External
Links
Top
|
|
External
Links
|
|
- Project: Gender &
Race Socialization & / or Discrimination in the Workplace |
Link
|
|
- Project: Video:
North Country, Work, Gender |
Link
|
|
- Video: North Country,
Work, Gender |
Link
|
|
- Supplement: Nontraditional
Occupations for Women |
Link
|
|
- Supplement: Male
Scientist Writes of His Life as a Female |
Link
|
|
- Supplement: Women Celebrate
20 Years of Smokejumping |
Link
|
|
- Supplement: As Leaders,
Women Rule 2000. Business Week
Online |
Link
|
|
- Supplement: NYT: 'Comparable
Worth' Makes a Comeback |
Link
|
|
INTRO: THERE ARE NOW MORE WOMEN IN THE WKFORCE THAN MEN, BUT
THEY STILL HAVE LOWER PAYING JOBS BECAUSE SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION CREATES
'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS' |
|
|
In the US & other industrial societies, women working for income
is now the rule rather than the exception 59% of Am women are in the labor
force |
|
|
Women continue to enter a narrow range of occupations, w/ almost half
in clerical or service work |
|
|
The greater a job's income & prestige, the more likely it is that
the position will be held by a male |
|
|
Sex role socialization makes women less likely to complain about
job discrimination |
|
|
Professional jobs in previously male dominated fields pose special
problems of access to women |
|
|
The role performance expected in previously male dominated jobs includes
behavioral
styles characteristically associated w/ men |
|
|
Women in many professions face a dilemma in that they can either
conform to the expected role behavior of the job & appear unfeminine
or they can follow the expected role behavior of their gender in which
case they may be acting out of character for their occupational role |
|
|
The dilemma of "the opposite sex" in a gender typed occupation
creates a "Catch 22" situation in which "the opposite sex" has limited
options for achieving acceptance & recognition (Kanter, 1977) |
|
|
A survey of male lawyers found that half believed women lawyers were
"tough & masculine" while the other half believed women lawyers were
"weak & feminine" & said that women go to law school to "catch
a man" (Deckard, 1979, p. 128) |
|
|
THE FEMALE ADVANTAGE IS THAT THEY ARE MORE FLEXIBLE, DEMOCRATIC,
INTUITIVE, MULTITASKING, ETC. |
|
|
Women bring a "female advantage" to companies striving to be more flexible
& democratic |
|
|
While women are still underrepresented as mgrs of businesses, some
social commentators, such as Sally Helgesen, see women as the business
leaders of the future |
|
|
Women's style of mgt is more democratic & flexible, & therefore
able to adjust more easily to the fast changing, dynamic business env,
or thrive in a firm where educated young professionals expect to be treated
as individuals |
|
|
In a recent article summing up their book, Megatrends for Women,
Aburdene & Naisbitt describe women leaders as sharing the qualities
of:
a. encouraging participation
b. sharing power & info
c. enhancing other people's self worth
d. getting others excited about their work |
|
|
While the qualities of effective women leaders, according to Aburdene
& Naisbitt all sound "nice," the authors warn that this would be an
oversimplification because these leader balance them w/ objectivity |
|
|
Judith Hall, a psychology professor at Northeastern University, notes
that women traditionally are better at interpreting body language &
other non verbal cues |
|
|
Women have a high tolerance for ambiguity & are able to juggle
many things at once |
|
|
People who see job performance as a series of transactions w/ rewards
for services rendered or punishment for inadequate performance might misinterpret
women's mgt style |
|
|
People, both men & women often confuse a leader who is encouraging
or sharing w/ a weak leader whom they do not take seriously only to find
that they suffer the consequences |
|
|
A female mgr's willingness to empower employees by asking them for
help might, for example, look like ignorance, & as though she truly
doesn't know what she is doing |
|
|
Compared to male wkr/ supervisors / mgrs, other employees, male or
female, often feel freer to criticize a female wkr / supervisor / mgr,
or to challenge her authority |
|
|
GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE WORKPLACE IS INFLUENCED BY FIVE FACTORS,
INCLUDING:
a. OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION
b. COMPARABLE WORTH
c. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION |
d. SEXUAL HARASSMENT
e. GLASS CEILING |
|
|
|
a. OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION ( OGS ) IS THE
PROCESS WHERE WE ARE SOCIALIZED TO BELIEVE THERE ARE 'MEN'S JOBS' &
'WOMEN'S JOBS' |
|
|
OGS is socialized through the socialization processes of modeling &
identification |
|
|
Occupational gender socialization is a concept denoting that
there are men's jobs, & there are women's jobs
Doctor Nurse
Manager Worker
Janitor Secretary Lineman
Operator
Firefighters, police, soldiers are more likely to be men
Teachers, daycare workers, elder care workers are more likely to be
women |
|
|
Occupational segregation is a pattern whereby two groups, most
often men & women, hold different kinds of jobs |
|
|
Occupational segregation is the stratification ( system of division
& differing rewards ) of the occupational system |
|
|
Occupational gender segregation denotes that our
culture recognizes that there are male jobs & there are female jobs |
|
|
Occupational gender segregation is the concentration
of men & women into different occupations, even when they have similar
levels of skill & training |
|
|
For example, we "know" that janitoring is male & nursing
is female |
|
|
Over one half of all working women are employed in clerical & service
jobs |
|
|
In fact, nearly half of all working women have been concentrated in
just three occupations: secretary, nurse, & teacher |
|
|
Women who entered the world of work found that their experience was
different from men, including occupational segregation, pay, promotions,
training, etc. |
|
Link
|
What message does occupational gender socialization give? |
|
|
b. COMPARABLE WORTH DENOTES THAT WOMEN & MEN DOING
THE SAME LEVEL OF WORK, SHOULD GET PAID THE SAME |
|
|
Today women earn about 60 - 75 % of what men earn, & there has
been little change in the last decade |
|
|
The biggest actual change in status of women, so far, has been the
large pay increases that have brought the salaries of women closer to men's |
|
|
See Also: Comparable Worth |
|
|
c. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN WOMEN,
OR OTHER GRPS, ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY |
|
|
Sexual discrimination at work is the treating of people unequally based
on their gender w/ respect to raises, promotions, perks, etc. |
|
|
d. SEXUAL HARASSMENT OCCURS WHEN A PERSON IN ANNOYED
OR VEXED BECAUSE OF THEIR GENDER |
|
|
Sexual harassment is a form of sexual discrimination where an
employee is
- forced or asked by another employee or customer to give sexual favors
- exposed to unwelcome behavior w/ sexual content
- hired, promoted, etc. based on explicit or implicit sexual submission
- subjected to sexual content which creates a hostile, intimidating
or offensive environment |
|
|
Sexual harassment refers to comments, gestures, or physical contact
of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, & unwelcome |
|
|
Women are more likely to be sexually harassed & while the sexual
harassment of men is rare, it is not unheard of |
|
|
Some sexual harassment is blatant, but much of it is subtle, &
thus difficult to prove in a court of law |
|
|
See Also: Sexual Harassment |
|
|
e. THE GLASS CEILING DENOTES THAT DISCRIMINATION INCREASES
DRAMATICALLY AT OR ABOVE THE MID MGT LEVEL |
|
|
The concept of the glass ceiling denotes that the "old boy network"
is the most powerful at the top |
|
|
The concept of the glass ceiling is consonant w/ the stratification
theorists' position that an "inner group" of elite men are extremely powerful
in western, industrial society |
|
|
In its simplest form, the glass ceiling is the reluctance to place
women in positions of authority |
|
Link
|
For the courts to rule that gender discrimination has occurred, the
plaintiff must show specific damage; i.e., the courts have not allowed
statistical discrimination as proof |
|
|
THERE ARE SIX CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SEGREGATION, INCLUDING:
1. COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN
2. LESS ACCESS TO OJT
3. INDIVIDUAL OR INSTITL DISCRIMINATION |
4. CULTURAL LAG
5. HIGHLY UNIONIZED MEN'S JOBS
6. SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION |
|
|
Link
|
1. THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN, WHICH ARE OFTEN
RELATED TO FAMILY & CHILD REARING, ARE OFTEN GREATER THAN THOSE FOR
MALES |
|
|
The practice of women leaving the work force to raise small children
is becoming less common |
|
|
Women's entry into the labor mkt has not substantially reduced their
involvement in housework, as husbands have resisted increasing their participation
in these task |
|
|
Women who live w/ significant other males & work equal or more
numbers of hours outside the home typically perform over 70% of household
chores |
|
|
The household chores women perform on top of their full time job is
frequently called the second shift by social scientists & feminists |
|
|
2. WOMEN HAVE LESS ACCESS TO OJT (On the Job Training
) BECAUSE OF THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS |
|
|
Less OJT makes Women less competitive as workers |
|
|
One of the most difficult problems to overcome in leveling the playing
field on the job btwn men & women is that women have babies & men
don't |
|
|
What is the solution to this? |
|
|
3. INDIVIDUAL OR INSTITL DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN
WOMEN, OR OTHER GRPS, ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY |
|
|
Individual or institutional discrimination includes FOUR major
types
i. Less access to OJT
ii. Hiring Patterns
iii. Steering: Channeling: "men's" jobs
pay better.
iv. Occupational Segregation |
|
|
4. CULTURAL LAG OCCURS WHEN DIFFERENT SPHERES OF SOCIETY,
ESP W/ RESPECT TO CULTURE, DEVELOP AT DIFFERENT RATES, CAUSING CONFLICT
BTWN THE SUBCULTURES OF SOCIETY |
|
|
Cultural lag results in lower pay for women because better pay for
men's work is partially a carry over from family wage days |
|
|
See Fordism |
|
|
5. HIGHLY UNIONIZED MEN'S JOBS, HAVE THROUGH THEIR
OWN HISTORIC STRUGGLE, EARNED HIGHER WAGES COMPARED TO THE NON UNIONIZED
SECTOR |
|
|
Men's jobs were more highly
unionized creating a pool of male
jobs w/ more pay & security
Historically, unions were patriarchal & white
Today unions are very active in women's sectors & non-white sectors
of employment |
|
|
6. SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION IS THE PROCESS WHERE WE ARE
SOCIALIZED TO BELIEVE WE SHOULD TAKE 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS,'
AS APPROPRIATE |
|
|
Sex role socialization occurs in all the social structures & it:
- reinforces “correct” jobs for men & women
- makes women less likely to complain |
|
|
GENDER PAY DIFFERENTIAL IS IMPROVING BUT AT THE CURRENT RATE
WILL TAKE DECADES MORE TO EQUALIZE |
|
|
The average female full time worker earns about 77 cents for every
dollar earned by a male full time employee |
|
|
In general it has been shown that the more women that work in an occupation,
the lower the pay of that occupation |
|
|
Historically, the movement of women into an occupation has lowered
pay & status as is the case in secretarying, teaching, & nursing |
|
|
Historically, the movement of women out of an occupation has increased
pay & status as is the case w/ factory work |
|
|
The best predictor of whether a family's income will fall below the
federal poverty level is the sex of the primary breadwinner |
|
|
The fact that being a woman has become associated w/ being poor is
termed the feminization of poverty |
|
|
Among families w/ a female householder, the poverty rate in 1986 was
over 34%, which is over twice the total poverty rate |
|
|
Working class women are especially hurt by the low wages earned by
women |
|
|
Occupational gender segregation explains some of the difference in
pay for men & women |
|
|
THE EIGHT REASONS FOR GENDER PAY DIFFERENTIAL,( besides occupational
gender segregation ) INCLUDE:
1. HIRING PATTERNS
2. COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN
3. LESS ACCESS TO OJT
4. OUTRIGHT DISCRIMINATION |
5. CULTURAL LAG
6. HISTORICALLY LOW PAY
7. FEW UNIONIZED FEMALE JOBS
8. MEN W/ FEW COMPETING EXPECTATIONS & MORE OJT |
|
|
|
All of the factors which cause genders socialization in the wkplace
& OGS also contribute to gender pay differential |
|
|
1. HIRING PATTERNS REINFORCE GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN
THE WKPLACE & OGS AS THEY HIRE MEN FOR 'MEN'S JOBS,' ETC. |
|
|
Most of the gender pay differential results from the different kinds
of jobs held by men vs. women |
|
|
2. THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN, BECAUSE OF
FAMILY & CHILDREN, HAVE HISTORICALLY PULLED WOMEN AWAY FROM THE WKPLACE
& THEREFORE MADE THEM LESS VALUABLE WKRS |
|
|
The greater responsibility for family & childcare tasks that our
society has traditionally assigned to women is another factor explaining
the earnings differential |
|
|
3. LESS ACCESS TO OJT REDUCES SKILL & EXPERIENCE |
|
|
that women seem to have less access than men to OJT that increases
their skills |
|
|
4. OUTRIGHT DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN MGRS BELIEVE
WOMEN SHOULD BE PAID LESS BECAUSE THEY ARE SUBORDINATE TO MEN |
|
|
Some male & female mgrs still see women's wk are a mere supplement
or part time addition to family income because the man should still be
the primary breadwinner |
|
|
5. CULTURAL LAG OCCURS WHEN SOME PEOPLE RETAIN TRADITIONAL
PATRIARCHAL VALUES |
|
|
Cultural lag; i.e., a carry over from the days when it was widely
believed that men should be paid more because they were more likely to
be supporting a family |
|
|
6. HISTORICALLY LOW PAY RESULTS IN THE FACT THAT WHILE
WOMEN MAY GET RAISES EQUIVALENT TO THOSE OF MEN, THEY ARE STARTING AT A
LOWER PLACE |
|
|
The fact that employers do not want to raise pay in occupations that
have historically had low pay |
|
|
7. FEW UNIONIZED FEMALE JOBS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO LOW
FEMALE WAGES, BUT TODAY TRADL WOMEN'S JOBS ARE BEING UNIONIZED AT A HIGH
RATE |
|
|
The fact that predominantly male occupations are more highly
unionized,
& therefore pay better, than are predominantly female occupations |
|
|
8. MEN W/ FEW COMPETING EXPECTATIONS & MORE OJT
CONTINUES TO BE THE NORM TODAY, GIVING THEM AN ADVANTAGE AT WORK, BUT IT
IS SLOWLY EQUALIZING AS SMALLER FAMILIES BECOME THE NORM, & MEN CONTRIBUTE
MORE TO THE FAMILY |
|
|
Men do not bear children & therefore get more
experience, OJT,
etc. |
|
|
One of the most difficult problems to overcome in leveling the playing
field on the job btwn men & women is that women bear children, men
don't |
|
|
Pregnancy Leave Act of 1993 was passed by the Clinton Administration
& it allows females 6 weeks unpaid leave following pregnancy, but allows
men no leave |
|
|
Our culture is now establishing norms over gender relations in the
workplace, & YOUR generation will develop them more |
|
|
WOMEN HAVE DEVELOPED STRATEGIES TO CONFRONT SEXUAL HARASSMENT WHICH
RANGE FOR ACCEPTING IT TO FIGHTING IT ON THE SHOP FLOOR, TO LEGAL DEFENSES |
|
|
Victims of sexual harassment find it very difficult to report the violation |
|
|
Based on her study of an underground coal mine, Yount, 1991, developed
a typology of three strategies that female coal miners used to confront
sexual harassment |
|
|
See Also: Sexual Harassment |
|
|
There are FIVE general strategies to confront sexual harassment
in the workplace which include |
|
|
a. LADIES USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF RESPECT FOR
WOMEN TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT |
|
|
Ladies confront sexists as gentlemen w/, for example, “Why sir,
what would your mother say?” |
|
|
Yount found that Ladies cast their co-workers as gentlemen & socially
w/drew |
|
|
b. FLIRTS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SEXUALITY TO
DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT |
|
|
Flirts confront sexists w/ sexuality w/, for example, “I save
that for my favorite men, & you haven't qualified... yet.” |
|
|
Yount found that flirtatiousness encouraged come ons from men &
sometimes resulted in more severe harassment if the men perceived that
the women were using this strategy to gain preferential treatment |
|
|
c. TOMBOYS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF FEMALE TOKENISM
TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT |
|
|
Tomboys confronting sexists w/ balance w/, for example, “I would,
but you're better suited for Joe!” |
|
|
Tomboys emphasized their occupational role & engaged in joking
relationships w/ their male co-workers |
|
|
d. GIRLS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SUBMISSION TO
TRY TO AVOID OR IGNORE SEXUAL HARASSMENT |
|
|
Girls do not confront sexists but ignore it, or w/draw |
|
|
Girls' role of non confrontation & w/drawl may work if the harassment
is not too severe; however, it risks the possibility that passivity may
evoke more severe harassment |
|
|
e. TODAY'S WOMEN USE THE NON TRADL METHOD OF LEGAL
REDRESS, IN THE ORG OR IN THE COURT SYSTEM, TO DEFEAT SEXUAL HARASSMENT |
|
|
e. Today's Woman confronts sexists w/ legal or formal
action w/, for example, the statement that, “That's harassment. I'm
filing a complaint.” |
|
|
Today's women's, strength & resolve of the direct confrontation
of illegal & boorish behavior will cause most harassers to back down |
|