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  Review Notes on   WO 5:  Work & Family
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  -  Syllabus
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  -  Resources
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Outline on WO 5:  Work & Family
  
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 Work  
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     Retirement  
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     Social Mobility  
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     Culture  
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     Social Structure  
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     Erikson on the Individual Life Cycle  
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 The Family  
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     Socialization  
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     Socialization at Work  
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     Gender Socialization  
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     Steering  
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     Work & Family Life  
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     Working Couples  

 
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  Outline on Work
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 Work & family make up the two most important spheres of western life  
  Modern society generally separates the two spheres of work & family life  
  People in Hunter Gatherer Society did not differentiate btwn the spheres of work & family life the way we do today  
  And for much of history, the family unit was the work unit  
  The govt does not consider, in the legal sense, homemaking to be work   
 
 A career is more than just a good job, it is a sequence of events w/in a person's work history  
  A career is a way of life that shapes our very being in that "we are what we do," unless we are alienated because of our career; i.e. have low job satisfaction  
 
 Autonomy is the authority to make decisions & is perhaps the most important characteristic for job satisfaction  
 
 The types of work we do strongly influences our very being, our personality:  We are what we do  
  The types of work predominating today are bureaucratic, hierarchical, large orgs as explored by Merton's concept of the bureaucratic personality  
  Because of hierarchy, there are always more employees than job opportunities  
  What does this do for our personality?  
  Work positively motivates us & we realize we must work hard  
  Work devalues us & we realized it is a dog eat dog world  
  See Also:    We are what we do  
 
 A typical work life has the stages of
- leaving home
- going to college or directly to work
- attainment of a full-time job
- marriage & support of a spouse/household
- support of a family?
- contributions to childrens' education
- retirement		  
  Career choices are affected by social patterns  
  For young men & women, following the normative order has increased monetary rewards through college education & a job, & non monetary rewards in marriage, kids, exciting life, etc.  
  Many women begin a family first, then add a career outside home  
  Different quantities & types of jobs are available in each decade or year of life   
  The long trend in careers is from agriculture to industry to service to?  
  Parallel to sector shifts in the economy is the transition from manual to mental or skilled work; i.e., from blue to white collar jobs  
  There are barriers to entry in careers based on economic, social factors, psychological factors, mental factors, etc.  
  Dead end jobs may be characterized as having: 
- low skill                                    - low barriers to entry
- high turnover                             - low job security
- little promotion potential            - part-time employment
- low pay                                    - seasonal employment
- low fringe benefits		  
  The dead end job structure be the only practical arrangement for employer because of competition, especially from overseas  
  A dead end job structure is also disadvantageous for employers because unmotivated workers job hop  
  Entry port jobs have a higher possibility for training, responsibility, pay, benefits, promotion, etc.  
  Entry port jobs are often seen as beginning a career; the first job in the job ladder  
  The steepness of the organizational hierarchy & span of control affect the possibility of promotion  
  A major social issue results from the fact that the transition from the industrial to the post industrial society has resulted in the replacement of many good jobs w/ many dead end jobs  
  Demographers anticipate that low US birth rates may mitigate job losses in the future; however, immigration & job exporting seem to be overwhelming the low birth rate trend  
  See Also:  Social Mobility  
  Approximately ten percent of workers change occupations each year  
  The Horatio Alger Myth of poverty to wealth is very important is the US & many immigrants come here because of it  
  PATTERNS OF CAREER SHIFTS  
  The average US worker changes jobs 3 times:  
  Entry level jobs offer the possibilities of horizontal or vertical shifts in SES  
  During the middle years of work most people expect a reasonable vertical shift to higher pay, more prestige, & more autonomy  
  In today's economy there is always the possibilities of lay offs which are difficult for middle aged workers to adjust to  
  In the later years, a worker is considered to be the most productive of her or his career, but the most expensive workers, may not be the most productive because their skills may be out of date  
  One's work in one's later years may or may not be the "crowning achievement" of their working life  
  See Also:  Retirement  
  ALTERNATIVE CYCLES  
  Today many workers go back for training throughout life & thus continually update or retool their education  
  More people opt for leisure throughout life, rather than waiting for retirement  
  More people are integrating their work & family life w/ both men & women finding reward on the job as well as in the home, choosing to sacrifice work for the home  
  The physical conditions at work include safety, health, physical stress & psychological aspects of work  
  The physical conditions at work are influenced by one's position in the stratification system  
  The higher one is on the dimensions of ownership, authority, occupational status, income etc., as well as whether the job is manual or non-manual, the better the physical conditions  

 
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 Outline on  Retirement
External
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  In the 1980s, mandatory retirement was outlawed, except where age is a proven factor in job performance
 
  Many workers must work late into life for money as seen in Walmart attracting older workers
 
  Social scientists expect professional workers to remain in the labor force for a relatively long time, while manual workers in harsh environments or doing heavy physical labor are likely to retire earlier
 
  Social Security is only a minimal retirement fund
 
  Pensions do not exist for many jobs, or are inadequate, or have failed
 
  It was not until the the reforms of the 1970s & the 1980s that legal reforms required the vesting of a worker's pension plan after ten years
 
  Vesting means that the worker is assured of benefits at retirement because there is real money placed in real investments that are ear-marked for the worker's retirement
 
  Retirement plans that are not vested are based on a promise to pay in that employers frequently promise to pay based on future earnings, thus if a company gets in trouble, retired workers are left w/ little or nothing
 
  Social Security is not a vested plan, benefits are paid out of the present earnings of workers
 
  More older workers are taking dead-end jobs
 
  In retirement, women are especially likely to be hard hit because they are more likely to have worked intermittently & part-time & to have received lower wages or minimal benefits, including minimal retirement plans
 
  A widow who eared less than her husband is eligible for Social Security based on her husband's earnings
 
  Some pension plan's for men also cover their wives, should they be widowed, but usually at a lower level of support
 
  Many workers prefer a transition period of partial retirement btwn full-time work & complete retirement
 
  Because of the decline in the birth rate, the average age of the labor force is increasing, increasing the burden of retirees on companies & workers
 
  US law requires employers not to discriminate against workers older than 40 & not to make retirement mandatory on the basis of age alone
 
  Retirement provides turnover to allow the hiring of younger workers  
  Younger workers have the latest skills  
  Older workers have more experience & are better paid, therefore an employer can frequently lower labor costs by encouraging older workers to retire  
  The retirement of an older worker may provide the salary to hire two younger workers  
  Although data do not indicate that older workers are any less productive than younger workers, employers may believe them to be less productive & thus encourage them to "move on"  
  There is also a counter trend in many low-wage industries wherein industries such as fast-food are substituting older part-time workers for younger workers who are becoming less available  
  Older workers are superior to many younger workers because they are more mature & have excellent work habits  
  Retirement poses a life crisis for many seniors because money is one issue & identity is another  
  Retired workers find the long-awaited leisure to be not what they had anticipated  
  "Disengagement" or relinquishing their work roles is difficult for those w/ strong work commitments because they have no workplace to report to every morning & these lose their strong role identity as breadwinner  
  Failing health or financial trouble often derail the life-style or activities the retiree had planned  
  Inflation can eat away at a retirement nest egg because to invest the retirement fund in a manner that out-grows inflation, requires that the investment be put at greater risk  

 
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  Outline on  Social Mobility
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your Experience of Social Mobility
Link
  Social mobility is the frequency w/ which people move up or down in a society's economic hierarchy  
  Social Mobility is also known as socioeconomic mobility       or simply               mobility  
  Socioeconomic mobility refers to mobility in all of the dimensions of stratification:   economic, prestige, & power  
  Social scientists frequently refer to upward social mobility or downward social mobility  
  Kerbo demonstrates that the US class structure is very stable; i.e., there is not great mobility
 
Percent of Income Earned by Lowest & Highest Quintile
 
1947
1970
1992
 Lowest Fifth 
5  %
5 % 
4 %
 Highest Fifth 
43 %
41 %
45 %

NOTE:  The 70s were the best years for the lower class & the worst for the upper class /corporate class

  
 
 The top & the bottom of the stratification system have the lowest levels of social mobility in the US  
  An example of the low level of social mobility in the US is that one out of 10 sons of manual laborers will attain professional employment, while seven out of 10 sons of professional workers will  
 
 In the US, the middle of the stratification system has the highest level of social mobility ( i.e. low occupational inheritance w/ higher intergenerational mobility )  
  There is a strong relationship between stratification and socioeconomic mobility in that there is more mobility in societies that have more equality  
  There are six fundamental types of stratification systems, each of which dominated a particular historical period, each of which fosters a particular level of social mobility
a.  Primitive communal system ( aka hunter gatherer society or tribal society )
b.  Slavery system  (two types:  conquest & racist)
c.  Caste system
d.  Feudal system ( aka estate system )
e.  Class system  ( aka capitalist or state capitalist system )
f.  Post-industrial system ( aka global system )		  
  Each type of economic system fosters a particular level of social mobility  
  Furthermore, particular economic systems have subtypes as is seen w/ pure capitalism, state capitalism, industrial capitalism, a service economy, etc.  
  There are EIGHT characteristics of strat systems in that they may be open, closed, vertical, horizontal, exchange, intergenerational, intragenerational, & structural  
  Open stratification systems have a high level of social mobility
 
  In an open stratification system, a person's position in society is attained as a result of what the person has done  
  Achieved status has substantial influence in an open stratification system
 
  Ascribed status has little influence in an open stratification system  
  An open stratification system is the type of system where achieved statuses have substantial influence over the social status a person attains in adulthood  
  Closed stratification systems have a low level of social mobility  
  In a closed stratification system, a person's position in society is attained by birth-right, e.g., race, sex, family, etc.  
  Achieved status has little influence in a closed stratification system  
  Ascribed status has substantial influence in a closed stratification system  
  A closed stratification system is the type of system where ascribed statuses largely determine a person's life chances  
  Vertical social mobility is movement up or down the stratification system, i.e. to a better or worse position; i.e. from working class to middle class from corporate class to upper middle class  
  Vertical mobility is the movement form one occupational position to another of higher or lower rank  
  Vertical mobility describes upward or downward movement in the standard of living as measured by income, prestige, autonomy, etc.  
  Conditions affecting vertical mobility include disability, formal demotion, lay-off, bumping, downsizing, closing, etc.  
  The greater the degree of vertical mobility, the more open the class system, the greater the vertical mobility, the closer the society is to the value of equal opportunity  
  An example of upward vertical example is movement from police officer to public school teacher  
  Horizontal social mobility is movement across positions of roughly equal rank  
  Horizontal social mobility is the mobility that most people experience
It is primarily from one type of job to another while a person's income, status, power, influence stay relatively the same
Of course people hope to do better on all dimensions as they advance their career, but few achieve enough to change class		  
  Horizontal mobility is the movement from one position to another of equal rank in the occupational structure  
  Examples of horizontal mobility include 
- moving from supervisor to manager or gaining seniority & status on the job
- the Electrician who leaves job w/ GM for job w/ Boeing even though it may include a sizable raise who is thus still a member of the middle class		  
 
 Exchange mobility, aka churning, denotes a type of social mobility where there is little societal social mobility, but high levels of individual social mobility
 
 
 Exchange mobility, aka churning occurs when someone's absolute position changes in relation to others
 
 
 Exchange mobility, aka churning, denotes relatively equal amounts of upward & downward social mobility, which often gives the illusion of upward class mobility
 
 
 The concept of exchange mobility, aka churning, denotes that
 
  - there are many people moving up the socio-economic scale as there are moving down the socio-economic ladder  
  - while it appears as if many people are moving up the socio-economic ladder, in reality those moving up are replacing those moving down  
  - people fall in and out of each class ( churning ) because of continuing economic competition  
  - once a person is poor, the chances are good that they will get out of poverty, but not very far  
 
 The concept of churning describes the fact that while a particular number of people may experience upward vertical mobility in a given year, usually nearly an equal number of people experience downward vertical social mobility
 
 
 The media & our ideology reflects upward class mobility ( things are improving ) therefore we are more likely to see the upward mobility & ignore the downward mobility
 
 
 Churning is also created by simultaneous status churning & by horizontal mobility  
  While the US has a poverty rate of 15 %, in a ten year period, 25 % will be in poverty at least once  
  43 % to 60 % of the poor do not move out of poverty for any length of time & thus, 67 % to 40 % do get out for at least a while  
  Thus, at least 17 mm adults & children are chronically poor & 33 mm fall in & out of poverty or rise into the Working Class or higher  
  It is the group of poor who rise into the working class who could significantly benefit by structural changes  
  Intergenerational mobility is the attainment by people of a socio-economic status that is higher or lower than their parents  
  W/ Intergenerational mobility, there is a changing proportion of higher & lower class families  
  When sociologists compare a person's status with that of his or her parents, they are looking at intergenerational mobility  
  Upward intergenerational occupational mobility occurs when a person's occupation/class as compared to parents, is higher  
  Intragenerational mobility compares the occupational position of a person over an extended period of time  
  Intragenerational mobility compares a persons 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. jobs  
  Upward intragenerational occupational mobility occurs when a person's occupation/class as compared to contemporaries, is higher  
  Mobility in the US is slightly above average for industrialized country, but it is less than most people assume   
  There is a direct relationship btwn stratification and mobility as seen in the fact that only one out of 10 sons of manual laborers will attain professional employment, while seven out of 10 sons of professional workers will attain professional employment  
  The top & the bottom of the stratification system have the lowest levels of social mobility in the US  
  From the view point of inflow & outflow mobility, low social mobility is created by high occupational inheritance & low intergenerational mobility  
  Thus, the top & bottom of the stratification system have high occupational inheritance & low intergenerational mobility  
  In the US, the middle of the stratification system has the highest level of social mobility  
  In the US, the middle of the stratification system has low occupational inheritance & high intergenerational mobility  
  Structural mobility is a type of mobility where classes of people improve their socio-economic position  
  Structural mobility occurs when there has been a growth in the economy of better paying, more pleasant, higher status, white collar jobs, and a decline in the number of blue collar jobs  
  Structural mobility describes ability to move to different occupation; such as from industry to service, & results from large scale changes in the economy  
  The occupational opportunity structure is dependent on structural mobility, the health of economy, immigration, etc.  
  In the industrialized modern nations, structural mobility occurs because of an increased proportion of jobs in the higher status, white collar categories  
  Growth in the economy of better paying, more pleasant, higher status, white collar jobs, & a decline in the number of blue collar jobs increases structural mobility  
  Structural mobility is the opposite of exchange mobility  
  The US has a strong value that there is a high level of social mobility, but in reality there is a high level of exchange mobility & little structural mobility  
  Although the US has little more mobility than most other industrialized societies, Americans believe & feel that there is a lot of mobility & that America is the land of opportunity where everyone who works hard can get ahead
 
  Historically, the US experienced positive structural mobility, but there have also been periods of negative structural mobility
 
  The historic eras which marked changes in structural mobility include:
-  "the land grab" in the mid 1800s
-  after the Industrial Revolution & the legalization of unions
-  in the 1930's, the Great Depression
-  after WW2 
-  after the Vietnam War
-  the Reagan Era 1980s & early 1990s
-  from the early 1990s to 2001
-  today?		  
 
 The US experienced positive structural mobility until "the land grab" was completed in the mid 1800s & then there was a long period of exchange mobility 
 
  After the Industrial Revolution & the legalization of unions, the working class gained & experienced positive structural mobility  
  In the 1930s, the US experienced negative structural mobility as a result of the Great Depression  
  After WW2, the US experienced positive structural mobility as a continuing result of industrialization, the Labor Movement & Pax American  
  After the Vietnam War, from the mid 1970s until the early 1990's the US experienced negative structural mobility  
  From the early 1990s to 2001, the US experienced slight positive structural mobility but mostly exchange mobility  
 
 70 % of Americans agree that "America is the land of opportunity where everyone who works hard can get ahead"
 
  80 % agree that "people who grew up in rich families have an average or better than average chance of getting ahead"  
  50 % believe that blacks, women, & working class families have an "average or better than average chance of getting ahead"  
  But the groups of blacks, women & working class families have a poorer than average chance of getting ahead  
 
 The Horatio Alger Myth is the belief that anyone, no matter how poor, can succeed on a grand scale  

 
Internal
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  An Overview of  Culture
External
Links
  -  Project:  Identifying a Culture
Link
  -  Project:  The Intersections of KBVN
Link
  -  Project:  Real & Ideal Culture
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  What Is Culture?
Link
  - Video:  What Is Culture?    12:00
Link
 
 -  Project:  Video:  The Social Orgs of Culture
Link
  -  Video:  The Social Orgs of Culture  2:07
Link
  -  Video:  The Spiral Jetty        8:26
Link
  -  Video:  Norms & Conformity        6:53
Link
  All societies have a culture  
 
 Culture may be defined as the shared content of society   
  Culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ( K B V N ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content  
  The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, norms       ( K B V N )   
  Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life  
  Do not confuse the common usage of the word "culture" w/ the sociological use  
  People commonly use culture to mean society &/ subculture & this usage would include both culture ( KBVN ) & social structure ( PF REG M CEML )  
  When examining Culture, KBVN are often expressed in SEVEN configurations 
 Roles                      Language                        Technology 
 Customs                 Material Objects 
 Religion                 Groups of People		  
  Social sciences on culture & cultural mapping  
  1.  Sociologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in modern society & how culture impacts social structures & personality  
  2.  Anthropologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in ancient  &/ indigenous societies  
  3.  Geographers examine how place & space shape culture & vice versa & how culture is organized spatially  
  4.  Psychologists examine how the subconscious is manifested in culture  
  5.  Political scientists examine how culture affects govt & the political process  
  Sociologists generally accept TWO human manifestations of culture:  material & non-material culture which occur in the TWO settings of the physical environment & the human environment  
  All the levels meld into one seamless culture: 
1.  Material culture 
     a.  Material culture & the physical environment 
     b.  Material culture & the human environment 
2.  Non-material culture 
     a.  Non-material culture & the physical environment 
     b.  Non-material culture & the human environment 		  
  1. Material culture is manifested in material representations of KBVN
 
  a.  Material culture is manifested through  the physical environment
 
  The physical environment includes the "natural" environment as well as human made rural landscapes, city-scapes, etc.  
  Even the physical environment in which we live comes to be identified as a representative of our material culture & the environment does shape our KBVN   
  Usually different regions have a cultural attachment to their environment   
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 Examples of material culture & the physical environment  
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 b. Material culture is manifested through the human environment:   
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   1)   World symbols:  An example of a world symbol is the UN Building or the Earth picture  
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   2)   National symbols:  a nation's flag  
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   3)   Regional symbols:  race car  
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   4)   Homes/ businesses styles:  ranch home, mobile home,   
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   5)   Cars, boats etc. styles:  SUV, mini van, sports car, etc.  
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   6)   Clothing styles:  woman in a black dress, men in black  
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   7)   Body shape / style:  body art,   
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 2.  Non-material culture is manifested in abstract representations of KBVN  
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 a.  Knowledge is shared truth based on science  
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 b.  Beliefs are shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense  
     Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content  
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 c.  Values are shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life  
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 Core American values have an ideal & a real Aspect;  See the Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values  
  Ideal values are those that actors hold "patriotically," or rhetorically, that actors believe that they hold  
  Real values are those that actors actually practice; when faced w/ a "situation," actors show their real values  
  The concept of  real values can be seen in the fact that Americans have the core cultural value of democracy, but fail to vote  
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 d. Norms are shared expectations about behavior, i.e. socially defined rules
 
  i.   Folkways are informal, minor norms that usually carry only minor & informal sanctions, or punishments, when they are violated  
 
 Example:  Manners  
  ii.  Mores are informal norms, that are very important to people & may be written into law  
  Example:  People should not talk loudly in religious buildings
 
  iii. Laws are formal, codified norms which everyone is expected to be aware & which carry specific, legal sanctions  
  Example:  driving regulations
 
  Western cultural practices are exported by media to remote corners of globe 
Paul Harvey:  Yet this is not “one world” 		  
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 Culture's components of  K + B + V + N, have limited intersections  
  Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content  
  WI Thomas on truth.... & culture:  'What we believe to be true, becomes true in its consequences'  
  Examples:  men are buffoons 
Cuban Missile Crisis:  the Russians are offering a way out / the Russians are holding a hard line 
A clique believing someone is cool		  
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 We each have conflicting views on  KBVN   AOI  which often create anxiety, cognitive dissonance, etc. on an individual level and conflict, strife, war, etc. on a societal level  
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 Non-material culture & the physical environment can be seen is the aesthetic question:  "What is the meaning of wind whispering in trees to your culture?"  
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 Non-material culture & the human environment can be seen is the aesthetic question:  "What is the meaning of a veiled face?   of green hair?"  

 
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Material culture & the physical environment

Examples:    mountains, ocean, corn fields 
Midwest:  rich farm land, lazy rivers, flat land, cold winters 
West coast:  beaches, sunshine, warm winters, best climate 
Appalachia:  mountains, forests, strip mines 


 
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Material culture & the human environment
Physical objects representing non-material or abstract culture 
      World Symbols 
      National Symbols 
      Regional Symbols 
      Homes 
      Cars, boats, planes, etc. 
      Clothes 
      Body 

 
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World symbols
Not many of these 

UN Building 


 
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National symbols

US Flag 
Confederate Battle Flag 

Some smaller items 
Food:  chocolate 


 
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Regional symbols
Silo 
Mississippi River 
Empire State Building 
Cheese 
Potatoes 
Tobacco 

 
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Homes
Shacks to Mansions to Castles 

 
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Car, boats, etc.
Mini van to SUV to Harley to junker 

 
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Clothing
Clothing, like language, is so personal that it identifies your culture 
We use clothing to indicate respect ( in a ritual such as marriage, or funeral ) or disrespect 

 
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Body
Body image & decoration is becoming more & more malleable: 
We now idolize the thin, athletic body 
But less thin that the "Twiggy" days of the late 1970's 
Heavier men & women were preferred in earlier times 
Women have been subject to greater pressures to achieve the ideal body image than have men.... but is this changing? 

 
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Non-material culture
Abstract:  the knowledge, beliefs, values & norms  ( KBVN ) of a society 

           a.  Non-Material culture & the physical environment 
           b.  Non-Material culture & the human environment 

 
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1. Knowledge:  shared truth based on science   We believe it to be true 

Physical Sciences 
  Natural 
  Life 
Social Sciences 
Humanities 
Arts 

Knowledge is not absolute in that it changes from society to society from year to year 
Generally we can speak of scientific knowledge 


 
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2. Beliefs:  shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense 
General recognition of less truth validity 
There is no clear line btwn Knowledge & Beliefs 

 
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3. Values:  Shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life

We are generally unaware of what our values are unless we have gone through training/coaching/therapy to "know thyself" 


 
Top
  
Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values
Core American values: general consensus 
( may conflict )		 Ideal culture: 
accepted in principle		 Real culture: 
actually practiced
1.  Freedom   Freedom for all; Freedom is our Number 1 Value!  We allow more freedom for a middle majority & the upper class, less for the others.  Many groups have limited freedom
2.  Democracy
 
 
3.  Individualism 
 
 
4.  Responsibility 
 
 
5.  Religion/morality 
 
 
6.  Science/tech 
 
 
7.  Opportunity
 
 
8.  Competition
 
 
9.  Work ethic
 
 
10.  Humanitarianism
 
 
11.  Practicality
 
 
12.  Nationalism
 
 
13.  Romance
 
 
14.  Sexuality
 
 

 
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4. Norms
 Folkways:    manners, grammar, dressing appropriately 
 Mores:        littering to flag burning 
 Laws:          littering, flag burning, to robbery & murder 

We are not generally conscious of norms 
Their impact is automatic:  internalized 

We often can ponder the norm of a particular situation 


 
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Knowledge, beliefs, values, norms are like four intersecting circles
 K & B can be tested, but are not 
V & N are not recognized as vague 

 
Top
  
Culture = K + B + V + N 
The sum of our culture 
(knowledge, beliefs, values, rules [norms]) 
creates truth for each of us 
What people agree on is “the truth”

WI Thomas:  If people believe something is true, it becomes real in its consequences. 
 Knowledge & beliefs define action 
 Earth:  flat or round 
 Love:  eros, filial, romantic 
Beauty: 

We are not generally aware of what our culture is 
We do not know what is in our own mind w/ regards to K B V N 


 
Top
  
KBVN AOI
We are generally not explicitly conscious of our KBVN 
We hold conflicting positions in relation to KBVN AOI 
But some people are more introspective about 
     Attitudes 
     Opinions 
     Interests 

 
Top
  
Non-Material culture & the physical environment
Humans definitely attribute abstract meanings to the physical environment 
As scientists, we cannot judge this, only try to understand it 
Durkheim delved deeply into this question: 
Some critics today decry our loss of connection w/ the environment & the mystical 

What is the meaning of an untouched forest? 
What is the meaning of a Clinch River freshwater mussel? 
What is the meaning of Antarctica? 
The moon? 
The stars? 
The planets? 


 
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Non-Material culture & the human environment
As human influence & material creations grow, so does the amount of meaning we attribute to human made creations 

What is the meaning of a Ford Excursion?  ( the largest SUV ) 
What is the meaning of green hair? 
What is the meaning of a 5 caret diamond ring?  estimated value $1/4 million 


 
Internal
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Top
  Outline on  Social Structure
External
Links
  -  Video:  The Agents of Socialization        8:26
Link
  -  What is society?  society is made up of social structure & culture  
  Summary of social structure: 
A.  Social grps or orgs
B.  Positions
      1)  Role 
           a. Role set
           b. Role strain
           c. Role conflict
      2.  Bases of a position
           a. Class
           b. Status
           i. Ascribed status
           ii. Achieved status
           iii. Master status
           c. Power
C.  Regular relationships
      1)  Division of labor
      2)  Stratification
D.  Constant share of resources
E.  Historical development		  
  Social structure is the organization of society, including institutions, social positions, the relationships among social positions, the groups or orgs that make up society, & the distribution of scarce resources w/in the society  
 
 Social structure is the organization of society, including
- groups of organizations that
- perform basic functions of society
- support society's culture
- accepted as an essential element in society, that is, are taken for granted
 
  Social structure is the relatively stable patterns of social behavior  
  In the sense that structure is not visible, it is a reified, abstract concept  
 
  List of Social Structures  (  PF REG M CEML  )
1.  Peers
2.  Family
3.  Religion
4.  Econ / work
5.  Govt		 6.  Military
7.  Charity
8.  Education
9.  Media
10.  Leisure / Recreation
 
 
 Social structures have FIVE components or qualities including being composed of groups, in particular positions, w/ regular relationships to each other, a constant share of resources, & a particular historical development
 
Link
 A. The first component of a social structure is that is is made up of social groups or organizations
-  two or more people 
-  who share a common purpose
-  have a structure of roles & statutes
 
  Each of the social structures, PF REG M CEML, is composed of orgs, & orgs w/in each of the social structures has similar structures that are unique to that social structure  
  Families have structures made up of the relations btwn different members of the family held together by various familial bonds  
  While different families have some different features of their structures, all families have some structural features in common including parents, guardians, leaders; & children, young adults, dependents; extended members, aunts, uncles, etc. who live together by the bond of procreation or some other intimate bond  
  Economic orgs, i.e. businesses have structures made up of the relations btwn different members of the business held together by various economic bonds  
  While businesses have some different features of their structures, all businesses have some structural features in common including owners, mgrs, partners; & workers, employees who are together by the bond of creation, labor, employment  
  See Also:  Economic Orgs Structure  
  More of the TEN social structures are examined below  
blank B. The second component of a social structure is that  it is made up of persistent positions are roles, classes, status's, & power which persist over history   
Link
 1)  A role is any position in a social structure or the expected behavior in a social position  
  a.  A role set is a collection of related roles attached to one social position or status;  sets of expected behavior  
  b.  Role conflict is conflicting or opposing expectations or behaviors among various roles  
  c.  Role strain is conflicting or opposing expectations or behaviors w/in same role  
  2)  The three bases of position are class, status, & power  
   There is disagreement about which interpretation of position is most important   
  a.  Class is an actor's position ( upper, middle, lower ) in relationship to the economy / their income  
  Listings of classes typically include the upper, middle, & lower classes, but also may be stratified into finer distinctions  
  The most common system of classes today includes the upper, upper middle middle, working, & lower classes  
Link
 b.  Status is an actor's level of prestige or honor  
  There are THREE types of status:  ascribed, achieved, & master  
 
 i.  Ascribed status is the status an actor is born into  
  A person generally receives ascribed status through birth, including race, sex, family of origin, etc.  
  ii.  Achieved status is the status an actor earns or creates; i.e. achieved status is at least partially a result of something that the actor does   
  iii.  Master status is an actor's most important status; i.e. the status that is most central & important in an actor's life  
  An actor may be able to choose their achieved status, but ascribed & master status' are attributed by society through social structures  
  Marx said, 'A person may make history, but they make history under conditions not of their own choosing.'  
  For most people in modern industrial countries, their master status is their occupation  
 
 c.  Power is authority or the ability to get people to act  
 
 C.  The third component of a social structure is that there are constant or regular relationships among groups & social structures:   
  TWO common types of regular relationships in social structures include a division of labor & stratification  
  1)  The division of labor is the constant allocation of type of labor; a system of specialization  
  2)   Stratification  is the constant allocation of resources; a system of inequality  
Link
 D.  The fourth component of a social structure is that each social structures, historically, receives a  constant share of resources
Which are the 3 richest social structures?
Which are the 3 poorest social structures?		  
Link
 E.  The fifth component of a social structure is that social structures each have a unique historical development  
  See Also:  The Organizations that Compose the Social Structures  
  See Also:  Organizational Structure  
  Examples of the social structures        ( PF REG M CEML )  
Link
 1.  Peers  
      a.  Groups:  
      b.  Positions  
      c.  Relationships  
      d.  Resources  
      e.  Historical development  
Link
 2.  Family  
Link
 3.  Religion  
Link
 4.  Economy / work  
Link
 5.  Government  
Link
 6.  Military  
Link
 7.  Charity  
Link
 8.  Education  
Link
 9.  Media  
Link
 10.  Leisure / Recreation  

 
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A.  Social Groups:
    In the case of social institutions, MANY people are required
Example: Students are a group in the social structure of education
      Blue collar workers, mgrs., up mgt., stock holders, etc.  in the the social structure of education

 
Top  
1)  Role      EXAMPLES
a.  Role Set:      student,  mother/father,  teacher
b.  Role Conflict:    sales & family life
c.  Role Strain:  sales job conflict among management, customers, co-workers

 
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b. Social Position based on Status
Status:  ( level of prestige/honor ):  any position in SS:  see table in book 
i.  Ascribed Status:  gender, race, religion, family, looks, size, 
ii. Achieved Status:  earn, at least partially as result of own action: most imp:  occupation, education, income, Motherhood
iii. Master Status:  Had been different for men & women:  occupation & Motherhood, looks

 
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D.  Relatively historically constant % of resources is allocated to each social structure
Which are the 3 richest SS's?
Which are the 3 poorest SS's?

Richest                                     Poorest
Econ / work                              Family
Military                                    Peers
Govt                                         Education


 
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E. Each Social Structure has a unique historical development
The SS List presents each SS in its approximately order of historical emergence
1. Peers
2. Family
3. Religion
    Are believed to be prehistorical, the emergence of which made civilization itself possible

4.  Work / econ
5.  Government
6.  Military
7.  Charity
    Are believed to emerge when the 1st glimmers of civilization began

8.  Education
9.  Media
    Emerged early in history, but were only for the elites until the modern era when they became widely available

10.  Leisure / recreation
       Is a product of the late stages industrial revolution


 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
1.  Peers            SS Examples 
Often combined/formed around recreation / leisure
Groups:  (Orgs):   Most peer groups today are informal orgs:
    friends or any group primarily composed of friends:
    frats, sororities, bowling club, bridge club; cliques:
    Jocks, brains, grunges, preps, skanks, gangs use specific
    names, e.g. the CMT, etc.
Positions:  various functional leaders:  most friendship groups  have some informal leader; also:  clown, goat, etc.
Relationships:  division of labor based on position; may divide labor depending on task at hand
Allocation of Resources:  random strat w/in groups;       but preps more likely to be UC; jocks less likely, etc.
History:  It is believed that prior to our development into homo sapiens, that we developed close relationships
It may be this social tie that distinguishes us from other primates, though many other primates do have peer relations
So how are ours different?
Coop to hunt
Breeding males stay in same tribe

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
2.  Family       SS Examples
Groups: (Orgs): Most family groups today are informal orgs:  Smiths, Jones, etc.
Traditional, Non-traditional family, Single Mom, Single Dad, Step, Extended...
The family is legally recognized
Positions are legally recognized
Positions:  Mom, Dad, kids, Head of Household, Step-, Grandma, ....
Relationships:  Mom to daughter, Dad to daughter, Mom to Dad,   Step Dad to Step Kid, 
Traditional family to Traditional family; Single Mom family to Extended family ....
Allocation of Resources:  society is structured so that Non-traditional family (working Mom & Dad) receives most 
    resources;   the least?
History:  The History of family is very complex
H-G society:  matrilineal, serial monogamy
Ancient:  Serial monogamy & polygamy
Industrial:  Monogamy
Today:  Monogamy & serial monogamy

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
3.  Religion          SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most religious groups today are formal organizations
Positions:  Religious leader:  priest, cleric, rabbi, monk etc.         Religious follower:
Relationships:  varied depending on religion:  e.g. Catholic is more hierarchical; 
Allocation of Resources:  religion estb wealth over time & based on conversions:  older religions more wealthy
History:  Paganism, Polytheism, Monotheism, Secularism

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
4.  Work  (the Economy)      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most econ groups today are formal orgs:  businesses (corporations, partnerships, entrepreneur)
      unions, professional orgs, worker associations; 
     most workers belong only to informal peer/ class groups 
Positions:    Owner, mgr., admin, worker, tech, etc.
Relationships:  most very authoritarian/ hierarchical:
    higher position gives orders to lower position;
    obedience required w/in workplace bounds
Allocation of Resources:  Great strat:  owners, mgrs. etc.
    control wealth of society
History: 
H-G society:  Work not recognized as separate activity
Only worked to survive; no wk, no survival
Ancient:  Separate process of wk recognized
   because ruling class emerges, who do not wk
Industrialized society:  Amount of wk in society increases, becomes rationalized
Wk is removed from the home

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
5.  Govt      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most govt groups today are formal orgs 
Positions:  Elected officials, bur, citizens, non citizens
Relationships:  wide range of variation:  democracy to totalitarian
Allocation of Resources:  US govt controls 1/4 to 1/2 GDP
History: 
H-G society:  Govt & peers (tribe) & religion & family all intertwined
Ruled by consent & status
Ancient:  Govt & religion & family still intertwined, but becomes more  removed from the governed
Ruled by violence & authoritarianism
Industrial:  Some vestiges of democracy develop

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
6.  Military      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most mil groups today are formal orgs
Positions:  leaders, soldiers
Relationships:  same hierarchy as econ (econ based on mil model) except that obedience is total
Allocation of Resources:  Lower strat than in econ
History: 
H-G society:  Hunters were also warriors
Little war except to steal wives 
Ancient:  Soldiering becomes an occupation
Div of labor separates out separate class of warriors
Becomes linked w/ govt
Industrial:  Separate of mil from govt

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
7.  Charity     SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most char groups that raise large amounts of $$ today are formal orgs, but many informal groups
    also exist:  Want to contribute to the JJ Kelly Cross Country Team Travel Fund? 
Positions:   formal orgs have typical. mgr/wkr pos;  volunteers
Relationships:   formal orgs have typical. mgr/wkr relations; 
    volunteers maintain relations based on commitment to goals
Allocation of Resources:  formal orgs raise billions;    small orgs raise small amounts for local groups
History: 
H-G society:  if you worked, you shared & received all goods
Ancient:  religion dictates alms for the poor
Industrial:  Charity is business; separated from religion; taken on by govt

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
8.  Education       SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most ed groups today are formal  orgs:   Elementary, middle, high, Community College, College, Grad
Positions:  teachers & students
Relationships:  similar to econ:  voluntary after hi school
Allocation of Resources:  Teachers more than students;    less $$ than govt, wk, mil
History: 
H-G society:  Learn from tribal peers:  man to man; woman to woman
Ancient:  Formal ed develops for elites
Industrial:  Formal ed expands to other classes in the 1800's

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
9.  Media      SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most media groups today are formal orgs
Positions:  Mgrs., admin, reporters
Relationships:  similar to econ model
Allocation of Resources:  typical
History: 
H-G society:  gossip
Ancient:  Elites receive news orally by messenger
Writing develops; elites receive some written communication
Industrial:  Use of printing press expands;  Communication avail to all classes

 
Top   See Also:  The Organizations that Compose Social Structures  
See Also:  The Social Structure of Rec & Leisure  
10.  Recreation / Leisure         SS Examples
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most recreation groups (friends, bridge clubs, etc.)
   today are informal orgs that purchase recreation services from  formal orgs
Positions:  same as friends in informal orgs; same as econ in formal orgs
Relationships:  same as friends & econ
Allocation of Resources:  more $$ spent every day on recreation
History: 
H-G society:  as w/ work, separate spheres of wk & leisure not recognized
Ancient:  leisure seen as time of rest & societal rituals
Industrial:  Leisure develops as industry; people seek fulfillment through leisure

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on  Erik H. Erikson  1902 - 1994
External
Links
Link
 -  Biography & Major Works
 
 
 Erik Erikson felt that children face dilemmas involving choices btwn the two opposites of social expectations & self identity
 
  Erikson became best known for his ideas on how human beings develop a sense of identity, that is, the awareness one has of oneself as a whole person  
  Erikson based his ideas on the theories of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who emphasized the importance of early childhood for all later development  
  However, Erikson modified Freud's ideas, stressing the continual development of human beings throughout an eight stage life cycle  
  While Freud focused on the psycl & biological aspects of development, Erikson said that social & cultural influences also are significant to development  
 
 People acquire roles sequentially, which results in patterns of development that is seen as the individual life cycle
 
  Each stage in the Individual Life Cycle offers challenges & each resolution of the challenge shapes the personality
 
  Best & Stern, 1977, call the socially regular & sequential acquiring of roles the sequential life plan
 
  For Erikson, the Individual Life Cycle develops as each person resolves a fundamental challenge or conflict in life 
in order to mature or individuate
 
  For Erikson, life is a series of dilemmas to be resolved in the context of social expectations & self identity  
  Erikson emphasized nurture in the context of natural development  
 Link
 The Table on Erikson's Life Cycle, Work, & Personality Development demonstrates that people develop psychologically & socially throughout life & that the resolution of unique contradictions at each stage of life is carried out w/in many social structures
 
  The dilemmas outlined in Erikson's theory are related more to social expectations and self identity than to natural drives
 
  At each psychological stage, people face a dilemma or crisis as they make choices btwn the two components of social expectations and self identity 
 
  As Mead & Cooley suggested, life choices that people make are largely a product of the social environment & messages that children & adults receive from Significant Others
 
  See Also:  Mead
 
  See Also:  Cooley
 
  Children who are encouraged & receive positive messages about themselves tend to achieve healthy modes of adaptation
 
  Children who are ignored or get excessively negative messages tend to adapt poorly
 
  As children encounter the second stage of development, the autonomy / shame stage, they are trying out their physical skills through walking, climbing, manipulating objects, & toilet training
 
  If children master these physical skills of the second stage of development & are given messages that they have done so, they become more autonomous & self confident
 
  If children do not master these physical skills of the second stage or if they are given negative messages about their accomplishments, then they face shame & self doubt
 
  A sense of inferiority often results & the child may either become compulsive about following fixed routines or reject all controls if they cannot master the Life Challenge they face
 
  Erikson's theory is harmonious w/ that of Mead & Cooley in that the successful or unsuccessful resolution of life's dilemmas is largely based on the messages a child gets from his or her Significant Others
 
  While an unresolved issue at one stage often has effects at later stages, there is always the possibility that it can be addressed successfully later in life
 
  Erikson became widely known for his studies of adolescence, chiefly the idea of an adolescent identity crisis  
 
 Such a crisis may occur when an adolescent struggles with inner conflicts before gaining a sense of purpose and moving into adulthood
 

 
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Erik Homburger Erikson
1902 - 1994

Erikson, Erik Homburger (1902-1994), was an American psychoanalyst
Born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Parents were Danish
1933, graduated from Vienna Psychoanalytic Instit
1933, Erikson & family move to US
Taught at Harvard University, Yale University, and the University of California at Berkeley

Top
    
Major Works of Erikson

Childhood and Society (1950) 
Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968)

Psychological Biographies:

Young Man Luther (1958), which depicts German religious reformer Martin Luther
Gandhi's Truth (1969), which focuses on the Indian spiritual and political leader Mohandas K. Gandhi


 
Top
  
Table on Erikson's Life Cycle, Work, & Personality Development
HS0303 PW
 
Age
 Stage Life Challenge Social Structure:  Area of Social Life
1.
Child
0 - 1 yrs.
 Trust/ Mistrust Who do I trust & why? Religion
2.
1 - 2 yrs.
 Autonomy/ Shame What should I do for myself & why? Law & Order via the Govt
3.
3 - 5 yrs.
 Initiative/ Guilt What should I do for myself & why? Work & Family
4.
6 - 11 yrs.
 Industry/ Inferiority What should I achieve & why? Work & Family
5.
Teen
12 - 18 yrs.
 Identity/ Role Confusion Who am I? Why am I here? Work, Education: 
Ideology & aristocracy;
Strat based on status
6.
Young Adult
19 - 
 Intimacy/ Isolation Who is my community & why? Family:  Mate Selection;
Work & Family:  Cooperation & Competition
7.
Mature Adult
 Generativity/ Stagnation Who do I nurture & why? Family or Work
8.
Older Adult
 Integrity/ Despair How do I judge myself & why?
Integrity helps one lose fear of death		 Community
The Table on Erikson's Life Cycle, Work, & Personality Development demonstrates that people develop psychologically & socially throughout life & that the resolution of unique contradictions at each stage of life is carried out w/in many social structures
Childhood & Society, 1950

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the  Family
External
Links
  The family of origin, aka the family of orientation, is the family into which one is born & raised  
  The family of origin is responsible for primarily socialization & is therefore very influential on one's interpersonal choices made throughout life because of socialization & because of direct consultation  
  The family of procreation is the family one creates through marriage & has through which one has children  
  Over 90% of people in modern, industrialized nations will marry & have children  
 
 There are many types of families which may be either families of origin or of procreation, or some blend of the both, including
- the Nuclear Family                                   - the Female Head-of-Household Family
- the Male Head-of-Household Family       - the Extended Family
- the Tribal Family                                     - the Step Family
- the Gay or Lesbian Family                       - the Peer Family
- the Cohabitation Family                           - the Foster Family
 
 
 The nuclear family, aka the traditional family, generally consists of a married man & woman & their children
 
 
 Today, the nuclear family is the most common type of family
 
  Each type of family in some way is a product of the economic social structure (& other factors), i.e., the workplace, & yet also has an impact on it  
  An example of the relationship btwn the family & the workplace is that w/ industrialization & the conception of the "family wage" women became almost exclusively home-makers  
  See Also:  The Family & Work  
  See Also:  Gender  
 
 Family composition in the US for 1995 consists of 68 mm families, of which
- 42% are married couples
- 36% are married couples w/ children
- 10% are female headed homes w/ children
- 10% are other family arrangements
-   2% are male headed homes w/ children
 
 
 In the last 100 years, the nuclear family was patriarchal, w/ a working Dad & home-maker Mom
 
 
 Today the nuclear family consists of a working Dad & Mom, less home-making, w/ Dad taking on some of those tasks, & the family either doing w/o or going outside the home, to other social structures, for other tasks
 
  Examples:  The Cosbys, Leave It to Beaver, Roseanne Barrs
 
 
 The female head of household family is the second most common type of family in modern, industrialized nations
 
  Example:  Murphy Brown, Grace Under Fire, Judging Amy  
 
 The male head of household family is the third most common type of family in modern, industrialized nations, but is going rapidly
 
 
 It is difficult for single parents to work & raise a family, but in today's world it is being done ever more frequently often through the help of other family members, friends, & services such as day care, fast food, etc.
 
  Example:  The Rifleman:  The Rifleman:  Lucas McCain, Two-and-a-Half Men, Mayberry  
 
 The extended or blended family is a family that has more than two generations living under one roof; e.g., parents, children, grandparents, but may also include, aunts, uncles, cousins, adult siblings, etc. 
 
 
 The extended family includes not only a nuclear family but other relatives as well  
 
 Historically, & globally today, the extended family is the most common
 
  Example:  The Waltons, Frazier, All In the Family, Sanford & Son  
 
 The tribal family consists of many generations & family units w/in one family unit
 
  Example: 
 
 
 The step family is the contemporary form of the extended family & consists of a man & women & their children from the present & previous marriage(s)
 
  Example:  The Brady Bunch, Judging Amy,   
 
 Gay or lesbian families consist of two married people of the same sex, & their children
 
 
 Gay or Lesbian marriages are not legal in most states, but civil unions are legal in a few states
 
 
 Foster families, aka adopted families, have one or more family member who is adopted
 
 
 A peer family consists of peers w/ friendship bonds, usually non-sexual relationships, who live together as a family unit
 
 
 Example:  "Friends" on TV, Seinfeld
 
 
 The cohabitation family consists of a type of family where the major adults living in a marriage relationship are not married under law or religiously
 
  Historically cohabitation has occurred primarily among those people who were not allowed to marry under law because of race, religion, sexuality, nationality, etc.   
  It is a relatively recent development that couples that are permitted to marry, choose not to & instead merely live together  
 
 Any of the types of family may be characterized by cohabitation, but since homosexuals cannot in most cases legally marry, they have no choice but to cohabitate
 
  More radical types of marriages such as group marriage, polygamy, etc. are also illegal, they are often characterized by cohabitation  
  The family is responsible for 'primary socialization' & the family of origin functions to socialize children & young adults to fundamental social culture while the family of procreation functions to socialized adults to citizenship culture  

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on     Socialization
External
Links
  -  Project:  Socialization by the Social Structures
Link
  -  Video:  The Agents of Socialization             4:51
Link
  -  Video:  Socialization             3:03
Link
  -  Video:  Review of Socialization             1:03
Link
  Is the existence of Feral Children a myth or fact?
 
Link
 Tableau on Feral Children  
  Harlow's experiments w/ baby monkeys demonstrates the devastating effects of social isolation during early stages of life  
  Monkeys raised in isolation from other monkeys did not develop normally  
  Artificially inseminated female monkeys who had been raised in isolation from other monkeys usually neglected or abused their offspring  
  When monkeys raised in isolation were given a choice, they preferred a soft, cloth artificial “mother” over a nursing, wire mother  
  Cases of children raised by animals have never been authenticated, but are very popular in myth  
  Institutionalized children who are deprived of interaction typically experience ongoing developmental and emotional problems, even if they receive all the necessary physical care   
  In relation to feral or neglected children,  the total absence of interaction w/ other human beings produces personalities that cannot participate in human society  
  Babies whose parents largely ignore them over an extended time typically show poor intellectual development and high rates of personality difficulties  
 
 Socialization is the process by which new members of a society are taught to participate in that society, learn their roles, and develop a self image
 
  Socialization is the process whereby people learn, through interaction with others, that which they must know in order to survive and function within their society  
 
 Socialization is a lifelong process through which we are "taught" roles & "develop" a self image
 
 
 Socialization is essentially the same as learning or imprinting, aka "deep learning"
 
 
 The processes of socialization are generally “natural” processes in that we are largely unaware of them
 
  There is debate is sociology about the relative importance of nature versus nurture in shaping human behavior.  This debate could be characterized biology versus socialization  
  Those who believe that an individual's genetic or hormonal makeup shapes human behavior would come down on the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate  
  Those who believe that social forces are the most important in shaping human behavior would come down on the nurture side of the nature verses nurture debate  
  Symbolic interactionist theories of socialization weigh heavily on the side of nurture  
 
 The processes of socialization affect our personality, that is, Socialization goes deeper than education
 
 
 The majority of the processes of Socialization occur before “consciousness,” i.e. before age 5
 
  All schools of thought agree that what happens in childhood has maximal influences throughout a person's life because it is in childhood that people first develop their patterns of thought and behavior  
 
 But the processes of socialization do continue throughout life
 
  The adult life cycle presents us with numerous new situations that require the learning of new roles  
  Social scientists do not accept the notion that all behavior in adulthood is a product of childhood experiences  
 
 Our socialization may be “correct” or “incorrect” based on its congruence w/ the prevailing culture & subcultures in which we live
 
 
 Socialization has FOUR functions
 
  a.  Socialization functions so people can to meet physical needs:  coop hunter gatherers
 
  b.  Socialization functions to provide needed interaction
 
       Normal human development is impossible without human interaction  
  c.  Socialization functions so people can learn social roles
 
       How well we perform in a role affects our self esteem  
  d.  Socialization functions so people can learn norms
 
  Childhood socialization is sometimes referred to as primary socialization  
  There are   SIX   processes of socialization        ( SMIPNN )  
  1.  Selective exposure is the controlling of the influences to which another is exposed  
  Selective exposure is the process of exposure to those behaviors & attitudes considered desirable & sheltered from those regarded as undesirable  
  Maximization of good influences is selective exposure socialization   
  Examples:  the V Chip; a father talking to his 11 year old son, "No, you may not watch Baywatch."  Friends choosing what music to listen to;  CNN's coverage of the news   
Link
 2.  Modeling is the demonstration or acting out of behavior  
  Modeling is imitating the behavior of significant others & role models  
  Modeling begins with observing the behavior of another and with retention of images of such behavior in a person's memory.  Then one imitates, or reproduces that behavior.  "Eventually, however, this goes beyond mere habit, and it is repeated in situations beyond that in which it was originally observed."   
  Examples:  The little boy, dressing up like Dad and going off to work, or girls watching cheerleaders   
Link
 3.  Identification is an extreme form of modeling where the other establishes an emotional bond w/ the Model  
 
 Identification is seeing ourselves as the same as someone who nurtures us   
 
 Identification is the positive feelings toward an individual that lead a child to want to be like that person  
  Example:  The little boy, day-dreaming of being a great baseball player
  The little girl, day-dreaming of being President		  
 
 4.  Positive reinforcement includes rewards & removal of negative reinforcement  
  A friendly slap on the back or an invitation to join a group activity may be reward for an approved action or viewpoint  
 
 5.  Negative reinforcement includes punishments & removal of positive reinforcement  
  Positive & negative reinforcement socialization may also be known as reward & punishment socialization  
  Reinforcing correct behavior is reward & punishment socialization   
  Example:  “You are such a good girl, eating with your fork like a grown-up!”   
Link
 6.  Nurturance is support, affection, etc.   
  Nurturance is a special form of reward & punishment which is the support, affection, etc., or lack of, given by a significant other role model  
  Development of strong positive feelings towards another w/ whom one has a primary relationship is nurturance  
  Loving your child is an example of nurturance  
Link
 Individuals, groups & the social structures are the agents of socialization 
 
  There are both manifest & latent functions of socialization by social structures
 
Link
 Table on Manifest & Latent Socialization by AOS  
Link
 Methods of socialization  by social structures
    How do each of these social structures apply SMIPNN?
 
 
 Socialization occurs in the home, in school, on the job, etc.
 
  Socialization takes place in each of the 10 social institutions  
  Agents of socialization rarely give a person the same messages about what kind of person they are  
  But the AOSs may preach one thing & do another  
Link
 Table on the Methods of Socialization of the Social Institutions  
Link
 1.  Peers as an AOS become influential about age 2 & are the most influential on tweens & teens
 
 
 Peers are the social structure that is the most likely to ostracize
 
  It is in junior high and high school years that the Peer agent of socialization has its greatest influence, as young people seek to establish their independence  
Link
 2.  Family as an AOS is the most important in the childhood years
 
  The family is the social structure that is the most likely to use selective exposure  
  In the early years, the years is the most important agent of socialization  
  The institution with a profound effect not only on children's knowledge, but also on their self image, their understanding of reality, and their mode of reasoning, is the family  
 
 In the home, Girls learn  expressive skills ( nurturing, communication ) that are later useful in the workplace
 
 
 In the home, Boys learn instrumental skills ( work, goal oriented ) that are later useful in the workplace
 
  Children need not be told they are good at everything; a balanced self image is much healthier than one that cannot accept any shortcomings  
  Parents’ socialization of kids depends on their job experience; e.g., LC teaches obedience & the UC teaches initiative  
  The job dependent socialization by Parents often influences or leads to occupational inheritance  
Link
 3. Religion as an AOS lost influence at mid century, but is now regaining influence  
  Religion as an AOS varies widely since fewer than half of Americans participate in it weekly  
 Link
 4.  The Economy / Work as an AOS is, for such theorists as Marx, and to a certain extent Weber, and others, one of the most important agents of socialization, and may be even more influential than the family / parents   
 Link
 Formal socialization in the workplace is called orientation  
  Informal socialization in the workplace is called occupational culture  
  Occupational culture encompasses such factors at dress, sociability, pace of work, length of breaks, and much more  
  Workers must learn the job culture (a job's shared knowledge, beliefs, values and norms) on dress, sociability, performance, attitude, etc. or risk ostracism or failure  
 Link
 5.  Government as an AOS is becoming more pervasive  
  The govt socializes us in general to to national commitment, patriotism, & specifically to a particular policy  
  The govt uses formalized processes of socialization such as speeches:  JFK:  Ask not what your country can do for you.  Ask what you can do for your country"  
  The govt uses informal processes such as sloganeering: 
My Country, Right or Wrong!   America:  Love It or Leave It!		  
  Because of govts' past excesses, many fear govt over socialization via the "Big Brother" Syndrome  
 Link
 6.  The Military as an AOS socializes members & citizens to loyalty, honor, sacrifice, etc.  
 Link
 7.  Charity as an AOS socializes people to the ethic of giving, the value of helping, & the belief that some are deserving of others' help  
 Link
 8.  Education as an AOS is expanding from secular knowledge to cultural beliefs  
  In education, children learn "a hidden curriculum" including how to work, punctuality, orderliness, etc. which prepares them for the world of work  
  Some researchers say the hidden curriculum in school is more influential than what is learned  
  The hidden curriculum is based on race, gender, class, looks, apparent intelligence, sociability, etc. in that children are socialized based on race, gender, class, etc.  
Link
 9.  The Media as an AOS socializes people to mass & popular culture which is heavily influenced by the profit motive of the media itself & those commercial interests that utilize it  
  The influence of the media is growing dramatically  
  In recent decades the media has become, perhaps, the most influential agent of socialization  
Link
 10. Leisure / Recreation as an AOS socialize people to take and enjoy leisure without guilt, to live a consumptive lifestyle, and to live more for today rather waiting until retirement  

 
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Tableau on Feral Children
The existence of Feral Children is both myth and fact. 
     1.  lived wild
     2.  abused:  complete neglect

The Wild Girl of Champagne

1700s in the Champagne region of France

She was guessed to be 10 to 18 yrs. old when discovered 
      stealing apples from a tree in 1731

Reportedly had a small body covered only by rags & animals skins

Amazed everyone by skinning & eating rabbits & chickens... raw, entrails and all

The girl was eventually transferred to a hospital & later to a convent.

She could not adapt to a sedentary lifestyle & civilized food 

She lost all her teeth & lost her previously robust health

She was named Angelique Memmie LeBlanc


 
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Table on Manifest & Latent Socialization by AOS
  Social Institutions Socialization is a:
1. Peers latent function
2. Family manifest function
3. Religion manifest function
4. Econ/Work latent function
5. Govt / Politics latent function
6. Military latent function 
7. Charity latent function
8. School manifest function
9. Media latent function (one way?)
10. Leisure / Recreation latent function

 
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Table on the Methods of Socialization of the Social Institutions
  Social Institutions
( PF REG M CEML )		 Method of Socialization 
( SMIPNN )
1.
 Peers
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
2.
 Family
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
3.
 Religion
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
4.
 Econ/Work
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
5.
 Govt / Politics
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
6.
 Military
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
7.
 Charity
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
8.
 Education
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
9.
 Media
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
10. Leisure / Recreation
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance

 
 
 
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b. Modeling
Demonstration or acting out of behavior
Children, esp, imitate behavior especially of Significant Others and Role Models
As a child we model almost everyone & everything around us
Teens and adults also imitate
But we model only those people/things that we feel are important to us

 
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c.  Identification
While we model almost everyone as a child, & important people as an adult,  we only identify w/ those who inspire  or nurture us
Strongest examples
Heroes
Lovers
Identification is a subset or type of modeling
Identification is a more powerful version of modeling
We may model our favorite boss, religious leader, actor
   but we may or may not id w/ them

Almost all children identify w/ parents

Some say:  we have no models / heroes today......   true? 


 
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f.  Nurturance
Giving....   care   help   affection   attention  ( listening )
The lack of nurturance is extremely powerful
Ostracism is one of most powerful social weapons
Greater than punishment

We develop strong positive feelings toward person acting as an AOS because any of previous 5 methods of socialization can be seen as nurturance
Example:  how can punishing a child be seen as nurturance?    Tough Love


 
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Individuals, groups & the Social Structures are the Agents of Socialization 

They act as importance influences on
- knowledge
- beliefs
- values          CULTURE
- norms
- attitudes          (what we "consciously" believe)
- and thus behavior
We get conflicting messages


 
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1.  Peers as AOS
Peers as an AOS become influential about age 2 & are the most influential on tweens & teens
It is in junior high and high school years that the Peer agent of socialization has its greatest influence, as young people seek to establish their independence
- children “choose” their own SOs
- demand tremendous conformity
- greatest influence
 
1.  Selective Exposure Let's do that;  don't do that-- it's nerdy
2.  Modeling Hey, watch me!
3. Identification Leader of the pack
Big brother/sister complex;      Best friend
4. Positive Reinforcement You did  great!!
5.  Negative Reinforcement You are a jerk!!  gossip, ostracism
6. Nurturance Hey, it's ok...  that person is just a &#@%!      YOU are cool


 
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2.  Family as AOS

In the early years, the family is the most important agent of socialization
The family is the social structure that is the most likely to use selective exposure
The institution with a profound effect not only on children's knowledge, but also on their self image, their understanding of reality, and their mode of reasoning, is the family
The child's world is the parents’
- truth is what the parents say
- boys & girls are given different messages
- different ages are given different messages (parents change)
 
1.  Selective Exposure expose kids only to what they want to 
2.  Modeling kids see "real parents"
3. Identification kids id or reject parents based on many factors
4. Positive reinforcement  Hug, $$ for report card, candy, Good Job!
5. Negative reinforcement  Time out, grounding, spanking
6.  Nurturance Some parents very warm; give attention every day
Help; support all the time
Appropriate pos & negative rein


 
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3.  Religion as AOS
Religion as an agent of socialization varies widely since fewer than half of Americans participate in it weekly
Focus on moral socialization & ultimate goals
- use of religion as AOS varies widely
- half of Am attend church once a week
- historically lost influence; is on a come-back
 
1.  Selective Exposure Exposure mostly to own religious doctrine
May be taught other religious doctrine is wrong / evil
2.  Mod Religious objects are models; religious leaders are models
3.  Identification Religious objects:  cannot over identify:  sacred
4.  Positive reinforcement Heaven; rewards on Earth
5.  Negative reinforcement Hell; oblivion; reincarnation; justice on Earth
6. Nurturance Religious leaders, gods, flock nurture us;  church is a community

 
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4.  Econ / Wk as AOS
Most imp form of adult socialization
- socialize us to “higher needs:”  recognition, fulfillment, SA
 
1.  Selective Exposure Exposure to KBVN of that workplace
Start or don't start on time
Wk late until job is done
2.  Modeling Other workers model behavior in selective exposure
3.  Identification Id w/ boss, co-workers, union, one group of workers, no one
4. Positive reinforcement Pay, benefits, responsibility, autonomy
5.  Negative reinforcement Berated in front of others, nasty memo, no raise, promo
6.  Nurturance Usually from other workers, 
Mentoring = nurturance from senior worker/boss

 
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Formal socialization in the workplace
Entry level intros;  Orientation
UVaW:  1 week of orientation:  Meet all top level mgrs.  Meeting w/ all new Professionals;  Meet w/ Department; 
OJT:  large variation among workplaces
Becoming more prevalent in US; 
Europe, Japanese way ahead
US more likely to assume worker is prepared for wk
    & offer little training OJT

 
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5.  Govt as AOS
Builds on / employs loyalty
 - Complicated system that “the people control”
 - becoming ever more rationalized/effective
 - becoming ever more pervasive (its everywhere)
 
1.  Selective Exposure Provides much info on our govt
Withholds much info on our govt
Withholds info on other forms of govt
2.  Modeling Idea of citizenship
3.  Identification For decades, US political leaders were idolized
Some still are; most are not
Continue to idolize past leaders
4.  Positive reinforcement Govt now advertises to make us feel good about 
govt obligations:  what census is for
Offers honors
5.  Negative reinforcement Govt has most power to punish, along w/ family
6.  Nurturance Via advertising, makes us feel good, e.g. Nat Guard is there
Govt can offer assistance: Nat Guard, social sec, etc.

 
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6.  Military as AOS
 Boot camp
 
1.  Selective Exposure Total exposure to mil way of life
2.  Modeling DI is direct model; mil way of life
3.  Identification Id w/ model soldier; soldier as hero
4.  Positive reinforcement Rest, food, praise, graduation, end to boot camp
5.  Negative reinforcement Physical & verbal abuse, more wk, Mot Training, brig
6.  Nurturance Team; trained to be nurtured by other soldiers


 
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7.  Charity as AOS
1.  Selective Exposure We are usually exposure to everyday life
Exposure to what is hidden:  others need help
Exposure to happy person who has contributed
2.  Modeling Model of one who is helping
3.  Identification Super model of one who is helping
Sister Teresa, movie star, etc.
4.  Positive reinforcement Feel good, duty, do unto others
5.  Negative reinforcement Feel bad, do unto others, this could happen to you
6.  Nurturance Gratefulness of peers, & those you helped


 
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8.  Education as AOS

School:  1st major separation from home life
    1st evaluation based on performance/ 
     vs. unconditional support given in home
 - knowledge
- mode of reason:  rationality, not traditional
- self image
- obedience:  much of school/work/life is following rules
- beliefs & values of society
- understanding reality
 
1.  Selective Exposure Exposure to some know, but not others; 
Exposure to know, but not BV
2.  Modeling Teachers strong model for youth
Less so for adults
Learn about models in other sectors
3.  Identification As child, may id w/ early teacher 
As adult, may find respected mentor,
   but this is rare today
4.  Positive reinforcement Grades, praise, self respect
5.  Negative reinforcement Grades, flunk
6.  Nurturance Teachers can nurture, students can nurture


 
 
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9.  Media: - one way socialization, generally
- gaining influence
- becoming ever more rationalized/effective
- becoming ever more pervasive (its everywhere)
 
1.  Selective Exposure Debate:  does media reflect society's culture
or feed a culture to society? 
2.  Mod 1,000's of role models
3.  Identification Adulation for stars
4.  Positive reinforcement Media offers us social rewards for conforming
5.  Negative reinforcement Pun:  opposite of reward is true
6.  Nurturance
Use to relax & validate self

 
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10.  Recreation / Leisure as AOS: - most imp of adult child socialization
 - socializes us to “higher needs”
 
1.  Selective Exposure Advertising, prime time
2.  Modeling We model athletes: good & bad
3.  Identification We id w/ athletes, good & bad
4.  Positive reinforcement Reward self w/ recreation, leisure
     & for success in recreation, leisure
5.  Negative reinforcement Pun self, others for failure
6. Nurturance We recreate to relax & achieve

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on  Socialization at Work 
External
Links
  -  Project:  Workplace Socialization
Link
 
 Socialization at the workplace takes place through the SIX standard processes of socialization:  selective exposure, modeling, identification, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & nuturance  ( SMIPNN )
 
  People at work are socialized to the unique culture of that workplace, called occupational culture or workplace culture  
  Workplace culture consists of the knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN ) of that workplace which is usually not explicitly in the awareness of the people at the workplace  
  The workplace culture combined w/ other subcultural vectors in a person's life is the basis for their workplace attitudes, opinions, & ideology ( AOI ) which is more or less in people's awareness  
  Workplace AOI, & the material conditions at the workplace, basically create & manifest a person's work ethic, commitment to the job, motivation, job satisfaction, & other factors that are vitally important for the performance of the workplace   
  Since the ascendancy of the human relations dept in orgs, it has been recognized that control of wkplace socialization & wkplace culture is as important as any factor, e.g. resources, training, finanaces, location, etc. in production  
  In many ways, the formal socialization processes that were begun in education continue in the workplace
 
  At the most basic level, employers & co-workers socialize workers when they teach them new jobs
 
  The concept of "work to rule" demonstrates that unions recognize that workers are taught via ed, rules, & training only a portion of what they need to know to do the job, & furthermore, following rule books & official procedures would result in the job not getting done 
 
  The concept of "work to rule" demonstrates that socialization is vital for the efficient functioning of the workplace
 
  Employers, unions, govt. agencies may offer appropriate training which is a form of socialization
 
  Apprenticeships are often jointly organized by unions & mgt. & provide the trainee w/ half pay during a two to four year period
 
  An important difference among jobs is the extent to which employers are willing to invest time & cost to train workers
 
  A recent study indicates that only 20% of young workers, 21-29, receive company training
 
  White men are more likely to receive training than women, minorities, or those w/ a high school education
 
  Employers often assume workers know what is important before being hired
 
  Employers rely on credentials from schools or union to certify that the worker has the requisite background
 
  The increase in the numbers of women in the workforce is the result of an increased demand for traditional women's jobs such as school teachers, nurses, social workers, & secretaries
 
  Stereotypically, women's jobs were those for which the workers were expected to be trained before applying for work & the employer's training responsibility is limited to a basic orientation concerning specific rules & procedures at the work site
 
  Formal socialization in the workplace is called orientation
 
  Informal socialization in the workplace results in the creation of an occupational culture, aka workplace culture, & includes cultural representations such as dress, sociability, length of breaks, etc.
 
  Worker must learn the job culture (a job's shared knowledge, beliefs, values and norms) on dress, sociability, performance, etc.
 
 
 Socialization does not end when schooling ends, nor does it end even when formal on the job training ends  
 
 Socialization is carried on continually by co-workers & supervisors  
  Workers learn the specialized jargon of the job  
  Workers learn to carry only the tools they need, & to do only what needs to be done, contrary to the "work to rule" concept  
  Socialization on the job prepares workers for possible promotions, or job changes  
  Socialization on the job prepares workers for new roles, to be a supervisor, to go on strike, to be unemployed, or to retire  
  However, given the informal nature of much socialization on the job, many workers are only marginally prepared for changes on the job  
  The relations of production on the job affect the quality & quantity of socialization to which a worker is exposed  
  Rapid employee turnover destroys an org's "institutional memory" & therefore there are less experienced people w/ a wealth of occupational culture or experience available to socialize newer workers  
  The division of labor may isolate workers & so not allow them to socialize each other through sharing info, talking, etc.  
  Mgt style may create such a level of competition or insecurity among workers that they will not socialize w/ each other  
  Mgt style may create a climate of hostility among particular groups of workers that they will not socialize w/ each other  
  Mgt style may not sponsor any organizational events where workers can get together away from the work process  
  The org culture may or may not encourage workers to socialize after work  

 
Internal
Links

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Outline on  Gender Socialization in the Social Structures
External
Links
  -  Project:  Gender Socialization
Link
  There is strong evidence that sex roles have both a biological & a social component  
  Gender socialization takes place by the SIX processes of socialization:        S M I P N N  
  See Also:  Socialization  
  Sex role socialization is the process by which "man" & "woman" become distinct social roles  
  A sex role is the socially learned behaviors and attitudes, such as mannerisms, styles of dress, and activity preferences  
  A sex role is the same as a gender role  
  Gender role socialization is the process by which sex roles are taught & learned  
  An example of gender role socialization can be seen in that even 4 year old boys & girls know which toys are appropriate or inappropriate for them to play w/ in relation to their gender  
  Sex role / gender socialization is deeply integrated into the fabric of our culture        K V B N  
  Societies where the roles of men and women differ little, if at all, are called androgynous societies  
  Sex or gender roles are learned through socialization  
  Gender roles exist with respect to interpersonal behavior  
  Although men and women have relatively few biological differences, they play vastly different roles in society.  This is because men and women are socialized to play different roles in society  
  Sex  / gender roles are not just different, they are unequal.  In general, women have less power, income, and occupational prestige than men  
  Sexism & patriarchy are deeply integrated into the operation of the social structures,   PF  REG  M  CEML  
 
 1. Gender socialization by peers occurs as peers reward & harass members of society for exhibiting the proper/improper gender traits  
  Gender socialization by peers is a powerful gender socializer because this is where we seek approval & a mate  
  Men are more likely to ask women for dates as men are to ask women for dates  
Link
 Examples of gender socialization by peers  
  -  Supplement:  "The Rules"
Link
 
 2. Gender socialization by family occurs as our family rewards us for correct gender traits & harasses us for exhibiting the wrong gender traits  
  Most gender role socialization takes place before the age of five  
  Parental gender socialization is powerful & varies widely  
 
 Boys & girls are socialized differently from infancy  
  Parents treat boys & girls differently from womb to tomb  
  See Also:  Traditional gender roles  
  In the family, selective exposure is powerful in that parents have nearly total control over what the child experiences  
  In the family, SO role modeling is powerful in that the children will model the division of labor in the home  
  When husbands & wives work full time, women still put in much more time on household tasks such as cleaning & grocery shopping  
  In the family, identification is powerful in that the children's world is that of the parent(s)  
  Nurturance, positive reinforcement, & negative reinforcement are very powerful processes of socialization in the family  
  In 2003, one quarter of children under two years old have a TV in their bedroom  
  Families smile & talk to girls more, are rough & tumble with boys, are quick to attend to fussy girls, & generally treat boys & girls the differently  
  3. Gender socialization by religion shows that "god" is male for Muslims, Christians, 'Buddhists,' Jews   
    Examples  
  4. Gender socialization in workplace  
  5. Gender stratification in politics & govt  
  Women hold little political power for FIVE reasons
a. Women have less access to money
b. Women do not run for office as often as men
c. Women lose elections more often
d. Incumbency perpetuates male dominance because men are more likely to be incumbents
e. Reluctance to vote for women because:
- of the perception that women are not natural leaders
- powerful women are threatening to some males
- many believe that “women's traditional place is in the house”
- of the "double bind” where women are seen as either over-aggressive or weak		  
     Examples  
  In the 1990s, fifty percent of Americans said that they would not vote for any woman for president  
  Despite the fact that 1992 was "The Year of the Woman," less than 10 percent of the members of the U.S. Congress are now women  
 
 -  Supplement:  Females in World Legislatures
Link
  6. Gender socialization in the military  
Link
 Examples of Gender Socialization in the Military  
  -  Supplement:  Time Magazine:  Conduct Unbecoming:  One female cadet's tale in the Air Force Academy's growing rape scandal
Link
  7.  Gender socialization by charity is seen in that charity viewed as "women's work" or as a "leisure activity carried out by the well to do"  
Link
 Examples of Gender Socialization by Charity  
 
 8.  Gender socialization in education  
  Gender role socialization that started w/ family & peers, continues when children reach school  
  a. Books & teaching materials:
- Dick & Jane Reader portrayed Jill as succeeding because of luck
- males depicted as main character
- females displaying traditional behavior:  emotional, etc.
- males have good things because of own actions
- females have good things because of luck, looks, others		  
  b. Subject channeling occurs as gender socialization in education in that boys are steered to particular subjects which girls are steered to others, training them to take their place in a system of occupational gender segregation, i.e. a world of men's jobs & women's jobs  
  Stereotypically, or narrowly speaking, we expect boys to do better in math, science, logic & we expect girls to do better in reading, art, music  
  Diversely, or broadly speaking, career/college tracks differ for boys & girls; & should be chosen fairly  
  c.  Gender modeling can be seen in the fact that at higher education levels there are more male teachers  
  d.  Many social theorists believe that learning & knowing is different for women & men  
  See also  Feminist Sociology of Knowledge  
Link
 Examples of Gender Socialization in Education  
  Male female differences in literacy, mathematical, and scientific aptitude are not consistent across all cultures  
  -  Supplement:  Bachelor's Degrees Awarded to Women by Discipline
Link
 
 9.  Gender socialization in the media objectifies women, & now men  
  Media influence begins in early childhood & continues throughout life  
  Gender socialization in the media is dependent on how parents/self regulate access, but we live in a media intensive age w/o precedent  
  What images does media give & how have they changed over time?   
  Evidence suggests that television entertainment and advertising presents highly stereotyped message about the roles of men and women  
  Females have historically been more objectified & exploited as a media tool, however, males are now being increasingly objectified & exploited  
  Media influence is rationalized, pervasive throughout life, creating the practice of super marketing   
  a.  The contemporary ideal body / gender images are both a product to be sold & a tool to sell products  
  b.  The idealized body type is unhealthy & has developed historically  
  c.  Sexuality sells in the form of what we want to be & what we want to have  
  Everything from sex images to pornography create violence against women, directly & indirectly  
  d.  Both traditional & non traditional gender roles are utilized by the media to sell products  
  Media images of males & females give highly stereotyped messages about the roles of men & women  
Link
 Examples of Gender Socialization in the Media  
  Women are much more likely than men to be portrayed as being excited about household cleaning implements in TV commercials  
 
 10. Gender socialization by the leisure / recreation structure is very similar to the socialization in the media  
  Organizations often provide "separate but unequal" recreation or family recreation, sports facilities, etc.  
Link
 Examples of Gender Socialization in Recreation  
  The perceptions of parents, teachers & counselors lead them to behave in ways that make their expectations about boys & girls come true is called self fulfilling prophecy  
  -  Supplement:  Time Magazine:  Title IX helped more women get into sports, but opponents complain it's pushing men out
Link

 
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Examples of Gender Socialization by Peers

Most children have same sex friendships;  Being a sissy is worse than being a tom-boy
Same sex friendships are nearly exclusive for children, tweens, & teens 
Opposite sex friendships may develop for adults 
Being a "sissy" is worse than being a "Tom-boy"
Peers are extremely controlling 
(friends may or may not be more tolerant) 
Mating Behavior begins: 
Message:  “You'll never get a boy/girl like that.” 
Modeling: 
- play act adult gender roles
- learn about sex and gender roles 
- clothing, hair, language, attitude 


 
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Examples of Gender socialization by Religion

Modeling:  god is male in many religions
Modeling:  Only recently have religions in western nations allowed female religious leader


 
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Examples of Gender Socialization by Government

Modeling:  Most political leaders are male


 
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Examples of Gender Socialization by the Military

Women are not allowed in combat
Many believe that the military man is the epitome of maleness


 
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Examples of Gender Socialization by Charity

Head of the Red Cross has been a women for many decades
Charity is more women's work


 
Top
  
Examples of Gender Socialization in Education

In elementary school, teachers are female, principles are male
As the status of teachers rise from elementary schools, to middle schools, to high schools, to college, the number of male teachers increases


 
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Examples of Gender Socialization by the Media

More lead characters are male
Took Cheryl Crow 10 years to land a record contract:  Purpose of Lilith Festival in 97 was to provide access to recording industry for females

In past, more emphasis on character 
(though it was traditional character)

Today, more emphasis on body
   --and how the body may be improved through market place


 
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Examples of Gender Socialization by Leisure / Recreation
Men expected to do more active sports 
New Women's football league

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on  Social Steering, aka Social Channeling
External
Links
  Social steering or channeling is the Socialization process that uses all or several methods of socialization  ( selective exposure, modeling, identification, reward, punishment, nurturance) to direct an individual, group, class, etc. or to a particular social position, such as a social role, career, status, etc.
 
  The Pervasiveness of Steering
 
  Steering is utilized by many social structures & social institutions
 
  In education, subject channeling directs student to particular areas of studies based on social factors, not just ability
 
  In education, men & women are steered toward particular fields, preparing them to take their place in a system of occupational gender segregation, through gender modeling in education, subject channeling, gender biased books & material, gender based ways of knowing, etc.  
  Example of Racial Subject Channeling:  Malcolm X  
  In the work or economic Social Structure, occupational channeling directs workers to particular careers, job ladders, etc. base on social factors, & not just ability
 
  One type of occupational channeling is occupational gender segregation wherein there are men's jobs & there are women's jobs such as doctors & nurses  
  In the Real Estate industry, real estate companies engage in racial steering, aka red lining, guiding people to buy homes in areas based on social factors such as race, instead of on what the purchaser desires or can afford
 
  In marriage, we self steer & marry people of similar class, race, religion, etc.
 
In occupations & careers, we self steer & enter occupations occupied w/ people of similar skills & class  
  In addition to the intentional forms of steering such as subject channeling, occupational gender segregation, & red lining, people self-steer into occupations because of the positive reinforcement that results from ethnocentrism  
  See Also:  Ethnocentrism  
  We self steer not because we are prejudiced but because we are more comfortable w/ people like us because we are uncomfortable when we encounter differences & the unknown & because people socially reward us when we associate w/ those like us  
  In most cases, once one is familiar w/ those of a different group, one becomes comfortable w/ them & also one is rewarded by that group for associating w/ them  

 
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 Outline on  Work & Family Life
External
Links
  -  Project:  The Main Issues of Family & Work Life
Link
  Work & family life are the two most important spheres of life for the majority of people
 
  Modern society generally separates the two spheres of work & family life
 
  People in Hunter Gatherer Society in pastoral society, & even in preindustrial agricultural society did not differentiate btwn the spheres of work & family life in the way we do today
 
  For much of history, the family unit was the work unit in that all work was done through the structure of the family, w/ all rewards accruing to the family
 
  Today, the government does not consider homemaking to be work, in the legal sense
 
  Today many individuals seek to re-integrate work & family life, but today we often sacrifice one to the other
 
 
 THE ROLES OF WORK & FAMILY LIFE
 
  Review:  Social Structures & Roles  
 
 Roles are socially defined groups of behavior:  mom, dad, student, leader, jokester.....
 
  A role set is that group of roles that make up an individual, a job, ....  
  Role strain is the stress experienced w/in one role:  stresses of parenthood, job....  
  Role conflict is the stress experienced btwn two or more roles: conflict btwn parenthood & job, young adulthood and student...   
  Role overload results from too much to do at once either in one role or in several roles  
  C. Wright Mills held that role problems can be the result of personal troubles or public issues  
 
 What are some personal troubles or structural ambiguities that cause different role problems related to family & work? 
 
  Women commonly experience role conflict btwn family & work life in that while women are now working more outside the home, men don't help proportionally more at home
 
Link
 An analysis of  the Table on the Numbers of Women in the Workforce demonstrates that women have been steadily entering the workforce & now outnumber men in the workforce  
  Today both men & women are likely to experience role overload in that the average work week in 1992 was 44 hrs. per week, & the workforce was experiencing downsizing, commuter marriages, transfers, children, etc.
 
  Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans, etc. experience role conflict in that they typically must live in white culture at work while trying to preserve & their own culture on & off the job
 
  Single parents are the one group that are the most likely to experience role overload
 
  People in developed countries postpone having families & in the 2000s, the postponers are now having children while at the end of their reproductive years, fueling a baby boomlette
 
  In the modern industrialized nations, there are:
-  declining birth rates
-  people waiting longer to have children
-  people w/ lower average family size
-  more no child families
 
  HOW PARENTS ADAPT TO WORK & KIDS
 
  Parents adapt to work & raising children by:  
  - putting more children are in child care
- schools expanding before & after school programs
- friends & relatives forming child care networks
- working flexible hours for mom & dad
- block scheduling:  4/10; 1 & 1; etc.
- work sharing; part time wk, etc
- latch key kids
- home production; i.e. people working at home
 
  Homemakers frequently experience the devaluation of their work at as seen in no pay or benefits, & a perceived lack of skills
 
 
 Homemakers become vulnerable if they become a single parent, i.e. a displaced homemaker   
 
 A double standard is seen in that for men, marriage is an asset at work; while for women, marriage is a hindrance at work  
  Since women have entered the workforce in significant numbers, circa the 1970s, families have experienced an income squeeze in that families now need two incomes to earn a family wage  
  A family experiences an empty nest when the last of the children leave home  
  Because children are often the center of a marriage, the question for many parents w/ an empty nest becomes, "Can wk fill the gap & create a rewarding life?"  
  Family & work life often collide when a family member becomes ill  
  If a breadwinner becomes ill & cannot work, the family may experience a catastrophic loss of income  
  If a family member who is a non worker becomes ill, then the breadwinner often experiences role overload in trying to maintain the job, whose income is now even more critical, while trying to care for the ill family member  
  The Family Medical Leave Act of 1993 allows most workers to use some sick leave to care for an immediate family member & it allows six weeks unpaid maternity leave for women  
  Cafeteria approaches to benefits & transportable benefits are of great value to workers & families, but are the exception rather than the rule  

 
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Tableon the Numbers of Women in the Workforce
Year Women as a % of the entire Workforce % of Women in the Workforce
1950 37 % 35 %
1990 42 % 65 %
1998 50 % 70 %
2000 52 % 90 %
An analysis of the Numbers of Women in the Workplace demonstrates that women have been steadily entering the workforce & now outnumber men in the workforce

 
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 Outline on Working Couples
External
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  Most families now have two income earners
 
  Women's labor force participation has risen around the globe
 
  For working couples, work-life priority, time & location are all critical factors which affect relationships & work
 
  Overtime, weekend work, night shifts, travel, long work weeks away from home, deadlines, etc. all can make time for a couple difficult or nearly non-existent
 
  Bringing work home makes the home an extension of the workplace & even time spent there is not available for sharing
 
  The traditional division of labor in the home persists in that husbands of employed wives do only a little more work around the house than do the husbands of nonemployed wives
 
  Families w/ two earners often go outside the home for services that were traditionally done in the home:  cleaning, cooking, laundry, car repair, childcare, & more
 
  Location is often an issue for working couples in that job location, school location, etc. can all separate a family
 
  Location often becomes divisive when one partner is offered a job in another location
 
  More than half of all moves in the US are believed to be work-related  
  Commuter marriages are those where the distance to work is so great that one of the partners does not return home every night, instead returning only on the weekend, monthly, etc.
 
  Commuter marriages thus have two homes
 
  Commuter marriages are less stressful for older couples, & are more appealing to women than men
 
  An alternative to the commuter marriage is for one partner to give up their job, or to take a less appealing job near their partner
 
  Job transfers are a factor linked to depression
 
  Job transfers are stressful to the entire family, but especially to young children, & adolescents
 
  In general, couples agree that transfers should be accepted for the partner w/ the higher income
 
  More businesses are making special arrangements for working couples in that they will try to hire the other partner, or at the least assist in a job search for the other partner
 

The End
 
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