the distribution of scarce resources w/in the society  
  Social structure is the patterned & relatively stable arrangement of roles & statuses found w/in societies & social institutions  
  The idea of social structure points out the way in which societies, & institutions w/in them, exhibit predictable patterns of organization, activity & social interaction  
  This relative stability of org & behavior provides the predictability that people rely on in every day social interaction  
  Social structures are inseparable from cultural norms & values that also shape status & social interaction  
 
 Social structure is the organization of society, including
- groups of organizations that
- perform basic functions of society
- support society's culture
- accepted as an essential element in society, that is, are taken for granted 
 
  Social structure is the relatively stable patterns of social behavior  
  In the sense that structure is not visible, it is a reified, abstract concept  
  TODAY THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES INCLUDE PF REG M CEML   
 
  List of Social Structures  (  PF REG M CEML  )
1.  Peers
2.  Family
3.  Religion
4.  Econ / work
5.  Govt		 6.  Military
7.  Charity
8.  Education
9.  Media
10.  Leisure / Recreation
 
  COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES   
 
 Social structures have FIVE components or qualities including being composed of groups, in particular positions, w/ regular relationships to each other, a constant share of resources, & a particular historical development
 
  A.  SOCIAL GROUPS OR ORGANIZATIONS   
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 The first component of a social structure is that is is made up of social groups or organizations
-  two or more people 
-  who share a common purpose
-  have a structure of roles & statutes
 
  Each of the social structures, PF REG M CEML, is composed of orgs, & orgs w/in each of the social structures has similar structures that are unique to that social structure  
  Families have structures made up of the relations btwn different members of the family held together by various familial bonds  
  While different families have some different features of their structures, all families have some structural features in common including parents, guardians, leaders; & children, young adults, dependents; extended members, aunts, uncles, etc. who live together by the bond of procreation or some other intimate bond  
  Economic orgs, i.e. businesses have structures made up of the relations btwn different members of the business held together by various economic bonds  
  While businesses have some different features of their structures, all businesses have some structural features in common including owners, mgrs, partners; & workers, employees who are together by the bond of creation, labor, employment  
  See Also:  Economic Orgs Structure  
  More of the TEN social structures are examined below  
  B.  POSITIONS   
blank The second component of a social structure is that  it is made up of persistent positions are roles, classes, status's, & power which persist over history   
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 1)  A ROLE is any position in a social structure or the expected behavior in a social position  
  a.  A role set is a collection of related roles attached to one social position or status;  sets of expected behavior  
  b.  Role conflict is conflicting or opposing expectations or behaviors among various roles  
  Role conflict can be reduced by "compartmentalizing" our lives  
  c.  Role strain is conflicting or opposing expectations or behaviors w/in same role  
  d.  Role exit is the process by which people disengage from important social roles  
  2)  The three BASES OF POSITION are class, status, & power  
   There is disagreement about which interpretation of position is most important   
  a.  Class is an actor's position ( upper, middle, lower ) in relationship to the economy / their income  
  Listings of classes typically include the upper, middle, & lower classes, but also may be stratified into finer distinctions  
  The most common system of classes today includes the upper, upper middle middle, working, & lower classes  
Link
 b.  Status is an actor's level of prestige or honor  
  Status is a social position that an individual occupies  
 
 There are THREE types of status:  ascribed, achieved, & master  
 
 i.  Ascribed status is the status an actor is born into  
 
 A person generally receives ascribed status through birth, including race, sex, family of origin, etc.  
  An ascribed status is a social position that someone receives at birth or involuntarily assumes later in life  
  ii.  Achieved status is the status an actor earns or creates; i.e. achieved status is at least partially a result of something that the actor does   
 
  An achieved status is a social position that someone assumes voluntarily & that reflects personal ability & effort
 
 
 iii.  Master status is an actor's most important status; i.e. the status that is most central & important in an actor's life  
  A master status is a status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life  
 
 An actor may be able to choose their achieved status, but ascribed & master status' are attributed by society through social structures  
 
 Marx said, 'A person may make history, but they make history under conditions not of their own choosing.'  
 
 For most people in modern industrial countries, their master status is their occupation  
  A status set consists of all the statuses a person holds at a given time  
 
 c.  Power is the authority or the ability to get people to act  
  C.  REGULAR RELATIONSHIPS   
 
 The third component of a social structure is that there are constant or regular relationships among groups & social structures:   
  TWO common types of regular relationships in social structures include a division of labor & stratification  
  1)  The division of labor is the constant allocation of type of labor; a system of specialization  
  2)   Stratification  is the constant allocation of resources; a system of inequality  
  D.  CONSTANT SHARE OF RESOURCES   
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 The fourth component of a social structure is that each social structures, historically, receives a  constant share of resources
Which are the 3 richest social structures?
Which are the 3 poorest social structures?		  
  E.  HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT   
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 The fifth component of a social structure is that social structures each have a unique historical development  
  See Also:  The Organizations that Compose the Social Structures  
  See Also:  Organizational Structure  
  EXAMPLES OF THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES          ( PF REG M CEML )  
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 1.  Peers  
      a.  Groups:  
      b.  Positions  
      c.  Relationships  
      d.  Resources  
      e.  Historical development  
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 2.  Family  
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 3.  Religion  
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 4.  Economy / work  
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 5.  Government  
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 6.  Military  
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 7.  Charity  
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 8.  Education  
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 9.  Media  
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 10.  Leisure / Recreation  

 
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A.  Social Groups:
    In the case of social institutions, MANY people are required
Example: Students are a group in the social structure of education
      Blue collar workers, mgrs., up mgt., stock holders, etc.  in the the social structure of education

 
Top  
1)  Role      EXAMPLES
a.  Role Set:      student,  mother/father,  teacher
b.  Role Conflict:    sales & family life
c.  Role Strain:  sales job conflict among management, customers, co-workers

 
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b. Social Position based on Status
Status:  ( level of prestige/honor ):  any position in SS:  see table in book 
i.  Ascribed Status:  gender, race, religion, family, looks, size, 
ii. Achieved Status:  earn, at least partially as result of own action: most imp:  occupation, education, income, Motherhood
iii. Master Status:  Had been different for men & women:  occupation & Motherhood, looks

 
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D.  Relatively historically constant % of resources is allocated to each social structure
Which are the 3 richest SS's?
Which are the 3 poorest SS's?

Richest                                     Poorest
Econ / work                              Family
Military                                    Peers
Govt                                         Education


 
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E. Each Social Structure has a unique historical development
The SS List presents each SS in its approximately order of historical emergence
1. Peers
2. Family
3. Religion
    Are believed to be prehistorical, the emergence of which made civilization itself possible

4.  Work / econ
5.  Government
6.  Military
7.  Charity
    Are believed to emerge when the 1st glimmers of civilization began

8.  Education
9.  Media
    Emerged early in history, but were only for the elites until the modern era when they became widely available

10.  Leisure / recreation
       Is a product of the late stages industrial revolution


 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
1.  Peers            SS Examples 
Often combined/formed around recreation / leisure
Groups:  (Orgs):   Most peer groups today are informal orgs:
    friends or any group primarily composed of friends:
    frats, sororities, bowling club, bridge club; cliques:
    Jocks, brains, grunges, preps, skanks, gangs use specific
    names, e.g. the CMT, etc.
Positions:  various functional leaders:  most friendship groups  have some informal leader; also:  clown, goat, etc.
Relationships:  division of labor based on position; may divide labor depending on task at hand
Allocation of Resources:  random strat w/in groups;       but preps more likely to be UC; jocks less likely, etc.
History:  It is believed that prior to our development into homo sapiens, that we developed close relationships
It may be this social tie that distinguishes us from other primates, though many other primates do have peer relations
So how are ours different?
Coop to hunt
Breeding males stay in same tribe

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
2.  Family       SS Examples
Groups: (Orgs): Most family groups today are informal orgs:  Smiths, Jones, etc.
Traditional, Non-traditional family, Single Mom, Single Dad, Step, Extended...
The family is legally recognized
Positions are legally recognized
Positions:  Mom, Dad, kids, Head of Household, Step-, Grandma, ....
Relationships:  Mom to daughter, Dad to daughter, Mom to Dad,   Step Dad to Step Kid, 
Traditional family to Traditional family; Single Mom family to Extended family ....
Allocation of Resources:  society is structured so that Non-traditional family (working Mom & Dad) receives most 
    resources;   the least?
History:  The History of family is very complex
H-G society:  matrilineal, serial monogamy
Ancient:  Serial monogamy & polygamy
Industrial:  Monogamy
Today:  Monogamy & serial monogamy

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
3.  Religion          SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most religious groups today are formal organizations
Positions:  Religious leader:  priest, cleric, rabbi, monk etc.         Religious follower: 
Relationships:  varied depending on religion:  e.g. Catholic is more hierarchical; 
Allocation of Resources:  religion estb wealth over time & based on conversions:  older religions more wealthy
History:  Paganism, Polytheism, Monotheism, Secularism

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
4.  Work  (the Economy)      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most econ groups today are formal orgs:  businesses (corporations, partnerships, entrepreneur)
      unions, professional orgs, worker associations; 
     most workers belong only to informal peer/ class groups 
Positions:    Owner, mgr., admin, worker, tech, etc.
Relationships:  most very authoritarian/ hierarchical:
    higher position gives orders to lower position;
    obedience required w/in workplace bounds
Allocation of Resources:  Great strat:  owners, mgrs. etc.
    control wealth of society
History:
H-G society:  Work not recognized as separate activity
Only worked to survive; no wk, no survival
Ancient:  Separate process of wk recognized
   because ruling class emerges, who do not wk
Industrialized society:  Amount of wk in society increases, becomes rationalized
Wk is removed from the home

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
5.  Govt      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most govt groups today are formal orgs 
Positions:  Elected officials, bur, citizens, non citizens
Relationships:  wide range of variation:  democracy to totalitarian
Allocation of Resources:  US govt controls 1/4 to 1/2 GDP
History: 
H-G society:  Govt & peers (tribe) & religion & family all intertwined
Ruled by consent & status
Ancient:  Govt & religion & family still intertwined, but becomes more  removed from the governed
Ruled by violence & authoritarianism
Industrial:  Some vestiges of democracy develop

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
6.  Military      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most mil groups today are formal orgs
Positions:  leaders, soldiers
Relationships:  same hierarchy as econ (econ based on mil model) except that obedience is total
Allocation of Resources:  Lower strat than in econ
History: 
H-G society:  Hunters were also warriors
Little war except to steal wives 
Ancient:  Soldiering becomes an occupation
Div of labor separates out separate class of warriors
Becomes linked w/ govt
Industrial:  Separate of mil from govt

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
7.  Charity     SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most char groups that raise large amounts of $$ today are formal orgs, but many informal groups
    also exist:  Want to contribute to the JJ Kelly Cross Country Team Travel Fund? 
Positions:   formal orgs have typical. mgr/wkr pos;  volunteers
Relationships:   formal orgs have typical. mgr/wkr relations; 
    volunteers maintain relations based on commitment to goals
Allocation of Resources:  formal orgs raise billions;    small orgs raise small amounts for local groups
History: 
H-G society:  if you worked, you shared & received all goods
Ancient:  religion dictates alms for the poor
Industrial:  Charity is business; separated from religion; taken on by govt

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
8.  Education       SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most ed groups today are formal  orgs:   Elementary, middle, high, Community College, College, Grad
Positions:  teachers & students
Relationships:  similar to econ:  voluntary after hi school
Allocation of Resources:  Teachers more than students;    less $$ than govt, wk, mil
History: 
H-G society:  Learn from tribal peers:  man to man; woman to woman
Ancient:  Formal ed develops for elites
Industrial:  Formal ed expands to other classes in the 1800's

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
9.  Media      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most media groups today are formal orgs
Positions:  Mgrs., admin, reporters
Relationships:  similar to econ model
Allocation of Resources:  typical
History: 
H-G society:  gossip
Ancient:  Elites receive news orally by messenger
Writing develops; elites receive some written communication
Industrial:  Use of printing press expands;  Communication avail to all classes

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
See Also:  The Social Structure of Rec & Leisure  
10.  Recreation / Leisure         SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most recreation groups (friends, bridge clubs, etc.)
   today are informal orgs that purchase recreation services from  formal orgs
Positions:  same as friends in informal orgs; same as econ in formal orgs
Relationships:  same as friends & econ
Allocation of Resources:  more $$ spent every day on recreation
History: 
H-G society:  as w/ work, separate spheres of wk & leisure not recognized
Ancient:  leisure seen as time of rest & societal rituals
Industrial:  Leisure develops as industry; people seek fulfillment through leisure

 
Internal
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Top
 Outline on   Intro to Symbolic Interactionism
External
Links
  INTRO:  S - I FOCUSES ON HOW WE CREATE MEANING IN AN INTERACTIVE PROCESS W/ OURSELVES, OTHERS, & SOCIAL STRUCTURES  
  Symbolic interactionism is a micro oriented paradigm which holds that: 
1.  we create meaning in an interactive process w/ ourselves, others, & social structures 
2.  societal level actions are aggregated by the actions of individuals/groups 
3.  what people believe to be true, becomes true in its consequences 
4.  society sends messages, gives rules 
5.  these messages are imprinted on us (through socialization) from childhood on 
6.  the content of these impressions is culture 
7.  social processes / relationships are what construct the individual & society 
8.  there is a 3 way dynamic among the self, society, & the processes of the construction of the self & society 
9.  societies interact through symbolic processes w/ themselves & individuals 
10.  individuals interact through symbolic processes w/ themselves & societies 
 
  S - I metaphor: 
"All the world's a stage,
And all the men & women merely players.
They have their exits & their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven stages."
William Shakespeare, As You Like It ( Act II Scene 7 )
 
  The symbolic interactionist paradigm is a major micro sociological perspective stressing the importance of messages from others & society, how people understand & interpret these messages & how this process affects people's behavior 
 
  Societal level actions are aggregated by the actions of individuals or groups   
 
 FOR S - I, SOCIAL PROCESSES / RELATIONSHIPS ARE WHAT CONSTRUCT THE INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY
 
  Symbolic interactionism is the study of the processes 
  by which human interaction occurs 
  including the interactions 
  btwn individuals & larger society 
  & how that interaction creates society itself 
  & the individual itself 		  
  Symbolic interactionism holds that 
  Society, 
  social interactions, 
  & the self itself, 
  develop / are created through the use of 
  symbols, language, signs & gestures 
 
 
 THERE IS A 3 WAY DYNAMIC AMONG THE SELF, SOCIETY, & THE PROCESSES OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF & SOCIETY 
 
  Symbolic interactionist holds that there is a THREE way dynamic which constructs the self & society 
 
    a.  The self (selves) creates social interactions 
 
    b.  Social interactions create society 
 
    c.  Society creates the self 
 
  Blumer coined the term symbolic interactionism in 1937 
 
 
 SOCIETIES INTERACT THROUGH SYMBOLIC PROCESSES W/ THEMSELVES & INDIVIDUALS  
  Societies do 
  - send messages 
  - give rules 
  - but it is on the individual level that these situations, messages, etc. occur 
 
 
 INDIVIDUALS INTERACT THROUGH SYMBOLIC PROCESSES W/ THEMSELVES & SOCIETY  
  Individuals also 
  - send messages 
  - give rules 
  - but most of these messages & rules are largely shaped by & constrained by society 
 
  Symbolic interactionism developed from social psychology, & still has a strong relationship w/ that field & has inspired a number of other  important subfields: dramaturgy, exchange theory, neuro linguistic programming 
 
  In sociology, most of the ideas of symbolic interactionist are found in the study of socialization   

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the  Principles of Symbolic Interactionism
External
Links
  -  Project:  Messages
Link
  -  Video:  Cast Away:  Hanks & Wilson:      22.45
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  Cast Away, Mead, Cooley, & Symbolic Interactionism 
Link
  FOR SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM, BOTH THE INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY ARE CREATED SIMULTANEOUSLY; THEY CREATE EACH OTHER IN AN ON-GOING PROCESS OF THE MEANING CREATION & INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLS   
  There are SIX Common Principles in Symbolic Interactionism    ( a micro sociological theory )
1.  Individuals send messages 4.  The meaning we perceive shapes our behavior
2.  We receive thousands of messages per day 5.  Our interpretation & behavior creates our self
3.  We interpret messages 6.  The social construction of reality is a dynamic on going process
 
  Symbolic interactionism focuses on how messages are sent, received, interpreted, & shape our "reality" (individual behavior & society)  
  We sometimes notice this "meaning creation process" in stressful situations:
-  Does this person like me?
-  What do these people really want?
-  What is going on here?
-  What am I supposed to do?		  
  But the meaning creation process goes on all the time  
  The meaning creation process is routine in most situations  
  What makes society function smoothly, w/o conflict, w/o chaos, is that most behavior & meaning is routine  
  We establish "habits," "routines," life-styles," "personalities," etc. that create meaning for us  
  1.  INDIVIDUALS SEND MESSAGES   
 
 "Individuals" send messages 
 
  "Society" does & does not send messages  
  Does:  smiles, comments, rules, laws  
  Doesn't:  individuals create this, but as dictated by society  
 
 Examples:  shake hands, bow, hug, high five, look me in the eye; avoid eye contact, hug, kiss, etc.
 
  2.  WE RECEIVE THOUSANDS OF MESSAGES PER DAY   
  We receive thousands of messages per day
 
  Individuals receive messages through the senses, which are then interpreted by the mind  
  Society receives messages through individuals in the social institutions such as family, church, govt, etc.  
  3.  WE INTERPRET MESSAGES   
  We interpret messages:  i.e., we engage in meaning creation  
  Meaning is created, & is not inherent in the situation  
  So reality depends on the content of the messages & situations as well as how the person interprets them  
  The interpretation of reality can often be an important fact in determining the ultimate reality  
  Example:  Hello:  Someone on the street saying "Hello, it's a nice day" 
You may interpret this as a friendly gesture or as an attempt to get something from you		  
Link
 Example:  Shirtless at UVW  
 Link
 4.  THE MEANING WE PERCEIVE SHAPES OUR BEHAVIOR   
Link
 Behavior sends messages.....  
  Examples:  interpreting situations  
  Common social situations for discussion of meaning include major life passages:  birth, marriage, death, retirement, etc.   
  Common situations where we impart meaning, but it is really not a topic of conscious thought include a party, a friendship, a major purchase such as a car, home, major toy etc.  
  For symbolic interactionists, common situations pre influence meanings, such as
 Example:  Religion:  what is the meaning of baptism, communion, confirmation, brisk, etc.?		  
  But as delineated by Marcuse, Habermas et al, major corps do try to create / understand the meaning of these acts so that they can manipulate the meanings to enhance consumption of their products  
  5.  OUR INTERPRETATION & BEHAVIOR CREATES OUR SELF   
  Our interpretation & our behavior, which are the result of messages we send & receive, creates the self  
  We create habits or routines of how we interpret behavior & messages, which are a major aspect of what psychologists call personality  
  We create habits or routines of how we behave & send messages  
  Our interpretations & behaviors become fixed for ourself; our self:  Can I reinterpret my impression of a tattoo?  
  6.  THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY IS A DYNAMIC ON-GOING PROCESS   
 
 These social psychological processes of symbolic interactionism result in the "social construction of reality" which  denotes that their is no objective reality 
 
  "Reality" is constructed via an ongoing social process  
  - The reality that an actor experiences is NOT the same as the objective reality  
  - The interpretation of reality can be as important as reality itself  
  Reality is not simply determined by what goes on in an objective sense  
  Reality is determined by one's subjective or interpretive understanding of the meaning of what happens  
  Meaning is a product of past social experiences because an actor's subjective, interpretive understanding is rooted in past social experiences  

 
Top  
Example:  Topless at UVW  I see man in halls w/o shirt
I try to rationalize why he might be w/o a shirt:
  - came in from outside
  - is involved in sociology project
  - major spill
  - is showing off
He will receive combination of 
  - approval messages
  - disapproval message

I see woman in halls w/o shirt
This is such unacceptable behavior,
I am shocked, but come up w/ different explanations
  - is mentally unstable; risking arrest
  - is streaking

Point is:  I try to create meaning/understand
My meanings shape my behavior


 
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4.  A message's interpreted meaning shapes reality     Meaning shapes behavior  (individual & societal behavior)

If I believe man is showing off, I sneer
If I believe man had major spill, I pity him or offer jacket if I have one

If I believe woman is streaking, I laugh
If I believe woman is unstable, I try to get her help


 
Top  
5.  Behavior sends messages... cycle continues  If I offer my coat to the man or woman, if I have misinterpreted 
   & they do not want the coat, they may laugh & / or threaten me

 
External
Links

Top
  Outline on  Mead on the Genesis of the Self  1863  -  1931
External
Links
  -  Project:  Play at Playing 
Link
  -  Project:  The Generalized Other & Ethical Dilemmas 
Link
  -  Video:  Cooley & Mead            5:36 
Link
  -  Video:  Cast Away:  Hanks & Wilson         22:45 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  Cast Away, Mead, Cooley, & Symbolic Interactionism 
Link
  NEARLY ALL SOC SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THAT PEOPLE DEVELOP AS THEY AGE, MEANING THAT EACH OF US COULD BE DIFFERENT THAN WE ARE TODAY, BASED ON THE SOCIALIZATION / DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF THAT WE EXPERIENCE ESP IN REFERENCE TO OUR SOs & GOs   
  Mead worked in the paradigm of symbolic interactionism & is generally viewed as one of its founders
 
  The genesis of the self is accomplished through socialization & goes through FOUR stages
 
  Self is composed of TWO components:  the   I    & the   me  
  The I is the spontaneous, unsocialized, unpredictable self has awareness of a separate identity
 
 
 The me is the socialized part of individual
The I continues to exist
The self develops attitudes, behavior, & beliefs in order to fit in to society 
( Compare to Freud )
 
 
 For Mead, there are FOUR stages in the development of the self, including
- the tabula rasa stage
- the imitative stage
- the play stage
- the game stage
 
  1.  THE TABULA RASA STAGE: ESSENTIALLY A BLANK SLATE, CAN ONLY IMITATE, & HAVE NO IDENTITY      circa  birth  
  Tabula rasa means blank slate  
  The concept of the tabula rasa denotes that people are born without certain predispositions to develop any particular type of personality  
  During the tabula rasa stage a baby can only do simple imitation  
  Only the I exists  
  We believe that babies believe that only they exist.         The world is under their control  
  During the tabula rasa stage, we have little or no identity  
 
 2.  THE IMITATIVE STAGE:  CAN ONLY IMITATE SOs, 'ME,' I.E. IDENTITY BEGINS EXISTENCE            circa birth to 2 yrs. 
 
  During the imitative stage, we can only imitate others, especially significant others (SO), but the me begins existence  
  For Mead the concept significant other denotes people w/ whom one has a regular, face to face, emotional connection  
  The I continues to exist  
  In the me, the individual carries society w/ them  
  Child can copy / imitate & plays imitation games  
 
 3.  THE PLAY STAGE:  TAKE ON ROLES OF SOC, INTERACT IN STRUCTURED ACTIVITY W/ SOs; 'ME,' I.E. IDENTITY IS ESTABLISHED    circa 2 to 4 yrs.
 
  In the play stage, the child can take on roles of others, especially SOs  
  The me is more developed  
  Socialization begins through interaction w/ the SO  
  The Socialization that is achieved through the interaction w/ the SO:
- establishes sense of self, that is, a distinct identity & an awareness of that identity
- others are seen as having a separate identity
- learn social norms from (a) messages & (b) role models
(SOs from whom child learns to play a role)
- child wants to play 'real games,' but only w/ his or her flexible rules		  
  During the play stage, we develop a sense of identity  
 
 4.  THE GAME STAGE:  TAKE ON COMPLEX ROLES OF THE GOs; ABLE TO CONCEPTUALIZE THE OPINION OF 'SOCIETY'                 circa 5 yrs. & older 
 
  In the game stage, a child can take on the complex roles of generalized others (GO)  
  The generalized other is the classes of people w/ whom a person interacts on the basis of generalized roles rather than on individual characteristics  
  The GO is interaction based on general roles of that individual rather than on specific traits   
  The GO represents actual games; the rules, standards of performance or the attitude of entire community  
  According to Mead, children at the game stage learn that certain positions are occupied by a variety of people & that people in similar social positions frequently behave alike  
  Children in turn are expected to behave in particular ways toward people w/ particular social positions  
  The me has gained all of it's capabilities, but still needs more socialization/knowledge  
  The child moves beyond interacting w/ particular individuals & interacts w/ roles  
  The child moves  from interacting w/ SOs to interacting w/ generalized others  
  At the game stage, the child has generalized from the behavior and expectations of particular individuals to those of anyone playing various roles that relate to whatever role the child is playing at the time  
  The child has gone from interacting with SOs to a new and higher stage of interacting w/ the GO  
  Games are a metaphor for all organized activity:   family, work, etc.   
  In the game stage, one plays actual games & is truly concerned about rules, performance  
  In the game stage, the child wants to appear grown-up  
  In the game stage, one becomes concerned w/ the attitude of the entire community  
 
 During the game stage, a person is expected to behave in particular ways toward people w/ particular social positions
 
  According to Mead, children at the game stage learn that different people behave differently, & that different people also expect children to behave in different ways  
  Children do not yet really understand that how they are expected to behave toward people   
  AT OUR HIGHEST STAGE OF DEV, THE SELF EVALUATES THE SELF   
 
 In the game stage, the self evaluates the self from the point of view of GOs & not merely from point of view of discrete others
 
  The evaluation of the self from the point of view of the GOs is the capacity for abstract thinking, objectivity, & morality
 
  While play requires only pieces of selves, games require a coherent self
 
  The self allows the individual to be a more efficient  member of the society and offers greater coordination of society  
  But the self is not a conformist robot because each self has a unique biographical make-up which shapes the self  
  SOME PEOPLE DEVELOP THE CONCEPT OF A 'HIGHER COMMUNITY' IN THAT THEY RELATE TO A GO WHOM THEY BELIEVE IF MORE MORAL THAN SOCIETY TODAY   
  People have multiple Generalized Others & Selves which provide them w/ an internal dialogue/debate that allows for moral reasoning  
  People can only react against society by setting up a higher sort of society which “out-votes” the one they find  
  To set up a 'higher society,' people must encounter the society of the past, present & future  
  For Mead, institutions, social structures, etc. are common responses of the community  
  The community often acts in an identical way to people  
  Institutions need not destroy or oppress the individual; in fact, many are flexible, progressive & foster individuality  
  Education is the process where the common habits of the community are internalized  
  Mead said, "The self, as that which can be an object to itself, is essentially a social structure, & it arises in social experience… it is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience”  .  
  Mead's statement that the self is a social structure that arises in experience indicates that he thought nurture was the primary source of human behavior  

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on   Cooley's Looking Glass Self    1864  -  1929 
External
Links
  -  Project:  Communications & the Looking Glass Self 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  The Looking Glass Self & the Iron Jawed Angels 
Link
  -  Video:  Cast Away 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  Cast Away 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  Cast Away, Mead, Cooley, & Symbolic Interactionism 
Link
  THE LOOKING GLASS SELF DENOTES THAT OUR 'SELF' IS THE RESULT OF WHAT OTHERS THINK OF US & WHAT WE THINK OF OURSELVES   
  Cooley developed his understanding of a social consciousness in the concept of the looking glass self  
  The essential characteristic of social conduct, according to Cooley, was “taking the attitude of the other” toward one's own conduct  
  We are a mirror for ourselves
One's consciousness is a reflection of what one thinks others think of them
Our self is a reflection of the messages we get from others		  
Link
 Proverb:
A person is made up of three things:
    1.  what a person  thinks of themself
    2.  what others think of them
    3.  the real person
How can this be?  Aren't we one or the other? 
What is meant by this?
Is it correct?
Which part is correct?		  
  Cooley posits EIGHT major points on the development & action of the self  
  1.  THE LOOKING GLASS SELF IS THE CONCEPTION THAT OUR SELF IMAGE DEVELOPS THROUGH TWO WAY SOCIALIZATION  
  Our self image develops through socialization  
  Socialization is the process by which we hold up a mirror to ourselves & others hold up a mirror for us  
  2.  OUR BEHAVIOR IS OVER DETERMINED  
  Our behavior is over determined in that we get 1000's of messages everyday about who we are & who we should be  
  3.  THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF MESSAGES WE RECEIVE VIA THE MIRROR & OTHERS  
  Messages can be conflicting, (in)accurate, good/bad, explicit, implicit, supportive, damaging,   
  Messages can be about the self, others, knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, etc.  
  We gets messages from ourselves  
  We interpret the many diverse messages we receive based on our past experience & the situational norms  
  We gets messages from ourselves, SOs, RMs, GOs, social institutions, & the general public  
 
 4.  IN THE MIRROR, WE DEVELOP SELF FEELINGS  
 
 We imagine how we appear
 
  We imagine what others' judgment of us is  
  We develop self feeling out of our self perception & our perception of others' judgments  
  Children try to imagine what other people think about how they are doing in their various roles & look for explicit & implicit messages from others to find out  
  Once they get such messages they develop ideas about what kind of person they are based on their interpretation of these messages, effecting employing the looking glass  
  The looking glass self allows us to act rather than simply respond to stimuli  
  5.  THE LOOKING GLASS IS A RESERVOIR & IT STORES EVERY MESSAGE     ( Alice's mirror )   
  The reservoir theory of personality has SIX features  
  i.  Messages form a reservoir in us, in that we forget nothing  
  ii.  We are the sum of all the good, bad, & neutral messages we have received  
  iii.  Messages during childhood are imprinted  
  iv.  Messages in adulthood are also important  
  v.  The types of messages all mix together & the majority rules, w/ the exception of powerful messages  
  vi.  Our personality is the result of the "interaction" of all the messages we receive  
  6.  BAD MESSAGES ESSENTIALLY GET DILUTED IN A RESERVOIR OF GOOD MESSAGES   
  7.  A GOOD UPBRINGING IS THE RESULT OF POSITIVE MESSAGES, ATTENTION , EMOTIONAL SUPPORT, PRAISE, RECOGNITION OF LIMITATIONS   
 
 7.  For Cooley, a "good upbringing" is the result of FIVE social processes  
  a.  sufficient positive messages  
  b.  sufficient attention  
  c.  emotional support  
  d.  credit, praise, responsibility  
  e.  reassurance that everybody is not good at everything  
 
 8.  EXCESSIVE CRITICISM, SOME GREAT FAILURE, OR SOME GREAT FAILURE BY AN S.O. MAY LEAD TO LOW SELF ESTEEM & / NEUROSIS   
  For Cooley, we do not necessarily have an accurate understanding or view of the self  
  For Cooley, our limited view of the self is our self image  
  For Cooley, our self image is our sense of what kind of  person we are  
  Therapy, healthy personal growth, a challenge, a truth telling friend/lover, etc. brings our self image closer to our self  
  Other resources on Cooley  
Charles Cooley. Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. (1909)  
  Charles Cooley,  Human Nature & the Social Order. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1956.
What ought to be the emphasis of sociology?  by Debbie Newsome		  

 
Top  
Old Proverb: A person is made up of three things:
       1.  what a person  thinks of themself
       2.  what others think of them
       3.  the real person
What is meant by this?
Is it correct?
Which part is correct?

Cooley believes the self is the result of 
       1.  what a person thinks of themself
       2.  what others think of them
            & 
       3.  "the real person" is a misnomer:  no such thing: 
               we are in a constant state of being which is a negotiation btwn 
               what we believe ourselves to be 
               & what we believe others believe us to be


 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the  Social Construction of Reality
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  The Social Construction of Reality 
Link
  INTRODUCTION: THE SOC CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY EMPHASIZES THAT THE SOC STRUCTURES WE TAKE FOR GRANTED ARE CREATED & RECREATED EVERYDAY IN EVERY RELATIONSHIP 
 
  A division exists w/in soc btwn those who stress the externality & independence of social reality from individuals & those who emphasize that participate fully in the construction of their own lives 
 
  The two schools of thought dealing w/ external soc forces & internal soc forces have many names but may be called structuralists & constructionists 
 
  Following Durkheim, some argue that societies possess social realities of their own which cannot be reduced to the aggregate effect of individuals' actions 
 
  According to this school of thought social phenomena have an objective existence outside of individual members of society and exert a force which shapes individual behavior 
 
  Many social paradigms assume that it is possible objectively to measure items such as social phenomena & social forces 
 
  THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY HOLDS THAT SOCIAL REALITY IS THE RESULT OF OUR OWN INTERPRETATION & BEHAVIOR & IS NOT AN OBJECTIVE REALITY 
 
  Social constructionists stress the fact that social reality is actively constructed & reconstructed by individual actors 
 
  Sociologists working from w/in the social constructionist perspective argue that social phenomena do not simply have an unproblematic objective existence, but have to be interpreted & given meanings by those who encounter them 
 
  In the social construction of reality paradigm, social phenomena have to be socially constructed 
 
  From the social construction perspective, all knowledge of the world is a human construction rather than a mirror of some independent reality 
 
  The 'objective' measurement of social phenomena is actually a social construction grounded on the subjective meanings given to a situation by those doing the measuring 
 
 
 The social construction of reality is the process by which individuals creatively shape reality through social interaction
 
 
 What people commonly call "street smarts" really amounts to constructing reality 
 
  THE THOMAS THEOREM HOLDS THAT AS WE DEFINE SOMETHING AS REAL, WE & OTHERS ACT AS IF IT WERE REAL, & THUS THIS 'REALITY' GAINS POWER / CREDENCE   
 
 The Thomas Theorem, named after WI Thomas, states that situations we define as real become real in their consequences 
 
 
 See Also:  WI Thomas   
 
 Social constructionists note that people in different cultures & classes experience reality very differently 
 
  A schema is a general knowledge framework a person has about a given topic, e.g., a gender schema   
  Schemas shape & guide our perceptions, but may also distort them in that information that doesn’t "fit" w/ our assumptions is often ignored   
  A script is what we have learned to be appropriate sequences of behavior   

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on  W. I. Thomas  1863 - 1947
External
Links
  -  Project:  Beliefs Becoming True in Their Consequences 
Link
Link
 -  Biography & Major Works   
  SOCI SHOULD BE ACTIVIST & REFORMIST; QUALITATIVE METHODS ARE EFFECTIVE   
  His landmark study, The Polish Peasant in Europe & America, (1918), co-authored w/ Florian Znaniecki, reflected the American, & the Chicago school position that sociology should be activist & work toward actual social reform rather than merely, in the European tradition, an academic endeavor  
  Representative of the ecological viewpoint, the Polish Peasant was a study of social disorganization among Polish immigrants  
  The Thomas' used a unique methodology using sources such as autobiographies, paid writings, family letters, newspaper files, public documents & institutional letters  
  PERCEPTIONS ARE AS IMPORTANT AS 'REALITY' IN UNDERSTANDING PEOPLES' SOCIAL ACTION   
  In the Polish Peasant, Thomas coined his now famous phrase, "If men (sic) define situations as real, they are real in their consequences." (Thomas and Thomas, 1928)
 
  Thomas made the connection which emphasized the importance of what people think and how this affects what they do
 
  Thomas' microscopic, social psychological focus contrasted w/ the macroscopic, social structural & social cultural perspectives of Marx, Weber, Durkheim, et al
 
  Symbolic interactionism was to become a major movement w/in the Chicago School
 
  SOCIAL SITUATIONS HAVE AN 'AGREED UPON' REALITY   
  Thomas' work, in emphasizing the power of people's definition of the situation, thereby emphasized the importance of the social situation
 
  The social situation is a reality that is "agreed upon" that is ad hoc (exclusively for a special purpose) for those who participate in it
 
  Each situation confronts one w/ specific expectations & demands specific responses to these expectations
 
  Powerful social pressures exist in just about any social situations to ensure that proper responses occur
 
  Most times, people's definitions of the situation at least approximately coincide even though there can be quite divergent interests
 
  Example of man w/o a shirt:  I construct meaning around this
 
  In actuality, there are only a few unique situations in our life that require definitions that are "societally new"
 
  Examples
Writer & publisher:  each has their expectations about what a book will be about, the style, etc.
Students in a class:  Different students have different preconceived notions about a
      discipline
      Professor
      the subject, etc.
People in a relationship:  friends or lovers or associates
Each of these social groups has expectations that will impact the social construction of their reality 
 
  DEFINITIONS OF SOC SITUATIONS CREATE 'SELF FULFILLING PROPHECIES'   
  Thomas is famous for his quote:  “If men (sic) define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”
 
  "You are my best friend." 
One's interpretation of a social situation influences the way they act
 
  Much of social behavior is a self fulfilling prophecy in that our expectations determine our behavior & the behavior of others
 
  You will come to believe your own act
You will believe it faster if others reinforce it		  

 
Top
  

W. I. Thomas  1863 - 1947

Thomas is noted for his pioneering work on the sociology of migration on which he co-operated with Florian Znaniecki, and for his formulation of what became known as the Thomas theorem, a fundamental law of sociology: "If men define situations as real they are real in their consequences". [Thomas, William I.; Thomas, Dorothy: The Child in America (Alfred Knopf, 1929, 2nd ed., p. 572)]

Top
    
Major Works of WI Thomas

Sex and Society.  1907
The Polish Peasant in Europe and America.  1918-1920
With Robert E. Park and Herbert A. Miller as main authors: Old world traits transplanted.  1921
The unadjusted girl. With cases and standpoint for behavior analysis.  1923
Edited by Morris Janowitz): W.I. Thomas on social organization and social personality.  1966


 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on an Intro to  Ethnomethodology
External
Links
 
 -  Project:  Assessing Ethnomethodology 
Link
  -  Project:  Breaching Experiment 
Link
  -  Project:  Your Ethnomethodological Research 
Link
  -  Project:  Mediation 
Link
  ETHNOMETHODOLOGY IS AN OFF-SHOOT OF DRAMATURGY, PHENOMENOLOGY, & SIMILAR FIELDS   
 
 Harold Garfinkel, a student of Alfred Schutz & Parsons, is the founder & major contributor to ethnomethodology 
 
  Ethnomethodology is a subfield of sociology which studies the way people make sense of their everyday lives   
  Ethnomethodology was founded by Garfinkel in late 1940s   
  The first systematized publication of Studies in Ethnomethodology occurred in 1967   
  Garfinkel coined the term ethnomethodology in the 1960s to signify the methods members of the society use to make & maintain sense of the social world around them  
 
 Ethnomethodology was the first distinctive, significant theory of the American West Coast
 
  Ethnomethodology is now considered mainstream sociology in that ethnomethodologists regularly publish in the American Sociological Review, the American Journal of Sociology, & so on  
  However, the criticisms of ethnomethodology are stinging  
  ETHNOMETHODOLOGY EXAMINES PEOPLES' EVERYDAY KNOWLEDGE & HOW THEY USE IT TO LIVE IN & CONSTRUCT THEIR DAILY WORLD; IT IS 'THE STUDY OF THE PEOPLES' METHODS'  
 
 Ethnomethodology is the study of the "body of common-sense knowledge & the range of procedures & considerations [the methods] by means of which the ordinary members of society make sense of, find their way about in, & act on the circumstances in which they find themselves 
 
  Ethnomethodology examines the methods people use daily to accomplish their everyday lives  
  Ethnomethodology is the body of common-sense knowledge & range of procedures & considerations by means of which ordinary members of society make sense of, find their way about in, & act on the circumstances in which they find themselves  
 
 Theorists in ethnomethodology are interested in the study of everyday life
 
 
 While phenomenological sociologists tend to focus on what people think, ethnomethodologists are concerned w/ what people actually do
 
 
 Ethnomethodologists study conversations & eschew the study of bureaucracy, capitalism, the division of labor, & social systems
 
 
 Ethnomethodologists are interested in how the social forms of bureaucracy, capitalism, the division of labor, social systems, etc. are created in everyday life
 
 
 Ethnomethodology is empirical & does little theorizing
 
 
 Accounts are the process by which people offer accounts of the world; that is, make sense of the world
 
 
 People are reflexively accountable:  we make sense of our internal world & the external world simultaneously via description, criticism, idealization, etc., & as we do so, we alter both worlds
 
 
 The concept of the double hermeneutic, made popular by Schutz & advanced by Giddens, holds that others can never know our world or the world we see because they are both hermeneutically sealed
 
 
 An examination of accounting practices, which detail how members make sense of the world & create micro & macro structures, is the project of ethnomethodology
 
 
 STRAINS W/IN ETHNOMETHODOLOGY / CRITIQUE / WEAKNESSES:  ETHNOMETHODOLOGY FOCUSES ON THE MARGINS OF SOCIETY, WHICH SOME CONSIDER TO BE TRIVIAL 
 
 
 Ethnomethodology focuses on trivial matters such as game rules, deviant sexuality, conversation, laughter, applause, booing
 
 
 Sociology should not lose track of it's consideration of "serious social problems" such as poverty, alienation, etc.
 
 
 In it's pursuit of the trivialities of everyday life, Ethnomethodology lost sight of its phenomenological roots & the concern for conscious, cognitive processes  
 
 While the micro macro link has been central to the theory of Ethnomethodology, a valid examination of the micro macro link  has not materialized   
  Ethnomethodology lost sight of its original radical reflexivity where social activity is always bi directional & is "accomplished" i.e. modified in process to accompanied actors & audience  
  Ethnomethodology & conversation analysis have split into two factions  
 
 Lewis Coser, the President of the ASA in 1975, said ethnomethodology is trivial, a massive cop out, an orgy of subjectivism, & a self indulgent enterprise
 
  Coser says ethnomethodology fails to generate any insights at all:  'it elaborates points which are so commonplace that they are banal'
 
  ETHNOMETHODOLOGY EXAMINES PEOPLES' ACCTS:  HOW THEY MAKE SENSE, CONSTRUCT UNDERSTANDING, DISPLAY MEANING, USE UNDERSTANDING, ETC.   
  Ethnomethodology means, literally, 'the study of people's methods'  
  Ethnomethodology focuses on the way people:
-  make sense of the world, the way they 
-  construct their understanding of the world, the way they 
-  display their understandings, & the way they 
-  use their understanding		  
  Our understanding of the world is not simply an individualistic, unorganized random body of knowledge, rather it is shaped by many forces, physical, natural, social, etc. & it is sociology's job to uncover & understand these forces  
  The term accounts is used to describe a person's, or several person's understandings of a situation  
  Accounts make one's actions & interpretations mutually intelligible meaning that they are commonsensical & intuitive to others  
  Accounts are more or less reflexive in that at times they are flexible & adapting to changing understandings & situations, which at other times they may be solid, maintained by existing culture & social structure  
  Ethnomethodology focuses on how accounts, our systematized understandings, are organized in the ongoing moment to moment maintenance of social order  
  The social sciences seeks to provide accounts of society which compete with those offered by other members; all accounts compete w/ other accounts  
  The documentarian method is used to read every day events as opportunities by which members of the community use their cultural competence & indexical (contextual) knowledge to make sense of the world  
  To say that words, behavior, understanding are indexical means that they are reliant for their meaning on the context in which they are used  
  Ethnomethodology provides insights into the objectivity of social science & the difficulty in establishing a description of human behavior which has an objective status outside the context of its creation   
  Ethnomethodology has had an impact on linguistics & particularly on pragmatics, spawning a whole new discipline of conversation analysis  
  Ethnomethodological studies of work have played a significant role in the field of human computer interaction, improving design by providing engineers w/ descriptions of the practices of users  
 
 ETHNOMETHODOLOGICAL INDIFFERENCE IS THE RELUCTANCE TO EMBRACE THEORY FROM OTHER SCHOOLS, OR EVEN FROM THEIR OWN SCHOOL 
 
  Ethnomethodological indifference is a policy of deliberate agnosticism towards social theory  
  It is a specialized application of the phenomenological technique of bracketing  
  By deliberately suspending our preconceived notions of how the social order is maintained, we are able to more clearly see the social order in its actual, real time, moment to moment production  
 
 DURKHEIM WOULD NOT BE CONSIDERED AN ETHNOMETHODOLOGIST, BUT HE DID ADVOCATE 'TREATING SOCIAL FACTS AS THINGS' 
 
  Durkheim famously recommended that we 'treat social facts as things'  
  Treating social facts as things is usually taken to mean that we should assume the objectivity of social facts as a principal of study   
  For Durkheim & many others the establishment of social facts provided the basis of founding sociology as a science  
  Garfinkel's alternative reading of Durkheim is that we should treat the objectivity of social facts as an achievement of society' members, thus making this achievement of objectivity the focus of study  

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the Dramaturgical Approach
External
Links
  -  Project:  Dramaturgical Life 
Link
  LIFE MAY BEST BE UNDERSTOOD AS THEATER, A PERFORMANCE, IN THAT WE ACT AT BEING OUR SELF   
  The dramaturgical approach uses the theater as a metaphor for life, assuming that we are all, more or less, acting at being our self   
  For many people, the theatrical approach of sociology is simultaneously dismaying & empowering   
  The theatrical approach of dramaturgical theory is dismaying in that lay people find it disturbing to believe that "we all simply put on an act"   
  The implication of dramaturgical theory is that we are, in existentialist philosophers' terms, inauthentic, or in Marxist terms, alienated   
  However, this lay view is inaccurate, because what the dramaturgical approach is saying is that we all must act at something & the act which we choose is authentic to the extent that we freely choose it, & alienated to the extent that we act an act that we did not choose   
  Dramaturgical theory is empowering, at least on the micro- or individual level in that, if I am merely acting, then I can choose to change my act   
  At times, dramaturgical theory can seem somewhat cavalier in its assumption of the ease w/ which one can change one's act   
  While symbolic interactionism emphasizes the extent to which we create ourselves, as does the dramaturgical approach, symbolic interactionism also emphasizes the extent to which others, socialization, & social structures impact our micro- level behavior, while the dramaturgical approach largely chooses not to address these factors   
  For the dramaturgical approach, we are not merely acting in that we never know who is the actor & who is the character we are portraying   
  The actor tends to actually become the character; the character becomes the actor   
  Because our life has a live audience, the actor shapes the character in relation to the audience setting, etc., thus our character is not only of our own construction, it is socially constructed   
  Because we have only our actor & our character, we have a 'true self' only to the extent that we know our actor, our character, & what we believe we can & cannot be   
 
 MANNING ( 1992) HOLDS THAT WE STRIVE TO POSSESS PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE, TO SHOW INVOLVEMENT, TO SHOW ALOOFNESS, TO BE ACCESSIBLE 
 
  1. Actors must display situational propriety in that they need practical knowledge of the social situation; i.e. the etiquette of the situation 
 
  2. In most situations, actors must show an appropriate level of involvement 
 
  3. In most anonymous situations, actors must show an appropriate level of civil inattention & maintain the appropriate role distance 
 
  4. In most situations, actors must be accessible to others & demonstrate similar meanings/symbols 
 
  A DIALECTIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ORGANIZATION THEATER METAPHOR HOLDS THAT ORGS STRIVE TO PRESENT THE SELF THAT THEY WANT OTHERS TO EXPERIENCE   
  For Boje, Luhman, & Cunliffe, org studies uses "theater" as a metaphor for org life as:   
  -  organizing is like theater, a perspective adopted by those who subscribe to a Goffman approach to dramaturgy   
  -  the more literal organizing is theater, a perspective adopted by those who subscribe to a Burkean approach   
  -  a dialectic view wherein theater is both life & metaphor   
  -  a method for empowerment & consciousness raising   
  The dialectic view contrasts the theatrical opposition society of spectacle & society as carnivalesque resistance   
  The concept of the theater of the oppressed empowers spectators to be become spect-actors   
  The theater of the oppressed fosters the possibility of critical consciousness & praxis transforming formal spectacle through experiments in emancipatory carnival like theater   
 
 DRAMATURGICAL ANALYSIS EXAMINES "THE PRESENTATION OF SELF," I.E. HOW & WHY WE DEPICT PARTICULAR ASPECTS OF OURSELF 
 
 
 Dramaturgical analysis consists of the definition of social interaction in terms of theatrical performance 
 
 
 The presentation of self, an individual's effort to create specific impressions in the minds of others, is a central focus of dramaturgy 
 
 
 A.  PERFORMANCES ARE SHORT PRESENTATIONS OF THE SELF IN PARTICULAR CONTEXTS 
 
  Performances include dress, i.e. costume, objects carried along, i.e. props, & tone of voice & gestures, i.e. manner   
  1. An Application: The Doctor's Office   
  Performances have front & back regions   
  The reception area is the "front region" of a physician's office   
  The physician's private office & examination rooms are the "back region" of the setting   
  B.  NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IS OFTEN MORE INFLUENTIAL THAN WHAT IS SAID IN THE PRESENTATION OF THE SELF   
  Nonverbal communication consists of communication using body movements, gestures, & facial expressions rather than speech   
  Most of Nonverbal communication is culture specific   
  Close attention to nonverbal communication is often an effective way of telling whether or not someone is telling the truth   
  1. Body Language & Deception   
  The key to detecting lies is to view the whole performance w/ an eye for  inconsistencies   
  C.  GENDER, LIKE ANY DEMOGRAPHIC OR STRUCTURAL FACTORS, BOTH LIMITS & EXPANDS PERFORMANCE POSSIBILITIES   
  Gender affects personal performance in such areas as: 
a.  demeanor 
b.  use of personal space, the surrounding area over which an individual makes some claim to privacy 
c.  staring, smiling, & touching 		  
  D.  FOR THE SELF, OUR PERFORMANCE IDEALIZES OUR SELF TO OUR SELF, BUT OTHERS MAY BE ABLE TO 'SEE THROUGH IT'   
  Performances usually idealize our intentions   
  From the dramaturgical perspective, we are more likely to fool ourselves than others   
  E.  EMBARRASSMENT OCCURS WHEN WE FEEL OUR PERFORMANCE IN INADEQUATE   
  Embarrassment, i.e. discomfort following a spoiled performance, & tact, i.e. helping someone save face, are additional important dramaturgical concepts   

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the  Social Analysis of Everyday Life
External
Links
  INTRO:  SOC ANALYSIS EXAMINES ALL MICRO OR PERSONAL LEVEL TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS & THE FACTORS AFFECTING THEM   
  The analysis of the practices of the social analysis of everyday life, the reciprocities & cultural arrangements of everyday life, is part of micro sociology   
  The social analysis of everyday life provides a critique of the anonymity, alienation & remoteness of macro institutions such as the economy & the state   
  There are various traditions in sociology of the study of the everyday world   
  The study of everyday life has been fundamental to the development of German social theory   
  Much of our everyday life consists of negotiations of identities   
  As we make sense of our environment, the space & order around us, & when we meet others & establish relationships, we develop our identity   
  Our ethnicity is one example of part of our identity that we construct it & it is constructed for us   
  For many of us, our ethnic identity is a salient part of our daily lives   
  While we may not feel ethnically identified, we do have an ethnic role that is played out in a less than conscious manner   
  The purpose of the social analysis of everyday life is the application of social sciences to everyday interactions in order to reveal the underlying patterns & order of everyday life   
  Analysts may thus gain fresh insights into events & situations that might otherwise be taken for granted   
  While the focus of social analysis of everyday life is primarily on processes of interaction, it also examines the nature of connections btwn social structures & everyday face to face encounters   
  Everyday life analysis provides an engaging treatment of issues that resonant w/ peoples' daily experiences   
  Common topics today in everyday life analysis include cultural differences in nonverbal gestures to the debate over the boundaries of gender & sex, from the proliferation of online dating to the implications of the contemporary self help movement   
  The social analysis of everyday life often investigates micro level processes, using observational field work   
  See Also:  Social Sciences Methods   
  The social analysis of everyday life is a micro oriented methodology that has frequently been criticized for focusing on trivial issues such as fashion, manners, boredom, etc.   
  While many analyses do stop w/ the trivial, others continue & link patterns of everyday life w/ patterns in the macro structure that deal w/ social problems such as exploitation, poverty, injustice, etc.   
  A.  THE APPLICATION OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF EVERYDAY LIFE EXAMINES EMOTIONAL LIFE, BIOLOGICAL FACTORS, CULTURAL FACTORS, & THE AUTHORITY STRUCTURES OF CLASS, RACE, & THE ECON   
  Emotions, more commonly called feelings, are an important dimension of  everyday life 
 
  Indeed, what we think often matters less than how we feel about it 
 
  1.  A biological analysis of emotions demonstrates that our emotional state creates a cocktail of hormones & other chemicals in our body which impact our perception & expression 
 
  Studying people all over the world, Ekman reports that people everywhere express six basic emotions, including: 
a. happiness
b. sadness
c. anger		 d. fear
e. disgust
f. surprise
 
  2. A cultural analysis of emotions demonstrates that our emotional state is impacted by factors such as knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, symbols, language, etc. 
 
  Culture plays an important role in guiding human emotions 
 
  a.  Culture defines what triggers an emotion 
 
  b.  Culture provides rules for the display of emotions 
 
  c.  Culture guides how we value emotions 
 
  3.  A social analysis of emotions on the job demonstrates that emotions are impacted by authority structure, class, race, econ factors, etc. 
 
  In the US, most people are freer to express their feelings at home than on the job 
 
  b.  We socially construct our emotions as part of our everyday reality, a process sociologists call emotion management 
 
  B.  A SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE & GENDER EXAMINES HOW WE DEFINE OURSELVES BASED ON THE 'TEXT' WE CONSTRUCT IN LANGUAGE   
 
 A social analysis of language & the social construction of gender demonstrates that language defines men & women differently in several ways, including the: 
 
  a.  use of personal & orgl power   
  b.  social construction & expression of values   
  c.  social construction & expression of attention esp in relation to gender & sexuality   
  C.  HUMOR CAN BOTH ENERGIZE / SUPPORT A PERSON OR GRP, OF BE USED TO EXPLOIT / PUT DOWN A PERSON OR GRP   
  The social construction of humor plays a vital part in everyday life   
  1. The Foundation of Humor   
  Humor is a product of reality construction; it stems from the contrast btwn two different realities: conventional & unconventional   
  2.  The Dynamics of Humor: "Getting It"   
  To "get" humor, the audience must understand the two realities involved well enough to appreciate their difference   
  3.  The Topics of Humor   
  For everyone, humor deals w/ topics that lend themselves to double meanings or controversy   
  4. The Functions of Humor   
  Humor provides a way to express an opinion w/o being serious   
  Humor relieves tension in uncomfortable situations   
  Most excluded groups become mainstream first by appearing in comedic settings including radio, TV, etc.   
  5. Humor & Conflict   
  Humor is often a sign of real conflict in situations where one or both parties choose not to bring the conflict out into the open   
 
 OTHER THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF EVERYDAY LIFE BY SCHUTZ,  HABERMAS, & OTHERS EXAMINE HOW WE TEND TO DIVIDE EVERYDAY LIFE FROM OTHER SPHERES OF LIFE SUCH AS THE PUBLIC SPHERE, THE WORK SPHERE, ETC. 
 
  Schutz attempted to analyze the taken for granted assumptions of common sense thought in everyday interaction which depend on routine typifications of reality   
  See Also:  Schutz   
  One of Schutz's concern's was the differentiation btwn we relationships & they relationships   
  In relationship to emotions, one shares emotions much more in personal relationships than w/ impersonal ones   
  In the work of Habermas there is thus an important contrast btwn life world & social system, in which the process of modernization & rationalization brings about a colonization of the life world   
  See Also:  Habermas   
  The life world is regarded as authentic, while the institutions of the rationalized social system are manufactured   
  Humor is shared w/in the life world but has resisted rationalization in or by the system   
  Humor about the system continues to challenge it's alleged rationality   
  In Marxism, Lefebvre (1947) argued that we must understand how capitalism brings about alienation in daily life through the separation of work, household & leisure   
  See Also:  Marxism   
  The consumer society resulted in the commodification of daily life   
  Conflict theorists & Marxists would note that gender conflict is natural, but the oppression of one group by another, including patriarchal oppression, has deep roots in economic exploitation   
  An important application of the soc analysis of everyday life & Marxism links such social phenomenon as the direct oppression of women via violence, pornography, etc. & the structural oppression of women as seen in lower average salaries, less political power etc.   
  Post modern (PM) studies of culture have claimed that there has been an numbing of everyday life in which mundane objects in the everyday world are increasingly influenced by style & fashion   
  See Also:  Post Modernism   
  Ordinary objects are not developed merely for their utility or by ordinary people as a representation of their culture, but rather are influenced by the fashion industry in that they are now designed by "cultural miners" who rationalize the consumption & sale for profit of "cultural commodities" (which is a contradiction in terms)   
  PM looks at emotion & notes that, as do soc analysts of everyday life, that humor is socially constructed, & has a soci histl development as in comparing the slapstick of the 1920s w/ the stand up comedy of today   
  See Also:  Functionalism   
  For functionalism, the causes & effects of emotion, gender, & oppression are over determined by the socialization processes found in culture & social structure   
  The soc analysis of everyday life downplays structural causes & effects, but a combination of macro & micro theory such as of the soc analysis of everyday life & functionalism often provides the best analysis of social reality   

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on the Introduction to Functionalism
External
Links
 
 FUNCTIONALISM VIEWS SOCIETY AS A LIVING ORGANISM 
 
 
 Functional theory is often traced from Durkheim to the Chicago School to Parsons & Merton 
 
 
 Early social thinkers likened the operation of society to that of a living organism, such as the human body, exemplifying the quality of consensus   
 
 LIKE AN ORGANISM, SOCIETY EXEMPLIFIES THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:  NEEDS, REPRODUCTION, COMPETITION, COOPERATION, & ORDER   
  Like an organism, society exemplifies the FIVE characteristics of life: 
- has needs (need inputs) 
- has ways to reproduce 
- competes 
-  cooperates 
- needs order or it is "sick" or has "cancer" 
 
  THE QUALITIES OF SOCIETY ARE THAT IT HAS PARTS CALLED SOCIAL STRUCTURES, THAT ARE INTERDEPENDENT, & THEY FUNCTION TO PRODUCE CONSENSUS & STABILITY   
 Link
 Functionalism views society as having FOUR qualities: 
Society has 
- parts                                    ( social structures ) ( PF REG M CEML ) 
- that are interdependent         ( mutual interrelations ) 
- that function to produce       ( functional requisites ) 
- consensus & stability           ( society is in equilibrium ) 
 
 
 FUNCTIONALISM IS A MACRO PARADIGM is a macro paradigm / perspective (set of theories) 
 
  Functionalism is a paradigm & is therefore contains many theories such as: 
- order perspective                - systems theory 
- structural functionalism        - neo-functionalism 
- consensus theory 
 

 
Top
    

4.  Society is made up of interdependent parts:
The parts / components of society are termed Social Structures 
1.   Peers  6.   Military
2.   Family 7.   Charity
3.   Religion 8.   Education
4.   Work (economy) 9.   Media
5.   Government 10. Recreation/leisure
       PF REG M CEML

 
 Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the  Principles of Functionalism
 External
Links
 
 -  Project:  The American Dream 
Link
  THE EIGHT PRINCIPLES OF FUNCTIONALISM   
  The EIGHT principles of functionalism include: 
1. consensus 
2.  equilibrium 
3.  interdependence 
4.  social structures 		 5.  functional imperatives 
6.  dysfunctions 
7.  needs or goals 
8.  culture
 
  1.  CONSENSUS:  THERE IS A GENERAL CONSENSUS ON THE MAKE UP OF CULTURE & SOCIAL STRUCTURE   
  Functionalists agree that there is a general consensus of culture & social structure which is embodied in the American Dream & how we achieve it   
  There is a normative consensus:  i.e. agreement on values, norms, etc.   
  Functionalists focus on the social order as based on tacit agreement   
  Change is slow & orderly   
  What are some examples of consensus in society?   
Link
 What makes up "The American Dream?"  
  2.  EQUILIBRIUM:  ONCE SOCIETY ACHIEVES THE FORM BEST ADAPTED TO THE ENV, IT IS IN EQUILIBRIUM   
  Social change will occur only when the society needs to adapt to a new situation  
   Note:  Functionalism is considered to have a weak theoretical explanation of social change  
  3.  INTERDEPENDENCE:  THE PARTS OF SOCIETY ARE HEAVILY INTERDEPENDENT & INTEGRATED   
 
 Early social thinkers likened the operation of society to that of a living organism, such as the human body
 
  The functioning of the body depends on the heart, brain, lungs, & other vital organs  
  A malfunction in any one interdependent part of society / the part can affect the entire body   
Link
 4.  SOCIAL STRUCTURES (AKA SOCIAL INSTITS) ARE THE ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY   
  Social structures are groups of organizations that perform the basic functions of society, supports society's culture, & are accepted as an essential element in society, i.e. they are taken for granted   
  5.  FUNCTIONS:  SOCIETY FUNCTIONS TO FULFILL ITS NEEDS  ( i.e. the American Dream )  
  According to the functionalist perspective, characteristics of any society developed because they met the needs of that society   
Link
 A Chart on Parsons' Functional Imperatives:  AGIM  
Link
 A Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures  
Link
 A Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives, Social Structures, Manifest & Latent Functions, & System of Manifest Functions
 
  Manifest functions are societal functions that are obvious & open  
  Latent functions are functions that are not obvious or openly acknowledged  
  6.  DYSFUNCTIONS:  MERTON MODIFIED FUNCTIONALISM TO SHOW THAT SOCIETY BOTH FUNCTIONS & DYSFUNCTIONS   
  Society can embody structures, processes, goals, etc. which ultimately hinder or even destroy society   
  7.  NEEDS OR GOALS:  SOCIETY CREATES & THEN PURSUES ITS NEEDS / GOALS   
  The concept of "function" denotes that the characteristics of any society developed because they met the needs /goals of that society  
  Note that critics of functionalism hold that goal creation by society is anthropomorphizing a thing & is teleological   
  8.  CULTURE IS THE SHARED KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES, & NORMS BY WHICH A SOCIETY DEFINES ITSELF   
  Culture is equally important as social structure as a determinant of social action of individuals   
  FUNCTIONALISM IS A PARADIGM THAT IS CONSERVATIVE, ESCHEWS ACTIVISM, & COMPETES W/ CREATIONISM & CONFLICT THEORY   
  Functionalism has a conservative outlook
Functionalism was influenced by European sociology, but not Marx, & was more abstract		  
  As Functionalism rose in prominence in sociology, the activism of the Chicago School was lost  
  Competing perspectives
- Creationism & evolution
- Expanding universe & collapsing universe		  
  Functionalism & conflict theory are competing paradigms  
  MERTON'S ACCEPTANCE OF DYSFUNCTION IS AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF CONFLICT THEORY   
  Merton's Functionalism parallels conflict theory in the belief that
- there is dominance over some social groups by other other social groups
- subordinate groups conflict/struggle w/ dominant groups
- order is based on manipulation & dominance
- change is rapid & disorderly		  
 
 Symbolic interactionism does not directly compete w/ functionalism or conflict theory
 

 
Top
  
Norms & values & physical characteristics of  "The American Dream:"

Cultural Components
Live free                            fairness, justice, meritocracy
work hard                           religion
be honest                            democracy
get ahead                            travel
scientific outlook               respect others...
home                                  family/friends 

Social Structure:   How we achieve the American Dream:
Peers, Family religion, Work, govt, Military, charity, Education, Media, Leisure / Recreation


 
Top
  
Chart of Parson's Functional Imperatives:  AGIM
1. Adaptation Adapt to the environment (social & physical)
2. Goal setting Set Goals for social & sub-systems of society & people
3. Integration Integrate in new systems, procedures, people, etc.
4. Maintaining Maintain old systems, procedures, people, etc.

 
Top
    
Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures
.
Social
Institution
Manifest
Function
1.
Peers
Integration
2.
Family
Maintenance
3.
Religion
Maintenance
4.
Work (The Economy)
Adaptive
5.
Govt (Politics)
Goal Setting
6.
Military
Adaptive
7.
Charity
Integration
8.
Education
Adaptive
9.
Media
Integration
10.
Recreation / Leisure
Maintenance

 
Top
    
Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives, Social Structures, Manifest & Latent Functions, & System of Manifest Functions
.
Social
Institutions
Manifest
Function
Latent
Function
System of
Manifest Function
1.
Peers
Integration
Maintenance
Social
2.
Family
Maintenance
Integration
Cultural
3.
Religion
Maintenance
Integration
Cultural
4.
Work (The Economy)
Adaptive
Integration
Behavioral
5.
Govt (Politics)
Goal Setting
Integration
Personality
6.
Military
Adaptive
Integration
Behavioral
7.
Charity
Integration
Maintenance
Social
8.
Education
Adaptive
Integration
Behavioral
9.
Media
Integration
Goal Setting
Social
10.
Recreation / Leisure
Maintenance
Integration
Cultural
Note, the manifest/latent functions may change over time

 
External
Links

Top
An Outline on the  Introduction to Talcott Parsons on Structural Functionalism
External
Links
  THE FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES MEET SOCIETAL NEEDS FOR ADAPTATION, GOAL SETTING, INTEGRATION, & MAINTENANCE   
 
 Parsons viewed society as a stable, though complex, system of interdependent parts each serving a function  
  A function is a complex of activities trying to meet needs of a system  
  A function is a consequence of a social arrangement that is in some way useful for the system  
 
 FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES ARE THE PROBLEMS OR NEEDS THAT A SYSTEM MUST SOLVE OR MEET
 
  According to Parsons:
1.  society has indispensable needs:  functional imperatives
2.  society functions to meet these functional imperatives
These are requirements by the nature of things		  
  Parsonian Functionalism parallels Darwin's Evolutionary Theory   
  -  Society functions under the evolutionary imperative of the survival of the fittest  
  -  Society takes its particular form because that form works well for the people & institutions of society  
Link
 A Chart of Parsons' Functional Imperatives: AGIM  
  1.  ADAPTATION:  SOCIETY ADAPTS TO THE SOCIAL & PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT  
  In order to achieve the functional imperative of adaptation, a system must obtain resources or facilities from the system's external env, & distribute them throughout the system  
 
 Adaptation is adjustment to the environment
 
  The economy / business, the military, & education are the primary social structures of adaptation in society today  
  2.  GOAL ATTAINMENT:  SOCIETY SETS GOALS FOR SOCIAL SYSTEMS & SUB SYSTEMS OF SOCIETY & PEOPLE  
  Because goals are often set by the govt, though this is changing, when goals are set for society & people, in practice this is setting goals for the govt & the polity ( the people )  
  3.  INTEGRATION:  SOCIETY ENCOUNTERS NEW SYSTEMS, PROCESSES, GROUPS, ETC., & MUST INTEGRATE THEM INTO THE WHOLE   
  Society Integrate in new systems, procedures, people, etc.    harmonizes people, social groups, & structures  
  Integration involves elements which establish control  
  The social structures whose manifest function is integration include peers, charity, & the media  
  4.  MAINTENANCE:  THROUGH THE FUNCTION OF MAINTENANCE, SOCIETY PASSES ON ITS CULTURE & SOC STRUCTURE WHEN IT PASSES ON TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS, ALL SOCIAL PRACTICES, ETC.   
 
 Society Maintains or sustains old systems, procedures, people, history/social patterns, etc.
 
  Society preserves coherence & solidarity in society  
  Maintains & coordinates subsystems & prevents major disruption  
  The social structures whose manifest function is maintenance include the family, religion, & recreation / leisure  
 
 Note: In Parsons' Structural Functionalism, the functional imperatives of maintenance & integration may conflict
 

 
Top
  
Chart of Parson's Functional Imperatives:  AGIM
1. Adaptation Adapt to the environment (social & physical)
2. Goal setting Set Goals for social & sub-systems of society & people
3. Integration Integrate in new systems, procedures, people, etc.
4. Maintaining Maintain old systems, procedures, people, etc.

 
Top    
Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures
.
Social
Institutions
Manifest
Function
1.
Peers
Integration
2.
Family
Maintenance
3.
Religion
Maintenance
4.
Work (The Economy)
Adaptive
5.
Govt (Politics)
Goal Attainment
6.
Military
Adaptive
7.
Charity
Integration
8.
Education
Adaptive
9.
Media
Integration
10.
Recreation / Leisure
Maintenance

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the Introduction to Conflict Theory
External
Links
  CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSES ON CLASS CONFLICT OVER CONTROL OF THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION (THE ECONOMY)   
  The conflict paradigm is a macro sociological perspective based on the key premise that society is made up of groups that compete, usually w/ unequal power, for scarce resources; conflict & change are seen as the natural order of things   
 
 PEDIGREE:  Conflict theory generally runs from Marx to Mills to Dahrendorf & Collins   
Link
 SUMMARY of the principles of conflict theory:
1. Our human nature is that we labor / create  7. Conflict does not always mean violence
2. Economic relations are the "base" of society  8. Capitalism is destructive of humanity
3. People, groups, etc. have conflicting self interests  9. The upper class controls the economy, & thus all of society
4. There is class conflict  10. Culture is shaped by the economic base of society
5. Conflict is the energy of social change  11. Consciousness is shaped by the interaction of material (working)
6. Society is in state of struggle & social change          conditions & the dominant culture in which one finds oneself
 
  THE QUALITIES OF SOCIETY INCLUDE CLASSES IN CONFLICT, OVER RESOURCES, OVER IDEOLOGY, IN A HISTL CLIMATE OF DOMINATION BY THE UPPER CLASS   
  Conflict theory focuses on FOUR qualities of society: 
a.  Society has 2 or more classes of people who are in conflict    (competition) 
b.  Different groups in society are in conflict over control of resources 
c.  Different groups in society are in conflict over control of ideology 
     ( Ideology is a world view, including  knowledge, opinions, etc.) 
d.  Historically one group has dominated 
 
  MARX, THE FATHER OF CONFLICT THEORY, WAS A REPORTER, ACTIVIST, & ACADEMIC IN THAT HE WROTE & ABOUT & PARTICIPATED IN SOCIAL CHANGE IN HIS TIME   
  Modern conflict theory is largely an outgrowth of the theories of Karl Marx  1818  -  1883   
  Review:  Marx   
  Marx was an advocate for the workers, a radical organizer, a newspaper writer, & was exiled from several countries in Europe 
 
  Again, the question is:   "Why does the society take the form that it does?" 
 
  Off shoots of Marxism include conflict theory, neo Marxism, critical theory, Frankfort School, post modernism, class theory, pluralism 
 

 
 Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the Principles of  Conflict Theory
 External
Links
  -  Project:  We Are What We Do
Link
 
 -  Project:  Class & False Consciousness
Link
  -  Project:  Class & False Consciousness CEO Pay & "The American Dream:"  Conflict Theory 
Link
  -  Video:  CEO Pay & "The American Dream:" 
Link
 
 Principles of conflict theory are a subset / revision of Marxism  
Link
 Summary of the Principles of Conflict Theory:
1. Our human nature is that we labor / create 7. Conflict does not always mean violence
2. Economic relations are the "base" of society 8. Capitalism is destructive of our humanity
3. People, groups, etc. have conflicting self interests 9. The upper class controls the economy, & thus all of society
4. There is class conflict 10. Culture is shaped by the economic base of society
5. Conflict is the energy of social change 11. Consciousness is shaped by our work & the culture 
6. Society is in state of struggle & social change        in which we exist 
 
  1.  OUR HUMAN NATURE IS THAT WE LABOR / CREATE   
 
 There are many theories / conceptions of human nature  
 
 Marx called our human nature our "species being"  
 
 People are "naturally" "laborers"  
 
 People work on the social, material & natural world of which they are part  
 
 In "working" on the world, people change the world,  the world changes them ( natural selection) & the activities in which we engage change us  
 
 2.  ECONOMIC RELATIONS ARE THE "BASE" OR FOUNDATION OF SOCIETY   
 
 The economic system determines / strongly influences the cultural system  
Link
 See the Chart on the Base & Superstructure  &  See Also:  The Relationship btwn the Base & Superstructure  
  The economy may be seen as the basis of all social relations in society  
  When fundamental economic relations fail, all other human relations fail  
  Normal economic relationships impact all other relations in society  
  3.  PEOPLE, GROUPS, ETC. HAVE CONFLICTING SELF INTERESTS   
  People, groups, etc. have conflicting self interests  
  Groups (classes) conflict because there is competition over scarce resources  
  When Marx formulated his theory, the major split of interests was seen as being btwn owners & workers  
  Today we see all classes in a struggle w/ each other  
  Example:  How does more pay for coal miners affect the other groups?  
  Groups w/ an advantage will attempt to preserve the status quo: i.e. the existing set of arrangements  
  Conflict theorist will see society in conflict whereas functionalists will see society as interdependent/cooperative  
  4.  THERE IS CLASS CONFLICT IN SOCIETY   
  There is class conflict in all societies in all periods of history, though different classes existed in different periods in history  
  What are some classes today?   
Link
 A Table on the Various Formulations of Classes  
  A class is a grouping of people w/ similar socioeconomic status in a society  
  Broadly speaking, classes are based on your economic position in society  
  For conflict theorists, the form of society is shaped by conflict btwn groups in society  
  Different groups in society have conflicting basic self interest & these groups are called classes  
  There were only two classes in Marx's day: 
   Owners: bourgeoisie
   Workers: proletariat		  
  Conflict theorists & Marx see virtually all societies as being shaped by a struggle btwn classes  
  5.  CONFLICT IS THE ENERGY OF SOCIAL CHANGE, OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT   
  Conflict is the energy of social change, of histl development  
  Conflict theorists see conflict as natural & normal  
  Conflict brings social change  
  Conflict offers disadvantaged groups opportunity to improve their position in society  
  Conflict eliminates social arrangements that harm society as a whole  
  Examples:  Civil Rights Movement, Women's Movement, Environmentalism, MADD, Others?   
  6.  THERE IS NO EQUILIBRIUM IN SOCIETY; IT IS CONSTANTLY CHANGING   
  Society is in state of struggle & social change & therefore equilibrium does not exist for the conflict theorist  
  For conflict theorists, the inherent tendency of society is toward conflict, not consensus  
  7.  CONFLICT DOES NOT ALWAYS MEAN VIOLENCE   
  Conflict does not always mean violence  
  Conflict is institutionalized so that differences can be worked out through society's channels, e.g. unions, courts, civil rights commissions, regulatory agencies, etc.  
  Collective bargaining mediators such as the NLRB & civil rights panels are examples of institutionalization of conflict  
  Violence occurs when groups become frustrated w/ society's channels to redress differences  
  Example:  There were no riots after the police assaulted Rodney King but there were riots after the police were found innocent  
  8.  CAPITALISM IS DESTRUCTIVE OF OUR HUMANITY   
  Market relations destroy society:  
  a. Creativity is destroyed because we are not creating for  ourselves but for the market  
  b. The market concentrates wealth & this process eventually destroys the market itself:   Pac Man Economics  
       See Also:  Market Concentration  
  9.  THE UPPER CLASS CONTROLS THE ECONOMY, & THUS ALL OF SOCIETY   
  The word "strata" means "layers" & stratification is the study of how resources are distributed among society  
  See Also:  Stratification  
  Supporting evidence for conflict theory is that one person, Bill Gates, controlled more wealth in 2000, over $100 bb, than the lowest 20% of the population in the US; i.e. one person had more wealth than over 55 million people  
  In 2000, there were over 1000 billionaires in the world  
  The top 5% of the population controls more than the lowest 40% of population  
  Supporting evidence for conflict theory is that in the US, the income distribution has changed little in the last 100 yrs.  
Link
 The Table on US Income Distribution demonstrates that income distribution has changed little in the last 100 yrs.  
 
 10.  CULTURE IS SHAPED BY THE ECONOMIC BASE OF SOCIETY 
 
 
 Our material / econ relations are so fundamental to our being that when we express our being through culture, that culture is a reflection of our econ relationships 
 
  Neo Marxists & many other soc scientists do not believe the economy determines culture, rather they believe either culture is primary, or that the two spheres are independent of each other   
  11.  CONSCIOUSNESS IS SHAPED BY OUR WORK & THE CULTURE IN WHICH WE EXIST   
 
 Narrowly speaking, consciousness, or broadly speaking, ideology, is shaped by the interaction of material (working) conditions & the dominant culture in which one finds oneself
 
 
 A major focus of conflict theory is the examination of ideology which is a world view, including  knowledge, opinions, etc.
 
 
 Our ideology is that part of our culture of which we are generally, but not specifically aware
 
  Ideology is important to conflict theorists because they seek an end to class domination, & to achieve that end, people must first understand that they are exploited, & desire to end that exploitation  
 
 See Also:  Ideology  
 
 A major concern of social theorists is whether a person's ideology, or a class' ideology is functional or actualizing for them, as in class consciousness, or whether it limits them, in effect chaining them to a system over which they have little control, as in false consciousness
 
 
 See Also:  Class & False Consciousness
 
 
 Class consciousness is when groups accept the ideology relevant to their own interest
 
 
 False consciousness is when a group of people embrace a culture / life-style that harms their own interests
 

 
Top
  
Table on the Various Formulations of Classes
Marx's Class System
  
Typical Class System Today
 
 
 
 
 
Elites
Elites
   
Upper Class
Upper Class
Upper Corp Mgt.
Bourgeoisie
Upper Class
Upper Middle Class
Upper Mid Class
Prof & Mid Mgt.
Proletariat
Middle Class
Middle Class
Mid Class
White Collar
 
Lower Class
Lower Middle Class
Lower Mid Class
Working Class
   
Lower Class
Lower Class
 Pink Collar
     
Very Poor
  
     
Homeless
  

 
Top
  
Table  on the Percentage of Aggregate Family Income by Fifths,  1947 to 1997
Kerbo0302
blank
% of Aggregate Income
Year
Lowest 5th
Second 5th
Middle 5th
Fourth 5th
Highest 5th
Top 5 %
1997
3.6
8.9
15.0
23.2
49.4
21.7
1992
4.4
10.5
16.5
24.0
44.6
17.6
1990
4.6
10.8
16.6
23.8
44.3
17.4
1985
4.7
10.9
16.8
24.1
43.6
16.7
1980
5.1
11.6
17.5
24.3
41.6
15.3
1975
5.4
11.8
17.6
24.1
41.1
15.5
1970
5.4
12.2
17.6
23.8
40.9
15.6
1965
5.2
12.2
17.8
23.9
40.9
15.5
1960
4.8
12.2
17.8
24.0
41.3
15.9
1955
4.8
12.3
17.8
23.7
41.3
16.4
1950
4.5
12.0
17.4
23.4
42.7
17.3
1947
5.0
11.9
17.0
23.1
43.0
17.5
Range
3.6 - 5.4
8.9 - 12.3
15.0 - 17.8
23.1 - 24.3
40.9 - 49.4
15.3 - 21.7
Red represents the highest level achieved by a class       Blue represents the lowest level achieved by a class

 
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Outline on the Base & the Superstructure
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  THE THEORY OF THE BASE & SUPERSTRUCTURE HOLDS THAT ECON RELATIONS ARE THE FUNDAMENTAL FOUNDATION OF ALL OTHER SOCIAL RELATIONS   
  Note:  There is much debate over the interpretation of Marx's work as seen in the related & competing schools of thought such as conflict theory, neo Marxism, the critical school, etc.  
  Class analysis holds that all history is history of class struggle   
  Class struggle is rooted in economic struggle/competition   
  Understanding economics is at the heart of understanding society because our most fundamental needs are based on food, clothing & shelter & the "higher needs" of art, recreation, even sexuality, are secondary to material needs   
  However, there is an ancient, & on-going philosophical debate over whether material (economic) [Archaic Language] conditions determine the nature of human society or whether idealistic (cultural) conditions determine the nature of society   
  All other human relations fail when fundamental economic relations fail, e.g.  food, clothing, shelter   
  ECON RELATIONS ARE THE FOUNDATION OF SOCIETY IN THAT MOST OF US DEFINE OURSELVES BY WHAT WE DO IN LIFE & BY THE FACT THAT ECON INSTITS DOMINATE SOCIETY TODAY   
  The concepts of the base & the superstructure embody the idea that: "We are what we do"   
  The concepts of the base & the superstructure are similar to humanistic psychology concept of self actualization in that we strive to develop ourselves to highest degree & this is usually done by immersing ourselves in creation, in becoming   
  Alienation occurs when we cannot develop   
  There are many divergent & convergent conceptions of human nature   
  Species being is Marx's term for our most basic human nature which is a collective or social group conception, an not an individual conception of human nature   
  THE BASE IS THE ECON FOUNDATION & THE SUPERSTRUCTURE IS BUILT UPON THE BASE & INCLUDES CULTURE & ALL OTHER SOC RELATIONS   
Link
 The Chart on the Base & the Superstructure depicts the belief that the economy is the base or foundation of society & that culture or superstructure of society is determined by the base 
 
 
 The base is the economic foundation of society including the means of production & relations of production 
 
 
 The base includes what is commonly known as the economy, & also all the social relationships inherent in the economic sphere of society 
 
 
 The superstructure includes the ideas of society & their manifestations including culture, law, art, entertainment, etc. 
 
  The superstructure includes what is commonly known as culture, & also all the social relationships inherent in the cultural sphere of society   
 
     See Also:  Marxist Economics  
 
 Common terms for the base & the superstructure are the economy & the culture   
  THE BASE HAS THE QUALITIES OF A FOUNDATION, INCLUDES THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION, INCLUDES THE RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION, & DETERMINES CULTURE  
 
 The base has FOUR major quals.  The base: 
a.  is the economic foundation of society 
b.  includes the means of production 
c.  includes the relations of production 
d.  determines culture 		  
  THE QUALITIES OF CULTURE INCLUDE THAT IT IS COMPOSED OF KBVN & REPRESENTS THE IDEAS MANIFESTED IN SOCIETY, INCLUDING THE LAW, THE ARTS, ENTERTAINMENT, ETC.   
 
 Cultural relationships ( KBVN ) are the superstructure or framework of society   
 
 The superstructure has FOUR major qualities 
a.  represents the ideas of society 
b.  represents the manifestations of society 
c.  is made up of culture & law 
d.  is made up of art & entertainment 		  
  In the overview of conflict theory, one of the major principles of conflict theory is that culture is shaped by the economic base of society   
  But most social scientists view this point as the question of how much does the economy influence culture?   
  For Marx, the structure of the economy determines structure of culture   
  For Marx, the base determines the superstructure   
  For Marx, a particular economic order creates a particular type of culture   
  THROUGHOUT HISTORY, THE ECONS OF DIFFERENT ERAS MANIFESTED THE PARTICULAR CULTURAL SYSTEMS OF THOSE ERAS   
  A feudalistic economy had one type of culture, a religious & authoritarian culture 
A capitalist economy has another type of culture, a consumerist & individualist culture 
A socialist economy has another type of culture, a cooperative & bureaucratic culture 		  
  Furthermore, an analysis of the base & superstructure shows that different types of economic systems have different cultures 
  Agriculture 
  Industrial 
  Service 
  High Tech 		  
  Do different occupations have different cultures?     (knowledge, beliefs, values, norms)? 
  Top executive?                    Worker? 
  Cop?                                    Teacher? 
  Entertainer?                         Athletes? 		  
  One bit of proof of the conception of the base & the superstructure is that different occupations have different cultures  
  THE BASE EMBODIES THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES OF THE ECON & ED; THE SUPERSTRUCTURE EMBODIES ALL OTHER SOCIAL STRUCTURES, INCLUDING PF RG M CML  
Link
 The Chart on the Base & the Superstructure & the Social Structure shows that the economy determines all other aspects of society   
    See Also:  Social Structures   
  The question of how much the economy influences culture is reflected in an ancient, but still on-going philosophical debate (archaic language) btwn materialism & idealism   
  Materialism, as a philosophy, holds that the concrete aspects of life are primary determinants   
  Idealism, as a philosophy, holds that the abstract aspects of life are primary determinants   
  What is the relationship btwn material life & ideal life?   
  Most Marxists, but not conflict theorists, believe material life totally determines ideal life   
  Marx's theories are based on a materialistic (economic) view of humanity   
  SOCIALIZATION BY THE BASE IS THE MOST PERVASIVE & POWERFUL   
  The fundamental idea of material life determining ideal life is found in many other theories, especially the concept of socialization   
  Socialization is:   
  a.  a process that "teaches" people roles & functions to develop a self - image in people   
  b.  how we "deep learn" through exposure to & participation in the activities of our lives   
       Review:  Socialization   
  The economy shapes our culture / personality because we, for example, engage is the processes of the economy that teach us to look out for number one, work hard, etc.   
  Conflict theorists believe that material life influences ideal life   
  By "controlling" the base, the upper class "controls" the superstructure   
  The ultimate question is not whether the upper class controls the superstructure, but rather how much influence the upper class has over the superstructure   
  Marx believed that the powerful promote a belief in their ideology, i.e., ideology of the upper class   
  In general, most workers support the status quo, i.e. the ideology of the upper class   
  Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality: world view   
  Conflict theorists believe that Americans have the ideology of the rich   
  Conflict theorists believe that most Americans have a "morbid belief " that they also can be rich   
  While most Americans are hopeful that they too can be rich, the reality is that class structure has changed only minimally in last 100 yrs.   
  Social scientists, activists, et al, frequently struggle w/ the questions, "Why do Americans have false consciousness?" & "What can be done to change what people believe?" etc.   
  One common reason people believe what they do is the influence of the media, but conflict theorists & Marxists hold that the media's ideology is only a reflection of the larger ideology as created by the base   
  The media continually holds up unrealistic success stories for people to long after:   
    Cinderella 
  Pretty Woman 
  Who wants to be a millionaire? 
  The Lottery 		  
  'CLASSIC' CONFLICT THEORISTS HOLD THAT THE SOC RELATIONS OF THE BASE DETERMINES THE SOC RELATIONS OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE, BUT NEO CONFLICT THEORISTS & OTHERS HOLD THAT THERE IS A MUTUAL INTERACTION BTWN THE TWO   
  The question of the relationship btwn the economy & culture is not simply one of how strongly one influences the other   
  The question of the relationship btwn the economy & culture may also be understood as a struggle of competing value systems, ideologies, etc.   
  Societies have conflicting values & ideologies   
  Conflicting ideologies often appear as a conflict of values   
  But many believe there is mutual causation btwn the economy & culture   
        See Also:  Economic & Cultural Determination   
  For Marx the direction of causality is that the base determines the superstructure while for Parsons the direction of causality is that the superstructure determines the base   
  For Marx & many conflict theorists, the direction of causality btwn the base & the superstructure is from the base  to the superstructure, but for Parsons & many functionalists the direction of causality is from the superstructure to the base   

 
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Chart on the Superstructure & Base
 

Superstructure:  ideas of society & their manifestations:  culture, law, 
                             art, entertainment, ideology, values, etc. 
 
 

Base:  economic foundation of society:  means of production & relations of production 


 
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Chart on the Base, the Superstructure & the Social Structures
1.    Peers
2.    Family
3.    Religion
5.    Government
6.    Military
7.    Charity
9.    Media
10.  Recreation/ Leisure 

4.    Work (economy)
8.    Education

The End
 
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