Rev IS 10 & 11 Gender & Race

Today we base social differentiation on many factors, such as economics, religion, gender, age, race, ethnicity, nationality, language, cliques, and more

What are some less common forms of social differentiation?

Each types of social differentiation often has a related form of social injustice, such as
- economics & classism                        - age & ageism
- gender & sexism                               - nationality & ?
- race/ethnicity & racism                       - sexual preference & homophobia
- religion &   ?                                     - etc.

The two most common types of injustices based on social differentiation are sexism & racism

People & social institutions often confuse the occurrence of social differentiation w/ the occurrence of social injustice

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What are some less common forms of social differentiation?

height
intelligence
status
disabilities
region

sexual preference
weight
looks: body type, beauty...
accent
hairiness, etc.

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Outline on Sex vs. Gender

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Many people use the terms sex & gender interchangeably, however, social scientists consider the two terms to have different meanings

SEX

Sex is the biological categorization of male, female, "other"

Sex refers to the physical characteristics that make a person male or female

Less than 1 % of the population has major physical characteristics of both male & female

Much of the population has minor physical characteristics of both males & females such as seen in the TV show "He's a Lady"

GENDER

Gender is the social category of male, female, other

Gender socially learned traits associated w/, & expected of men or women

Gender refers to the personal traits & social positions that members of a society attach to being female & male

Gender refers to a sense of being male or female or having the recognizable traits of one's sex

Biologically, men & women differ in limited ways, but culture can define the two sexes in dramatically different ways

Social indicators of gender have changed over time:
   Long/short hair
   Skirts/pants
   What are some other social indicators?

Biological indicators of sex have changed as, for example, women are now over 1 inch taller than 30 yrs. ago

It is important not to think of social differences btwn the sexes exclusively in biological terms

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, GENDER, & SEX

Sociology of gender is the study of socially constructed female & male roles, relations, & identities

Feminist theory is the study of woman centered patterning of human experience

Today there is a growing sociology of gender on masculinity

Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a male are called masculine

Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a female are called feminine

The development of sexuality is influenced by two major forces related to gender: gender identity & gender role

Gender identity is a personal sense that "I am a male" or "I am a female"

Gender identity develops partly from biological influences, such as body shape & genitals, & partly from cultural influences, including clothing & hairstyle

Gender role refers to a society's expectations for males & females, including values, attitudes, & behavior

Individuals develop these expectations w/ the influence of parents, friends, & teachers, as well as television, motion pictures, & other sources

SEX & THE BODY

Primary sex characteristics refer to the organs used for reproduction, namely the genitals

Secondary sex characteristics are bodily differences, apart from the genitals, that distinguish biologically mature females & males

The term inter sexual people refers to people whose bodies (including genitals) have both female & male characteristics

An older term for inter sexual people is hermaphrodite

Transsexuals are people who feel they are one sex even though biologically they are the other

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Outline on an Intro to Feminism

External
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- Project: Feminists R' Us

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- Project: Song: "I Am Woman" & Social Theory

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- Song: "I Am Woman" by Helen Reddy 3:16

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FEMINISM IS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT & IDEOLOGY SUPPORTING EQUALITY BTWN MEN & WOMEN

Feminism is the advocacy of social equality for men & women, in opposition to patriarchy & sexism

A primary belief of feminists is that an equal share of resources/benefits should go to each according to abilities

A small % of women ( less than 10 % ) will admit to being feminist, while a large % of women ( over 90 % ) actually subscribe to it's tenants

Nearly as many men as women are feminists

FEMINIST THEORISTS ARE A CENTRAL PART OF FEMINISM, IT IS CHARACTERISTIC OF IT'S MORE EXTREME BRANCH,
FEMINIST PRAGMATISTS MAKE UP THE OTHER MORE MAINSTREAM BRANCH

Feminist theory is the study of woman centered patterning of human experience
Much of social theory, history, philosophy, etc., has excluded women & women's ideas
Feminism reinterprets patriarchal theory & history
Because of feminist theory, there is a growing literature on masculinity

Feminist doctrine suggests that women are systematically disadvantaged in modern society & in response to this, advocates equal opportunities for men & women

Feminist sociologists have argued that conventional sociologists have neglected the significance of women in all areas of the subject

For example, many studies of social stratification have defined a family's class position based on the wages of the male "head of household" & this ignores the fact that women make economic contributions to their families from work both inside & outside the home

Typical studies of strat often assume that women have equal access to the wages their husbands earn

Masculinist theory is the study of the development of non patriarchal theory
Some social theorists hold that all theory, except for feminist theory, is masculinist
Much social theory is patriarchal in that women & other groups are omitted

THE FEMINIST REINTERPRETATION IS WOMEN'S REEXAMINATION OF THE WORLD BASED ON GENDER

- Marx's reinterpretation reinterpreted the world based on class struggle

- The deconstructionists reinterpreted the world based on removing the bias of rationalism

- Deconstruction is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc.

- Part of any reinterpretation is deconstruction which is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc.

Feminists' reinterpretation of the world follows the Marxists' reinterpretation

Marx said that one's world view (explanation of the world) is shaped by their position in that world

Marxists & Weberians reinterpreted the world based on economics/status/power

Women have reinterpreted the world based on gender

This is to say that women & men see things differently & that women are reintegrating women's thoughts into theory & practice

Part of any reinterpretation is deconstruction, which is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc.

Deconstruction uses a variety of post-modern methods utilizing literature, philosophy, history, etc.

THE FEMINIST PRINCIPLES SEEK TO END THE OPPRESSION OF WOMEN & ESTB EQUALITY BTWN THE SEXES

There are common principles of feminist theory:

1. Women & the experiences of women are a key starting point for social theory & understand the world

2. Adding feminist insights to traditional theory complements/competes it

3. Feminist theory must be innovative/radical because major changes are needed

4. Men oppress, either directly or structurally

- Violence against women both in the home & on the street is all too common

- The commercialization of sexuality exploits women, & today, men

- The gender wage gap & the glass ceiling are significant & tenacious

5. Feminism seeks to end sexual violence

6. Feminist theory has a goal which is equality btwn the sexes

- A primary belief of feminists is that an equal share of resources/benefits should go to each according to abilities

7. Feminism seeks to eliminate gender stratification

8. Feminist theory seeks to produce a better world for women, & thus for all

9. Feminist theory must be interdisciplinary

10. Feminism seeks to expand human choice for all

11. Feminism promotes sexual freedom

FEMINISM SEEKS TO MODIFY TRADITIONAL WOMEN'S ROLES TO GIVE THEM EQUALITY & POWER

Traditional gender roles: To a greater or lesser extent, we each exhibit, or can relate to traditional gender roles

Gender socialization: Socialization is highly gender oriented & it is done primarily through the social structures

The feminist sociology of knowledge accents the importance of recognizing silenced knowledge & ways of knowing

The stratification of gender in status, power, & income was non-existent in hunter gatherer society, was the greatest in the patriarchal societies of feudalism & early industrialism, & now appears to be declining in industrial & post-industrial societies

While in common usage, there is little distinction made btwn sex & gender, in the social sciences the former indicates the biological category of female or male while the latter indicates the social traits of female or male commonly attributed to a particular sex

The solutions to sexism lie in both individual & societal level initiatives

PATRIARCHY IS A FORM OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IN WHICH MALES DOMINATE FEMALES

Matriarchy is a form of social organization in which females dominate males

The Matriarchy form OF society has never been documented in human history

Patriarchy is not inevitable because modern technology has eliminated most of the historic justifications for it

THE TYPES OF FEMINISM OF FEMINISN INCLUD LIBERAL, SOCIALIST, RADICAL, & OTHERS

Although feminists agree on the importance of gender equality, they disagree on how to achieve it

Liberal feminism is rooted in classic liberal thinking that individuals should be free to develop their own talents & pursue their own interests.

Socialist feminism regards capitalism as increasing patriarchy by concentrating power in the hands of a small number of men

Radical feminism finds liberal feminism inadequate, believing that gender equality will be achieved only through the elimination of gender itself.

OPPOSITION TO FEMINISM WAS CREATED BY THE BACKLASH OF MEN & WOMEN OPPOSING STRONG, FREE WOMEN

Opposition is primarily directed at the socialist & radical forms of feminism, while support for liberal feminism is widespread

There is a trend toward greater gender equality

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Outline on a Global Perspective on Gender

External
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Supplement: Females in World Legislatures

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THE ISRAELI KIBBUTZ

In Israel, collective Jewish settlements are called kibbutzim

Members of kibbutzim consider gender irrelevant to most of everyday life

MARGARET MEAD'S RESEARCH ON GENDER

Anthropologist Margaret Mead carried out groundbreaking research on gender, determining that gender varies across cultures

Among the Arapesh, both sexes would be described by Americans as feminine

Among the Mundugumor, both sexes would be described by Americans as masculine

Among the Tchambuli, by American standards, gender roles are reversed

Critics charge that Mead oversimplified the implications of gender

GERORGE MURDOCK'S RESEARCH

George Murdock surveyed over 200 societies & found substantial but not complete agreement concerning which tasks are feminine or masculine

The wide variation in task demonstrates that what is considered to be female or male is mostly a creation of society

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Outline on Race & Ethnicity

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RACE

A race is a group of people who share socially recognized physical characteristic(s), a social or cultural heritage (typically ancestry or religion) & recognize themselves as a distinct status group

A race is a socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important

Race is a significant concept because most people regard it as very important

ETHNICITY

People frequently confuse the terms race & ethnicity & use them interchangeably, but they are not the same

An ethnic group is a group of people who share a socially recognized social or cultural heritage ( typically ancestry or religion ) & recognize themselves as a distinct status group

An ethnic group is a category of people who are recognized as a distinct status group entirely on the basis of social or cultural criteria, such as nationality or religion, but cannot be recognized by their physical appearance alone

Ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage

Ethnicity involves even more variability & mixture than race because most people identify w/ more than one ethnic background

Examples of ethnic groups include gypsies, Jews, Italians, southerners, etc.

Our conception of race is a form of social differentiation: race is much more a socially defined trait, than a genetic one

Racial & ethnic groups are socially defined categories of people who share a common ascribed status

Membership in racial & ethnic groups is generally hereditary

There is no reliable way to identify a person's ethnic group by his or her physical appearance

MAJORITY / MINORITY LABELS

Those in the disadvantaged or subordinate positions in a society are called the minority group

A minority is a category of people, distinguished by physical or cultural traits, who are socially disadvantaged

Minorities have two important characteristics: a distinct identity & subordination

Not all members of a minority category are disadvantaged

Those in the advantaged or dominant positions in a society are called the majority group

In considering the definition of minority & majority groups, note that a numerical minority can be a majority the sociological sense

A minority is any category of people, characterized by physical or cultural differences, that a society sets apart & subordinates

While women fit the definition of a minority group, most white women do not think of themselves in this way

A numerical majority of people can be "the minority" if they are subordinated & therefore the beliefs of the various grps in society is important in determining majority / minority status

Minority women are doubly disadvantaged, as explained by intersection theory, the investigation of the interplay of race, class, & gender, often resulting in multiple dimensions of disadvantage

The underclass includes poor people who are chronically unemployed or underemployed & who lack the necessary skills to obtain stable, quality employment

In the US, minority usually refers to blacks, Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans & other non-white ethnic groups

The term white ethnics has meaning because whites share a socially recognized social or cultural heritage & recognized themselves as a distinct status group

Whites have a long history of ethnic conflict as recently seen in the form Yugoslavia, btwn Irish & English, & historically btwn English, French, & Germans which are all different ethnic groups

NUMBER OF RACES

Humans share 97 % of the same genes w/ chimpanzees & the other 2 % of our genetic code largely defines non-racial differentiation (weight, height, etc.) & thus less than 1% of our genetic code defines race

Number of races: Most experts now recognize nine races

Most of humanity has their origins in the THREE ancestral root races
- Negroid who are primarily African Asian
- Mongoloid who are primarily Asian Oceania
- Caucasoid who are primarily European Asian
along w/ SIX others, including the
- Aborigines of Australia
- Micronesians of the Yap Islands
- Negritos of the Philippines
- Australian
- Melanesian
- Polynesian

Race came into being as a social category when 19th C biologists tried to construct racial types

Some of the names of the races come from early examinations of race which wrongly held that their origins were near the areas of Mongolia in east central Asia, Nigeria in Africa near the west central horn of Africa, & the Caucasus Mountains in central Eurasia

Social scientists consider terms like Caucasoid, Negroid, & Mongoloid as misleading at best because there are no biologically pure races & because the names come from regions wrongly believed to be the cradle of that race

THE ORIGIN OF RACES

There are TWO theories of racial origins, but there is little clear scientific understanding of why, where, & how races originated

1. Dispersion theory holds that we all have one ancient ancestor in Africa & that species dispersed throughout world & as it did, people changed & races emerged

2. Isolation theory holds that people did not originate only in Africa but all over the world (except No & So Am --to where people migrated) & thus similar beings, people emerged in relative isolation but w/ similar characteristics except for race

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE

Obach points out that the idea that race is socially constructed is widely accepted w/in social science disciplines

Because people tend to view their world as an objective reality divorced, in many ways, from interpretation or constructed meaning, we often don't see or ignore race as much as we can

It is difficult overcome the idea that nature determines race & to comprehend the principle of the social construction of race because the processes of the social construction of any identity, whether it be racial, gender, class, age, etc. are so subtle & pervaisive

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Outline on Racial & Ethnic Demographics

External
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- Supplement: Arab Americans: A Brief Profile

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- Supplement: "What Race Are You?"

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- Video: The Gangs of New York

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As the history of the United States reflects, the door has been opened more widely for some groups than for other

The US racial/ethnic demographic is that of 281 million people in the US in 2000 there were five widely recognized groups

While the reached 300 million people in October of 2006, the basic demographic shares of racial / ethnic groups is about the same except that Hispanics & Asians are growing at a slightly higher rate than other groups

GRAPHS OF RACIAL/ETHNIC COMPOSITION

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The Pie Chart on the 1990 Census Data on Race in US

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The Pie Chart on the 2000 Census Data on Race in the US shows that we are made of of 63% whites, 13% blacks, 13 % Hispanics, 4 % Asians, & others

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The Numerical Table on the 2000 Census Data on Hispanics in US

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The Pie Chart on the Demographics of US Hispanics shows that the majority of US Hispanics are from Mexico

NATIVE AMERICANS

In the late 2000s, Native Ams make up about 1 % of the US pop

Native Ams were the original inhabitants of the Americas whose population was decimated as a result of the intended & unintended genocidal practices of Europeans

Before European contact, Native Ams lived in hundreds of distinct societies

Btwn 1871 & 1924, Native Ams were subjected to a policy of forced assimilation

Today Native Ams are encouraged to migrate from reservations to the cities in search of econ opportunity, but they remain far behind whites in educational & econ standing

Many tribes & individuals have recently come together to assert pride in their culture

WHITE ANGLO SAXON PROTESTANTS ( WASPs )

In the late 2000s, WASPs make up about 63 % of the US pop, & while their overall numbers are growing, they are growing slower than the rest of the pop

WASPs, mostly of English origin, have dominated the US since colonial days

Most WASPs who came to this country were highly skilled & motivated to achieve because they were escaping Euro exploitation

Especially in the last century, many WASPs strongly opposed subsequent waves of non-Anglo immigrants

The WASP's power is gradually declining as we enter the 21st C

WHITE ETHNIC AMERICANS

White ethnic Ams come from European nations other than Britain

Most white ethnic Ams experienced substantial prejudice & discrimination when they arrived here in the 19th C

White ethnic Ams experienced discrimination & exploitation based on ethnicity, religion, & nationalism

Many white ethnic Ams have now fully assimilated & achieved substantial success

AFRICAN AMERICANS

In the late 2000s, African Ams make up about 14 % of the US pop, & their overall numbers are growing, & they are growing faster than the rest of the pop

African Ams came to this country as indentured servants or slaves

This denial of basic human rights was a sharp contradiction to the promise of the American republic, a fact which sociologist Gunnar Myrdal referred to as "the American dilemma"

In 1865, the 13th Amendment to the Constitution outlawed slavery, but after Reconstruction Jim Crow laws perpetuated the subordinate status of African Ams

In the first part of the 20th C, a mass migration of African Ams to the cities of the North occurred, followed by the civil rights mvmt of the 1960s

Even today, African Ams continue to be econly disadvantaged as a group, a problem exacerbated by the loss of factory jobs that has accompanied Am's move to a service econ

The educational gap btwn whites & blacks has narrowed substantially in recent years

Political clout of African Ams has increased substantially in recent decades

ASIAN AMERICANS

In 2000, close to 4 percent of the American population was made up Asian Americans

In the late 2000s, Asian Ams make up about 5 % of the US pop, & their overall numbers are growing, & they are growing faster than the rest of the pop

Enormous cultural diversity marks the Asian Am category of people

Asian Americans have a "model minority" image

CHINESE AMERICANS

Chinese immigration began w/ the Gold Rush of the 1800s

When the econ soured, discrimination increased & harsh laws were enacted limiting further immigration

In response to violence & discrimination, most Chinese Ams clustered in closed ghettoes called Chinatowns

Assimilation & upward mobility marked the era that began w/ World War II.

Chinese Ams currently outpace the national average econly & educationally, although many living in Chinatowns continue to experience poverty

JAPANESE AMERICANS

Japanese Americans also came to this country in the last century to work, & soon experienced legal & social discrimination

During the Second World War, many were confined in relocation camps

After the war, many made a dramatic economic recovery, & today this group is above the national average in financial standing

Their upward social mobility has also strongly encouraged cultural assimilation & interracial marriage

RECENT ASIAN IMMIGRANTS

More recent Asian immigrants include Koreans & Filipinos

Large scale Korean immigration followed the Korean War

Korean Americans often own & operate small businesses

After the Vietnam War, there were many immigrants from SE Asia, esp Vietnamese & Cambodians

Filipinos enjoy relatively high incomes

HISPANIC / LATINO AMERICANS

In the late 2000s, African Ams make up about 15 % of the US pop, & their overall numbers are growing, & they are growing faster than the rest of the pop

Today in the US, there are nearly equal percentages of blacks & Hispanics

Today in the US, Hispanics in the US are primarily of Mexican origin & Mexicans are more Spanish than Native Am

Although the Hispanic population is increasing all over the country, most Hispanic Americans live in the Southwest

MEXICAN AMERICANS

Most Mexican Ams (or Chicanos) are recent immigrants, though some lived in Mexican territory annexed by the US in the last century

Mexican Ams are well below the national average in econ & educational attainment

PUERTO RICANS

Puerto Ricans are American citizens & travel freely btwn the island & the mainland, especially in New York City

They are the most socially disadvantaged Hispanic minority

CUBAN AMERICANS

Many Cubans fled the 1959 Marxist revolution & settled in Miami & other US cities

Most were well educated business & professional people & have done relatively well in this country

ARAB AMERICANS

In the late 2000s, Arab Ams make up less than 1 % of the US pop & total around 2 mm

Arab Americans are another US minority that is increasing in size

"Arab" (an ethnic category) is not the same as "Muslim," a follower of the Islamic religion

A majority of the people living in most Arab countries are Muslim, but some Arabs are Christians or followers of other religions

Because Arabs have come to the US from so many nations, they are a culturally diverse population

Included in the Arab Am population are people of all social classes

There are large, visible Arab Am communities in a number of US cities

The number of officially recorded interracial births has tripled in the last three decades

Although members of Am society attach considerable importance to race, biologically speaking, race has less & less meaning in the US

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Table on Race & Occupation

DISCIPLINE

1966

1981

1989

1998

Agriculture

2.7%

30.8%

31.1%

41.7%

Architecture

4.0

18.3

39.3

35.1

Biological Sciences

Business

Computer & information science

Education

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The Pie Chart on the 1990 Census Data on Race in US

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The Pie Chart on the 2000 Census Data on Race in the US

The Pie Chart on the 2000 Census Data on Race in the US shows that we are made of of 63% whites, 13% blacks, 13 % Hispanics, 4 % Asians, & others

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The Numerical Table on the 2000 Census Data on Hispanics in US

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Pie Chart on the Demographics of US Hispanics, 2002

The Pie Chart on the Demographics of US Hispanics shows that the majority of US Hispanics are from Mexico

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Outline on Social Injustice Based on Social Differentiation, aka Discrimination

External
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- Project: Examples of social differentiation

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- Project: The Individual, Organizational, & Institutional Discrimination

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- Project: Video: All In the Family: Images of Discrimination

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- Video: All In the Family: Discrimination in Housing & Marriage

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Summary:

Note: This typology applies to racism, gender, nationalism, & all of the social injustices are based on social differentiation
Type of Social Injustice based on Social Differentiation	Component of Social Differentiation
1. Stereotypes	cognitive
2. Ethnocentrism	cognitive
3. Prejudice	cognitive
4. Ideological Chauvinism	cognitive
5. Bias	behavioral
6. Individual Discrimination	behavioral
7. Organizational discrimination	behavioral
8. Institutional Discrimination	behavioral
9. Legal Discrimination	behavioral
10. Statistical Discrimination	behavioral

Social differentiation is a behavior or a social arrangement (action), & the norms & beliefs that support such (mental state), that has intent or effect of differentiating one cultural group over another

Societal differentiation is often thought of, in common usage, as unjust or negative social differentiation (prejudice, discrimination, etc.) that favors one group over another but technically it refers to any type of differentiating people whether that is interpreted as being good or evil

Equal or fair social differentiation favors no one, & includes everyone

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The bases of Social Differentiation may be:

Economics	Ethnicity	Cliques
Religion	Nationality	Criminal Status
Race	Gender	Age.....

that is, any criteria by which people differentiate one another

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There are EIGHT types of social differentiation, which may have either a cognitive & behavioral component, or both

1. Stereotype cognitive

A stereotype is an exaggerated belief concerning a group of people that assumes that nearly everyone in the group possesses a certain characteristic

Stereotyping is the attributing a group's characteristics to an individual

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There is an archaic meaning of stereotype

Sociologists see stereotyping as exaggeration & thus not generally accepted as wrong, evil, bad, unfair, etc.

Stereotypes function to distinguish one group from another

Stereotypes are often used in jokes

However, the "art of PC," i.e. good manners, dictates that one must be careful & not cross line from stereotype to prejudice

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An example of a stereotype is the assumption that an individual has the characteristics of the group

2. Ethnocentrism cognitive

Ethnocentrism is a pattern whereby people view their own culture as normal, natural, & superior, & judge other cultures accordingly

Within a culturally homogenous group, ethnocentrism performs the function of promoting solidarity, pride & cooperation

Within a tolerant, heterogeneous society, ethnocentrism functions to promote solidarity, pride & cooperation, but if the society is not tolerant, ethnocentrism may be overdone & dysfunction & to promote divisiveness, hubris, & conflict

3. Prejudice cognitive

Prejudice is a rigid & irrational generalization about an entire category of people

Prejudices are prejudgments & they can be positive or negative

Prejudice often takes the form of stereotypes, which are exaggerated descriptions applied to every person in some category

A prejudice is a categorical & unfounded attitude or belief concerning a group or an individual

A prejudice is a stronger, more exaggerated form of stereotype that crosses a line, that the target group does not accept

The relation btwn prejudice & discrimination is not always clear in that a person may be prejudiced & never act on it or a person may not be prejudice but act on it, i.e. discriminate

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Examples: Believing that women are too emotional for work

4. Ideological chauvinism cognitive

Ideological chauvinism is a "world view" ( integrated set of knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, attitudes ) that one cultural group is inherently superior to another

Chauvinism is the prejudiced belief in the superiority of one's own group

Ideological chauvinism is often used as justification for the various types discrimination

Ideological chauvinism is often integrated into other ideological systems, especially religious & scientific world views

An important function of ideological chauvinism is to justify the exploitation of the minority group, in which case it is often called ideological racism

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Examples: Hitler's concept of a "master race"

5. Bias behavioral

Bias is the presenting of one side of an argument

Bias is also a technical term in the social sciences denoting questionnaires or media bias

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Examples

6. Individual discrimination behavioral

Closely related to prejudice is discrimination, treating various categories of people unequally

While prejudice refers to attitudes, discrimination is a matter of actions

Like prejudice, discrimination may be positive or negative

Individual discrimination is any behavior that intentionally or unintentionally treats people differently or unfairly or favors one person or group on the basis of race, ethnicity, sex or some other characteristic

Discrimination refers to what people do: it is behavioral

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Examples: racism, sexism

Racism is an attitude, belief, behavior, or social arrangement (i.e. action) that has the intent or the ultimate effect of favoring one racial or ethnic group over another

Racism is a powerful & destructive form of prejudice, racism refers to the belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another

7. Organizational discrimination behavioral

Orgl discrimination occurs when people are cooperating or conspiring in individual acts of prejudice, discrimination, etc.

Conspiracies are considered to be a much more serious type of crime than one person working alone

Orgl discrim can occur if one or more people are discrim, & one or more people are not directly involved but are aware of the discrim, & are looking the other way

8. Institutional discrimination behavioral

Institutional prejudice & discrimination refers to bias inherent in the operation of society's institutions

Institutional discrimination is the behaviors or arrangements in social institutions or any social arrangement that intentionally or unintentionally favors one race, sex, ethnic group, religion, etc. over another

Institutional discrimination is the widespread practices & arrangements w/in social institutions that have the intent or effect of favoring one race (usually the majority group) over another (usually the minority group)

Institutional discrimination is the systematic practices that lead to inequality btwn groups, i.e. men & women, whites & blacks

The difference btwn individual & institutional discrimination is that if an individual action is part of a larger, systematic pattern, then it is institutional

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Examples: Racial steering, aka red lining, is the practice in the real estate industry of showing white customers houses in white neighborhoods while showing black customers houses in black or mixed neighborhoods

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Examples of the difference btwn individual, orgl, & institl discrimination

9. Legal discrimination behavioral

Legal discrimination is the behaviors or arrangements in the laws of political institutions or rules in organizations supported by such laws that intentionally or unintentionally favor one race, sex, ethnic group, religion, etc. over another

Legal discrimination is a very obvious, serious, & widespread form of discrimination that requires legitimacy in form of ideological chauvinism to justify / uphold the law

Note: The elimination of legal discrimination does not necessarily eliminate the behavior or the ideology

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Examples of Legal Discrimination

10. Statistical discrimination behavioral

Statistical discrimination occurs when there is no direct evidence of discrimination, yet a numerical examination demonstrates the persistence of discrimination

Statistics themselves are not discriminatory, but they may be used to demonstrate a discriminatory practice

Example: the poverty rate of Whites is one third that of Blacks

The concept of statistical discrimination is controversial & it is not accepted by the courts, yet it is widely accepted by social scientists

Employers may choose candidates on the basis of statistically average qualifications of the group, rather than on an individual's qualifications

Thus, an employer may choose a White high school grad over a Hispanic grad because of the statistically based belief that the White is better qualified, thus confusing the average w/ the particular situation

Statistical discrimination entails prejudice on the part of the employer because of the willingness to attribute a group's average characteristics to every member of that group

Because discrimination has been pervasive in the past, as in the case of minorities & women in American, many group characteristics such as education, training, & work histories still, on average, favor the majority group, but it is expected that over generations, as discrimination lessens, the disparity of group characteristics will decrease

The reality of the disparity btwn average group characteristics of minority & majority groups makes statistical discrimination particularly hard to eradicate

Statistical discrimination is especially likely in situations where employers do not take the trouble to carefully assess applicants' qualifications on a case by case basis

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Examples

Prejudice & discrimination form a vicious cycle based on the Thomas theorem which states that situations defined as real become real in their consequences

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The Table on Roles & Behavioral & Cognitive Social Differentiation shows that all weather liberals are unprejudiced & generally do not discriminate, fair weather liberals are unprejudiced but may discriminate, timid bigots are prejudiced but generally do not discriminate, & all weather bigots are prejudiced & generally discriminate

According to Robert Merton, prejudice & discrimination may combine in different ways, including: active bigotry, timid bigotry, fair weather liberalism, & all weather liberalism

The roles of all weather, fair weather, or timidity in social differentiation often occur in a inconsistent manner among the many types of social differentiation, thus a person may be a fair weather liberal on prejudice, but an all weather bigot on legal discrimination

	MEASURING PREJUDICE: THE SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE
	One measure of prejudice is social distance, which refers to how closely people are willing in interact members of some category
	Emory Bogardus developed the social distance scale & he found that people feel much more social distance toward some categories than others
	A recent study using the social distance scale found that:
	a. the trend toward greater acceptance has continued.
	b. people see less difference among various minorities
	c. the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, may have reduced social acceptance of Arabs & Muslims

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Archaic meaning of stereotype

Process of making metal plates for printing by taking a mold of composed type & then taking from this mold a cast ( Plate ) in type metal
To give a fixed or settled meaning to [ to average out ]
Of an established conventional form or kind: e.g. a stereotyped smile

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Examples of Stereotypes

Sexism
Women drivers
Racism
White men can't jump

"All Asians are brilliant at math & science."
Elders are wise
White men can't jump
Whites walk like they are constipated
Whites hate/are prejudiced against blacks

True stereotypes
Rich people do better in school & go farther in school
True, but not of all rich people
Is not a trait of the person, but of their social situation

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Examples of prejudice

Beliefs supporting Racial Steering: aka Red-Lining:
___________ are lazy
Men are pigs

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Examples of ideological discrimination

KKK doctrine
Aryan Nation doctrine
Nazism

Patriarchy
Womanist

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Examples of Bias

What is your opinion of candidate Smith who has been accused of being an adulterer?

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Examples of Individual Discrimination

Racism
Hate crimes
Violence
Robbery
Slurs

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Examples of institutional discrimination

Unequal educational opportunities
Police brutality

Racial Steering: aka Red-Lining: Practice in the real estate industry of showing customers houses in neighborhoods of same race/ethnicity

Unfair hiring, firing, lay-offs, promotions, etc.

IQ tests

Movement of jobs out of inner cities to the white suburbs

Glass Ceiling

Katrina relief: White sectors of NO had been built on slightly higher ground that Black sections of NO, so when the floods came there was a belief that White areas were salvageable while Black areas were triaged as unsalvageable

Police Protection: Many cities have a policy that robberies of less than, for example $15,000, will not have a detective assigned to them. The police do this because they must have some way to allocate the limited policing forces that they have. The policy of allocating detectives to robberies has the effect that most detective work on cases where Whites are the victims. Crimes where Blacks are the victims are almost totally ignored.

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Examples of legal discrimination

Men's control of women
Only white, male, land owning people may vote
Slavery
Jim Crow laws
Segregation in education
Apartheid

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Examples of the difference btwn individual, organizational, & institutional discrimination

Individual Discrimination:
One racist cop may be involved in individual discrimination

Orgl Discrimination:
But if cop is part of Dept that looks the other way, that is organizational discrimination

The line btwn individual discrimination & organizational discrimination is not clear because one or more people in an org may be discriminating but they are not aware of each other or cooperating

When people are aware of other's cooperation in discrimination, this is orgl discrimination

Institutional Discrimination:

Policies which control where police forces are deployed, such as allocating detectives to high value crimes, is institutional. But if the same activity was done not because of a policy but because of individual discrim, i.e. the police did not want to investigate low value crimes because of prejudice, this is individual discrim. And if the same activity was done because of the prejudiced beliefs of a grp of officers, this is orgl discrim.

The differences btwn individual, organizational, & institutional discrimination is important because detection & solutions lie in different areas

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Examples of Statistical discrimination

A population is half men & half women, w/ overall equal qualifications,
no instances of discrimination,
yet the workforce is only 10% women

% of minorities in a workforce, neighborhood, etc. is not proportional to overall population

Looking at overall characteristics & ignoring individual qualities
(employer believes that overall whites are better qualified)

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Table on Roles & Behavioral & Cognitive Social Differentiation

The Table on Roles & Behavioral & Cognitive Social Differentiation shows that All Weather Liberals are unprejudiced & generally do not discriminate, Fair Weather Liberals are unprejudiced but may discriminate, Timid Bigots are prejudiced but generally do not discriminate, & All Weather Bigots are prejudiced & generally discriminate

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Outline on Majority / Minority Patterns of Interaction

External
Links

Social scientists describe interaction btwn majority & minority members of a society in terms of the several models, including: pluralism, assimilation, segregation, genocide

PLURALISM

Pluralism is a state in which racial & ethnic minorities are distinct but have social parity

The US is pluralistic to the extent that all people have equal standing under the law, but it also has non pluralistic characteristics

ASSIMILATION

The term assimilation to describe the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant category of people

The degree of assimilation in the US varies by the category of people by race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, etc.

Assimilation in the US has occurred more rapidly for grps defined by ethnicity than race

For racial traits to diminish over generations requires miscegenation, biological reproduction by partners of different racial categories

SEGREGATION

Segregation is the physical & social separation of categories of people

Segregation may be voluntary, but it is usually imposed

Segregation by race & ethnicity was legal in the US until the Civil War & then many laws were passed to keep segregation legal

The Civil Rights Mvmt of the 1950s & 60s began to break down segregation laws & norms & this process of desegregation continues today

GENOCIDE

Genocide is the systematic killing of one category of people by another

Genocide has been used throughout history but was made illegal after WW 2

Despite the illegality of genocide, it still occurs today w/ one of the major genocides of the 2000s taking place in Darfur, a region of Sudan in NE Africa

ETHNIC CLEANSING

Ethnic cleansing is the process of removal of a people from an area by either forced relocation or genocide

Like segregation, ethnic cleansing can be voluntary or involuntary, but is usually involuntary

Ethnic cleansing has occurred recently in the Balkan region (the former Yugoslavia), & may be occurring in the late 2000s in Iraq

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Outline on Causes of Contemporary Racial / Ethnic Inequality

External
Links

- Video: Crash

Link

- Project: Crash

Link

- Supplement: Time Mag: Kids & Race

Link

Summary of the Causes of Racial / Ethnic Inequality:
A. Social Psychological Theories
      1. Authoritarian Personality
      2   Projection & Scapegoats
      3. Social Learning
B. Social Structural Theories
      1. Functionalism
      2. Conflict Theory
           a. Internal Colonialism
           b. Split Labor Market
           c. Marxist Theory

Modern racism arose in the middle ages, during the Age of Exploration, as an ideology to support conquest & genocide

The causes of racism have roots in the middle ages, but the causes of contemporary racism are different than the causes of ancient racism

A. There are THREE social psychological theories which explain social differentiation

1. An authoritarian personality type is related to social differentiation by 7 traits. Authoritarians
a. see life in clear compartments of black & white & see no gray
b. are more likely to support aggression against non conformers
c. believe that the world is a dangerous place
d. are cynical
e. worry about sexual "goings on"
f. are superstitious
g. resist looking inward

Authoritarian personality theory views prejudice as a personality trait in certain individuals

Adorno found that authoritarians are more likely to be racist

Adorno's research found that the authoritarian personally type scored a good deal higher on anti Semitic & anti black prejudice than did other people

Link

Examples of authoritarianism & discrimination

2. Projection & scapegoats: We project our fears, weaknesses onto others & then scapegoat them for those projected qualities

A scapegoat is a person or group against whom an individual displaces feelings of anger or frustration that cannot be expressed toward the true source of the individual's feelings

Scapegoats are people or groups who serve as effective targets of people's anger, but who are not the true source of that anger

A scapegoat is a person or category of people, typically w/ little power, whom people unfairly blame for their own troubles

Scapegoat theory holds that prejudice results from frustrations among people who are themselves disadvantaged

Projection is the process by which a person denies or minimizes personal shortcomings by exaggerating the extent to which these same shortcomings occur in others

Projection is the process of exaggerating the faults of others, so that your own faults can be denied or minimized

The personalities of people who are prejudiced are such that they exaggerate the faults of others so they can deny or minimize their own faults

We project our weaknesses onto others, treating them as scapegoats

Link

Examples of projection, scapegoating, & discrimination

The Ku Klux Klan & similar groups have often drawn the bulk of their support from working class whites, who feel economically threatened by blacks, other minority groups, immigrants, etc.

3. Social learning, also known as socialization, is the process by which attitudes, beliefs & behaviors are learned from significant others

People are prejudiced because they grow up in prejudiced environments or subcultures where they learn prejudice from their significant others

Link

Examples of social learning & discrimination

Discrimination resulting from authoritarianism, scapegoating & social learning are the result of normal personality needs that become exaggerated / extreme; i.e. fetishized

Very often, when people whose prejudices are based on social learning move to environments where their significant others are relatively unprejudiced, their prejudice falls

A personality need is the psychological need for a particular attitude, belief, or behavior, that arises from the particular personality type of an individual

Thus from the social psychological theories of racism, the question arises, can therapy cure discrimination which arises from personality needs?

Social learning theory holds that attitudes & beliefs can be changed by changing behaviors; i.e. if people interact on an equal basis, they will view each other as equals

B. There are TWO social structural theories which explain social differentiation

To explain why entire countries have patterns of race relations that change over time, or why one country has racial harmony while another has racial conflict requires a social structural theory

1. Functionalists believe that ethnocentrism functions to builds solidarity & cohesiveness & helps us understand & organize society, but often becomes exaggerated & universal

The culture theory variation of functionalism argues that prejudice is embedded in culture

Link

Examples of ethnocentrism

2. There are THREE conflict theories which explain social differentiation

The conflict theory of prejudice proposes that powerful people use prejudice to justify oppressing others

a. Internal colonialism theory holds that part of capitalism's history is colonialism

Colonized groups are scapegoated as 2nd class citizens & this build solidarity & allows justification of conquerors

Colonized groups are viewed as second class citizens whose souls are to be saved or as the soulless to be destroyed

Link

Examples of internal colonialism & discrimination

The inter ethnic conflict in Northern Ireland is based, on the surface on theological differences, but may be effectively understood in terms of internal colonialism

b. Split labor market theory holds that racism is fomented to split up the labor force: keep labor fighting amongst selves rather than against the ruling class

Split labor market theory focuses in part upon economic conflicts w/in the majority group, pointing out that such conflicts may have an important effect on majority minority relations

There are THREE interest groups according to split labor market theory which include
- employers (owners of capital)
- higher paid labor
- lower paid labor

According to split labor market theory, the majority group members, who hold the higher paying jobs, attempt to protect their position by demanding hiring discrimination against minorities

Link

Examples of split labor markets & discrimination

c. Marxist theory holds that SLMT is correct but incomplete & so adds that racism benefits the rich & the elites of society

Link

Examples of Marxist explanations of discrimination

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Examples of Authoritarianism & Discrimination

KKK
Nazis
Any right wing extremist groups

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Examples of Projection, Scapegoating, & Discrimination

Goat was driven into the wilderness as a gift: to purge the sins of the tribe
then to sacrificing it, burning it, etc.
Goat: symbol for the devil or evil
Then drove off people, sacrificed them, burned them

Jews have been scapegoated for millennia
Any foreign people in a nation are often scapegoated
Chinese were scapegoated in California during a depression in the late 1800s

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Examples of Social Learning & Discrimination

SMIPNN - selective exposure - modeling - identification - positive reward - nurturance - negative punishment
Nazi, KKK. etc. use powerful ceremonies, reverent educational settings, etc. to teach hatred & superiority

Dad rewarding son for making racist comments
Dad punishing son for having friend from another race

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Examples of Ethnocentrism

Our team is number 1!
Racist: Anyone who is different that me is bad: Our race is # 1
Very Exaggerated belief: Giving the characteristics of one to all
I saw this person steal: They all steal

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Examples of Internal Colonialism & Discrimination

In almost every country, foreigners, different ethnic groups are live & interact in their own enclaves
Black Ghetto
China town
Little Korea
Most cultures cannot accept people that maintain their own culture & resist assimilation
This is one reason that Jews have been scapegoated for millennia,
they always resisted assimilation, whereas many other cultures accepted it

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Examples of Split Labor Markets & Discrimination

KKK & similar groups drawn almost exclusively from poor, unemployed whites
Freedom trains: after the Civil War, notices put up in Southern towns: factory jobs in the North
Ethnic groups used to break up labor movement
Mollie McGuires were Irish: hated other ethnic groups, esp Scots
Chicago Packing Plants in 1900: various E European group
Today: Mexican workers in Packing Plants

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Examples of Marxist Explanations of Discrimination

Blacks built the South
Indians lost their lands
Chinese built the West, etc.

Racism is tied to nationalism:
    wars are usually conflicts
    amongst the rich
    fought by the poor
    w/ racial superiority as one major justification

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Outline on the Causes of Sexism

External
Links

SUMMARY: There are FIVE fundamental causes of sexism, including:
a. All men benefit from sexism
b. Sexism benefits elite men
c. Sexism is entrenched in our culture
d. Sexism is entrenched in the social structures
e. Gender socialization

People commonly think of several things as the cause of sexism, such as women's lack of the vote, education, perceived sexism in 'holy books,' men, etc., but these are only examples of the fundamental causes

There are FIVE fundamental causes of sexism, which is a form of social differentiation

A. ALL MEN BENEFIT FROM SEXIM IN SOME WAYS; MEN & WOMEN ARE HURT BY SEXISM

Although all men benefit from sexism in terms of income, wealth, and power, sexism exacts some high costs in other areas of their lives

Link

Examples of how all men benefit from sexism

B. SEXISM KEEPS PEOPLE IN CONFLICT & SO BENEFITS ELITE MEN AT THE TOP OF THE SYSTEM

Link

Examples of how sexism elevates conflict

C. GENDER SOCIALIZATION IS FIRMLY ENTRENCHED IN OUR CULTURE K V B N

Link

Examples of the depth of sexism in culture

See Gender & Culture

D. SEXISM IS ENTRENCHED IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Sexism & patriarchy are deeply integrated into the operation of the ten social structures including PF REG M CEML