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Review Notes on  ST 10:  Gender Stratification
External
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 Intro to Gender Stratification   
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 Sex vs. Gender   
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 Stratification of Gender   
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 Gender & Work   
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 Social Mobility of Women   
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 Socio Historical Overview:  Gender  in Theory / Gender   
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      Gender in Hunter Gatherer Society   circa 1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC   
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      Women of the Depression & WW2 Eras   circa 1930's to the 1950's   
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      First Wave Feminism:  Industrial Age   
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      Suffrage Mvmt   
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      The New Men & Women of the Global Age   
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 A Summary of Gender, Race, & Class Strat   
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           Gender Bias in the Workplace   
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 Comparable Worth  
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 Conflict Theory on Gender   
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 Feminism on Social Structure   
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 Functionalism on Gender   
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 Comparison of Race, Gender, Class   
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 Radical Feminism   
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 Liberal Feminism   

 
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 Outline on the  Intro to Gender Stratification
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  GENDER IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR WHICH IMPACTS ONE'S POSITION IN THE STRAT SYS, & GENDER STRAT MANIFESTS THROUGH OCCUPATIONAL, AUTHORITY, & PROPERTY STRUCTURES
 
  Class placement is more due to achievement factors in modernized industrial nations, but we must still consider the impact of ascription factors, esp gender & race 
 
  Gender strat examines the extent to which discrimination & inequality are related to systems of social strat & the extent to which gender strat is based in biology, culture, & power   
  As w/ other systems of strat, many are highly influenced by class / econ systems which in turn structure class, power, etc   
  Most social scientists agree that the major issues of gender today include (in no particular order): 
1.  gender identity 
2.  violence against women & sexual harassment 
3.  women in the wkplace, comparable worth (ie equal pay for equal work) 
4.  the glass ceiling (difficulty of women to move above mid mgt in the corp world) 
5.  the second shift (ie women's & men's division of labor in the home 
6.  gender socialization & images of women & men in the media 		  
  PERHAPS JAPAN IS THE DEVELOPED NATION THAT MOST CONTINUES TO EMBRACE TRADITIONAL PRACTICES AROUND GENDER BOTH IN THE WKPLACE & THE HOME   
  In Japan it was  not until the 70s that it became illegal to fire a women when she married or had children & though illegal, it is still a common practice today 
 
  Women in Japan are gaining equal rights in relation to divorce 
 
  Japan is the lowest among the advanced industrial nations in relation to women's rights 
 
  Japanese women have the lowest level of political power among all major industrialized nations 
 
  In 2009 Japan ranked 57th out of almost 180 nations in the world on the UN's gender empowerment measure 
 
  Women do have some power in Japanese society in that they generally make all financial decisions in the home independently   
  In Japan, women turn over their paychecks to wives & are given a weekly allowance   
  TRADITIONAL PRACTICES AROUND GENDER CONTINUE TO EXIST IN LESS DEVELOPED NATIONS & BEGIN TO MODERNIZE / EQUALIZE WHEN MODERNIZATION OF THE ECON OCCURS 
 
  It is well known that women continue to experience low status in less developed nations, though there are noteworthy exceptions 
 
  An example of the low status in less developed nations is the practice of 'honor killings' in some Arab nations 
 
  An 'honor killing' may occur when a woman 'dishonors her family' in some way, such as by having sex outside of marriage 
 
  In Thailand women are treated as sexual chattel; for example young girls who run away from prostitution in a brothel may be arrested by the police & returned 
 
  Sex tourism is flourishing in many nations such as Thailand & it attracts males from Japan, Germany, Switzerland, & even the US as well as other industrialized nations 
 
  THAILAND AFFORDS WOMEN FULL RIGHTS IN THE WKPLACE, BUT CONTINUES TO ALLOW SEXPLOITATION OF GIRLS & BOYS
 
  Thai women who are rooted in old ag traditions have less power / status than those in the modern, developed sectors of society   
  Matrilocal family systems predominate in the traditionally ag based sectors of society which means that daughter are most likely to inherit the family's land & their husbands must come to work & live on the family lands of their wives   
  Under matrilocalism, the family line is not traced through the male line, & as w/ many SE Asian nations, they did not even have family names until the 1900s   
  The matrilocal system gives a strong sense of obligation toward the extended family for the daughters than the sons   
  The matrilocal system thus gives more power to Thai women but it also creates an obligation so that women feel the pressure to go to the cities to make money by working in factories, ore even getting involved in the more highly paid sex industry   
  It is the poorest of the poor women & girls who end up in the worst situations in SE Asian nations such as Laos, Cambodia, & Burma (Myanmar)   
  In Thailand, the overall status of women is comparatively high despite the high rate of child prostitution   
  Thai women have a higher occupational attainment that in most industrialized nations in many professional fields such as the university & corp sectors   
  Thai women hold 53% of all professional & technical jobs   
  The experience of women in SE Asian nations is one of contradiction in that the sex industry exploits many women & girls, while in other sectors of society, women experience comparatively high occupational status   
  There are also some mid & upper class women found in the brothels & bars   
  GENDER ITSELF & GENDER STRAT IS CREATED BY SOCIALIZATION BY THE SOC STRUCTURES, ESP FAMILY, PEERS, & THE WKPLACE  
  Many social scientists recognize that the life chances of women & men are significantly influenced by gender differences, & are suspicious of the often disproportionate attn given to biological differences as the basis for gender inequalities   
  Gender strat is rooted in the structures of social life   
  Gender identities are therefore reproduced & modified in key social instits, such as the family, the wkplace, & schools   
  Instits create gender difference & reproduce gender inequality   
  Gender inequality is more likely when behaviors, expectations, & quals associated when traditionally male characteristics are valued more in society   
  Success in mod society is defined in terms of material wealth & occupational status   
  Traditionally is men who are expected to be the primary breadwinners while women are expect to take on the primary parenting & homemaker role   
  The homemakers role makes women economically more dependent on men, & when women are in the paid labor force, they are often in lower paid & lower status occupations   
  IN THE MODERN WORLD, MEN & WOMEN 'ENTERING EACH OTHERS' WORLDS' IS PART OF THE PROCESS OF EQUALIZATION   
  In order to gain higher status in society, women are competing w/ men for higher paid & higher status jobs   
  Women today have to meet male standards & expectations in order to succeed   
  Women entering & competing in the wkplace leaves a gap in terms of household & parenting tasks, for which women get blamed   
  The task of 'balancing work & family' is still considered primarily a woman's responsibility rather than a man's, though this too is changing   
  The modern struggles of men & women are seen in women's magazines focus on 'working mothers' & men's magazines on 'working mom:  what it means for you'   

 
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  Outline on  Sex vs. Gender 
External
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  Many people use the terms sex & gender interchangeably, however, social scientists consider the two terms to have different meanings   
  SEX   
 
 Sex is the biological categorization of male, female, "other" 
 
  Sex refers to the physical characteristics that make a person male or female   
  When social scientists talk of sex differences btwn females & males, they usually refer to biological characteristics, such as hormonal, anatomical, & physiological differences that  define them   
 
 Less than 1 % of the population has major physical characteristics of both male & female   
 
 Much of the population has minor physical characteristics of both males & females such as seen in the TV show "He's a Lady"  
  GENDER   
 
 Gender is the social category of male, female, other 
 
 
 Gender socially learned traits associated w/, & expected of men or women   
 
 Gender refers to the personal traits & social positions that members of a society attach to being female & male   
  Gender refers to a sense of being male or female or having the recognizable traits of one's sex   
  Gender differences refer to the socially & culturally constructed definitions of what it means to be female & male   
  The social construction of gender in a particular society or subculture shapes norms & expectations for appropriate behaviors, roles, & appearance for males & females   
  Biologically, men & women differ in limited ways, but culture can define the two sexes in dramatically different ways   
  Social indicators of gender have changed over time: 
   Long/short hair 
   Skirts/pants 
   What are some other social indicators? 		  
  Biological indicators of sex have changed as, for example, women are now over 1 inch taller than 30 yrs. ago   
  It is important not to think of social differences btwn the sexes exclusively in biological terms   
  The appropriate roles, behaviors, & expectations for males & females have modified considerably over time   
  THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, GENDER, & SEX   
  Sociology of gender is the study of socially constructed female & male roles, relations, & identities   
  Feminist theory is the study of woman centered patterning of human experience 
 
 
 Today there is a growing sociology of gender on masculinity 
 
 
 Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a male are called masculine 
 
 
 Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a female are called feminine 
 
 
 The development of sexuality is influenced by two major forces related to gender: gender identity & gender role 
 
 
 Gender identity is a personal sense that "I am a male" or "I am a female" 
 
 
 Gender identity develops partly from biological influences, such as body shape & genitals, & partly from cultural influences, including clothing & hairstyle 
 
 
 Gender role refers to a society's expectations for males & females, including values, attitudes, & behavior 
 
 
 Individuals develop these expectations w/ the influence of parents, friends, & teachers, as well as television, motion pictures, & other sources 
 
  Men are stereotypically considered to be more aggressive & action oriented while women are thought ot be more capable of nurturing & caring behavior that makes them better able to take care of family & household needs   
  In a now classic study Margaret mead noted that among the Arapesh, the Mindugumor, & the Tchambuli tribes in the So Pacific, masculinity & femininity were socially constructed differently in each   
  Among the Arapesh, women as well as men displayed inaggressive, cooperative, & caring behaviors   
  Among the Mundugumor, both sexes exhibited aggressive behavior   
  Among the Tchambuli, the men displayed more passive & dependent behavior than women   
 
 Among the Aka, a hunting & gathering tribe in central Africa, Hewlett notes the close bond btwn infants & fathers, & the open display of affection & nurturing behavior by men is in sharp contrast to the 'rough & tumble' play characteristic of interaction btwn American fathers & infants 
 
  Recent studies show varied definitions of masculinity & femininity in the US, & variations in behavior among women & men   
  When men take on the primary parenting role & share in household responsibilities, they display close emotional & nurturing ties to their children & are capable of developing 'maternal thinking'   
  WOmen & men are now taking on roles & responsibilities that were considered quite inappropriate one or tow generations ago   
 
 SEX & THE BODY 
 
  Primary sex characteristics refer to the organs used for reproduction, namely the genitals   
  Secondary sex characteristics are bodily differences, apart from the genitals, that distinguish biologically mature females & males   
  The term inter sexual people refers to people whose bodies (including genitals) have both female & male characteristics   
  An older term for inter sexual people is hermaphrodite   
  Transsexuals are people who feel they are one sex even though biologically they are the other   

 
Internal
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Outline on  Stratification by Gender
External
Links
  -  Project:  Unjust Gender Stratification in Traditional Societies 
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  -  Supplement:  Median Income of Year Round, Full Time Workers, by Sex and Age, 1999 
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 -  Supplement:  Median Income of Year Round Full Time Workers, by Sex & Level of Education, 1999 
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  GENDER STRAT EXHIBITS REDUCED GENDER INEQUITY IN DEV NATIONS, BUT INEQUITY REMAINS STUBBORNLY PRESENT; & GENDER INEQUITY REMAINS AS HIGH OR HIGHER IN LESSOR DEV NATIONS  
  In the US there have been improvement in the levels of inequality based on gender, but considerable inequality remains   
  In less developed nations, there is a higher level of gender inequality & gender discrimination   
  Reductions in income inequality btwn women & men have occurred mainly because the income of men has gone down since the Reagan Admin (ie the early 1980s)   
  The US continues to have more inequality than most other industrialized nations, except Japan which has the highest gender inequality of the industrialized nations   
  The history of gender inequality shows long periods of history w/o significant change, punctuated by periods of rapid change, esp in the 1920s & 1960s   
  Various theories attempt to explain gender strat, & several have added understanding to the dynamics of gender strat   
  Functionalism examines how different sectors of society function to both enhance & eliminate gender strat & how these structures interact or lag in development   
  Conflict theory examines how the interests of women, men, as well as the lower, mid, & up classes manifest as social struggle revealing overlapping cleavages as well as convergences of interests   
  Feminist theories examine how gender inequalities today, in the industrialized world are manifested through the class structures of occupation structures, authority structures, & property structures   
 
 THE GENDER PAY GAP IS SLOWLY CLOSING, BUT WILL PROBABLY TAKE 20 TO 30 MORE YRS. TO REACH EQUALITY 
 
  Women typically earn 60 to 70% of what men earn for equal work  
  The gender pay gap is slowly closing, but will probably take 20 to 30 more yrs. to reach equality  
  THERE APPEARS TO BE LITTLE PAY INEQUALITY BECAUSE ECON DISCRIM OCCURS MOSTLY IN THE MID & UPPER CLASSES  
  E.O. Wright found that economic discrimination against women occurs btwn, & not w/in a class or subclass:  
     Within a class, there is little difference in economic achievement btwn races or genders  
     In the working class, men & women, blacks & whites, etc. earn approximately the same level of income  
     For example, women earn 66% of what men earn, overall, but w/in the working class women earn equal wages to men  
     Blacks & females are more often in the Wright's working class & thus have an overall lower income  
     The proportions of blacks & females are greater in the working class  
     The proportions of white males are higher in the capitalist & managerial classes  
  MARRIAGE IMPROVES THE ECON POSITION OF BOTH SPOUSES, BUT WOMEN BENEFIT MORE / SINGLE WOMEN ARE THE POOREST   
  60 to 70% of women work outside the home while only 55% of men work outside the home  
  In general, the class of both spouses is that of the highest class spouse; i.e., the higher class spouse, pulls the other up to his or her level  
  Married women typically earn less than husband, & so technically are in a lower class than their husband  
  But the standard of living, income, property, status, etc. are distributed through the family unit  
  And thus, after a divorce, women usually fall in income while men's income rises  
  In 2002, approximately 30% of wives earn more than their husbands  
  In the recent past, ( i.e. as recently as the 1950s) a married women's class was determined by position of husband; i.e. she would even come down to his position if he were lower  
  In terms of social marital mobility, by far the most people marry w/in their class  
  In terms of social marital mobility, the largest group of people who marry up consists of women   
  In terms of social marital mobility, the smallest group of people who marry up consists of  men   

 
External
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  Outline on  Gender & the Workplace
External
Links
  -  Project:  Gender & Race Socialization & / or Discrimination in the Workplace 
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  -  Project:  Video:  North Country, Work, Gender 
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  -  Video:  North Country, Work, Gender 
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 -  Supplement:  Nontraditional Occupations for Women 
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  -  Supplement:  Male Scientist Writes of His Life as a Female 
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  -  Supplement:  Women Celebrate 20 Years of Smokejumping 
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  -  Supplement:  As Leaders, Women Rule      2000.  Business Week Online 
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  -  Supplement:  NYT: 'Comparable Worth' Makes a Comeback 
Link
  SUMMARY:
Gender discrimination in the workplace is influenced by: 
  a.  gender socialization 
  b.  occupational gender segregation 
  c.  gender pay differential 
Gender socialization in the workplace is influenced by many factors, including: 
  a.  occupational gender socialization 
  b.  comparable worth 
  c.  sexual discrimination 
  d.  sexual harassment 
  e.  glass ceiling 
The 8 reasons for gender pay differential, ( besides occupational gender segregation ) include: 
  1.  hiring patterns 
  2.  competing expectations of women 
  3.  less access to OJT 
  4.  Outright discrimination 
  5.  Cultural lag 
  6.  historically low pay 
  7.  few unionized female jobs 
  8.  men w/ few competing expectations & more OJT 
Women have developed strategies to confront sexual harassment which range from accepting it to fighting it on the shop
  floor, to legal defenses, including strats by: 
  a.  ladies 
  b.  flirts 
  c.  tomboys 
  d.  girls 
  e.  women 		  
 
 INTRO:  THERE ARE NOW MORE WOMEN IN THE WKFORCE THAN MEN, BUT THEY STILL HAVE LOWER PAYING JOBS BECAUSE SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION CREATES 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS'   
  In the US & other industrial societies, women working for income is now the rule rather than the exception 59% of Am women are in the labor force  
  Women continue to enter a narrow range of occupations, w/ almost half in clerical or service work  
  The greater a job's income & prestige, the more likely it is that the position will be held by a male  
  Sex role socialization makes women less likely to complain about job discrimination  
  Professional jobs in previously male dominated fields pose special problems of access to women  
  The role performance expected in previously male dominated jobs includes behavioral styles characteristically associated w/ men  
  Women in many professions face a dilemma in that they can either conform to the expected role behavior of the job & appear unfeminine or they can follow the expected role behavior of their gender in which case they may be acting out of character for their occupational role  
  The dilemma of "the opposite sex" in a gender typed occupation creates a "Catch 22" situation in which "the opposite sex" has limited options for achieving acceptance & recognition (Kanter, 1977)  
  A survey of male lawyers found that half believed women lawyers were "tough & masculine" while the other half believed women lawyers were "weak & feminine" & said that women go to law school to "catch a man" (Deckard, 1979, p. 128)  
  THE FEMALE LEADERSHIP ADVANTAGE IS THAT THEY ARE MORE FLEXIBLE, DEMOCRATIC, INTUITIVE, MULTITASKING, ETC.   
  Women bring a "female advantage" to companies striving to be more flexible & democratic  
  While women are still underrepresented as mgrs of businesses, some social commentators, such as Sally Helgesen, see women as the business leaders of the future  
  Women's style of mgt is more democratic & flexible, & therefore able to adjust more easily to the fast changing, dynamic business env, or thrive in a firm where educated young professionals expect to be treated as individuals   
  In a recent article summing up their book, Megatrends for Women, Aburdene & Naisbitt describe women leaders as sharing the qualities of: 
a.  encouraging participation 
b.  sharing power & info 
c.  enhancing other people's self worth 
d.  getting others excited about their work 		  
  While the qualities of effective women leaders, according to Aburdene & Naisbitt all sound "nice," the authors warn that this would be an oversimplification because these leader balance them w/ objectivity   
  Judith Hall, a psychology professor at Northeastern University, notes that women traditionally are better at interpreting body language & other non verbal cues   
  Women have a high tolerance for ambiguity & are able to juggle many things at once   
  People who see job performance as a series of transactions w/ rewards for services rendered or punishment for inadequate performance might misinterpret women's mgt style  
  People, both men & women often confuse a leader who is encouraging or sharing w/ a weak leader whom they do not take seriously only to find that they suffer the consequences  
  A female mgr's willingness to empower employees by asking them for help might, for example, look like ignorance, & as though she truly doesn't know what she is doing  
  Compared to male wkrs/ supervisors / mgrs, other employees, male or female, often feel freer to criticize a female wkr / supervisor / mgr, or to challenge her authority  
  GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE IS INFLUENCED BY: 
A.  GENDER SOCIALIZATION 
B.  OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SEGREGATION 
C.  GENDER PAY DIFFERENTIAL 		  
 
 A.  GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE WORKPLACE IS INFLUENCED BY FIVE FACTORS, INCLUDING: 
a.  OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION 
b.  COMPARABLE WORTH 
c.  SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION 		 d.  SEXUAL HARASSMENT 
e.  GLASS CEILING 
 
  a.  OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION ( OGS ) IS THE PROCESS WHERE WE ARE SOCIALIZED TO BELIEVE THERE ARE 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS'   
  OGS is socialized through the socialization processes of modeling & identification  
  Occupational gender socialization is a concept denoting that there are men's jobs, & there are women's jobs
Doctor     Nurse          Manager    Worker
Janitor     Secretary    Lineman    Operator
Firefighters, police, soldiers are more likely to be men
Teachers, daycare workers, elder care workers are more likely to be women		  
  Occupational segregation is a pattern whereby two groups, most often men & women, hold different kinds of jobs  
  Occupational segregation is the stratification ( system of division & differing rewards ) of the occupational system  
  Occupational gender segregation  denotes that our culture recognizes that there are male jobs & there are female jobs  
  Occupational gender segregation is the concentration of men & women into different occupations, even when they have similar levels of skill & training  
  For example, we "know" that janitoring is male & nursing is female   
  Over one half of all working women are employed in clerical & service jobs  
  In fact, nearly half of all working women have been concentrated in just three occupations: secretary, nurse, & teacher  
  Women who entered the world of work found that their experience was different from men, including occupational segregation, pay, promotions, training, etc.  
Link
 What message does occupational gender socialization give?   
  b.  COMPARABLE WORTH DENOTES THAT WOMEN & MEN DOING THE SAME LEVEL OF WORK, SHOULD GET PAID THE SAME   
  Today women earn about 60 - 75 % of what men earn, & there has been little change in the last decade  
  The biggest actual change in status of women, so far, has been the large pay increases that have brought the salaries of women closer to men's  
  c.  SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN WOMEN, OR OTHER GRPS, ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY   
  Sexual discrimination at work is the treating of people unequally based on their gender w/ respect to raises, promotions, perks, etc.  
  d.  SEXUAL HARASSMENT OCCURS WHEN A PERSON IN ANNOYED OR VEXED BECAUSE OF THEIR GENDER   
  Sexual harassment is a form of sexual discrimination where an employee is 
- forced or asked by another employee or customer to give sexual favors
- exposed to unwelcome behavior w/ sexual content
- hired, promoted, etc. based on explicit or implicit sexual submission
- subjected to sexual content which creates a hostile, intimidating or offensive environment		  
  Sexual harassment refers to comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, & unwelcome   
  Women are more likely to be sexually harassed & while the sexual harassment of men is rare, it is not unheard of   
  Some sexual harassment is blatant, but much of it is subtle, & thus difficult to prove in a court of law   
  e.  THE GLASS CEILING DENOTES THAT DISCRIMINATION INCREASES DRAMATICALLY AT OR ABOVE THE MID MGT LEVEL 
 
  The concept of the glass ceiling denotes that the "old boy network" is the most powerful at the top  
  The concept of the glass ceiling is consonant w/ the stratification theorists' position that an "inner group" of elite men are extremely powerful in western, industrial society  
 
 In its simplest form, the glass ceiling is the reluctance to place women in positions of authority
 
Link
 For the courts to rule that gender discrimination has occurred, the plaintiff must show specific damage; i.e., the courts have not allowed statistical discrimination as proof  
  B.  THERE ARE SIX CAUSES OF OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SEGREGATION, INCLUDING: 
1.  COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN
2.  LESS ACCESS TO OJT 
3.  INDIVIDUAL OR INSTITL DISCRIMINATION 		 4.  CULTURAL LAG 
5.  HIGHLY UNIONIZED MEN'S JOBS 
6.  SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION 
 
Link
 1.  THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN, WHICH ARE OFTEN RELATED TO FAMILY & CHILD REARING, ARE OFTEN GREATER THAN THOSE FOR MALES 
 
 
 The practice of women leaving the work force to raise small children is becoming less common
 
  Women's entry into the labor mkt has not substantially reduced their involvement in housework, as husbands have resisted increasing their participation in these task  
  Women who live w/ significant other males & work equal or more numbers of hours outside the home typically perform over 70% of household chores  
  The household chores women perform on top of their full time job is frequently called the second shift by social scientists & feminists   
  2.  WOMEN HAVE LESS ACCESS TO OJT (On the Job Training ) BECAUSE OF THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS   
  Less OJT makes Women less competitive as workers  
  One of the most difficult problems to overcome in leveling the playing field on the job btwn men & women is that women have babies & men don't  
  What is the solution to this?   
 
 3.  INDIVIDUAL OR INSTITL DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN WOMEN, OR OTHER GRPS, ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY   
  Individual or institutional discrimination includes FOUR major types
     i. Less access to OJT
     ii. Hiring Patterns
    iii. Steering:  Channeling:  "men's" jobs pay better.
     iv. Occupational Segregation		  
 
 4.  CULTURAL LAG OCCURS WHEN DIFFERENT SPHERES OF SOCIETY, ESP W/ RESPECT TO CULTURE, DEVELOP AT DIFFERENT RATES, CAUSING CONFLICT BTWN THE SUBCULTURES OF SOCIETY 
 
  Cultural lag results in lower pay for women because better pay for men's work is partially a carry over from family wage days   
        See Fordism  
  5.  HIGHLY UNIONIZED MEN'S JOBS, HAVE THROUGH THEIR OWN HISTORIC STRUGGLE, EARNED HIGHER WAGES COMPARED TO THE NON UNIONIZED SECTOR   
  Men's jobs were more highly unionized creating a pool of male jobs w/ more pay & security
Historically, unions were patriarchal & white
Today unions are very active in women's sectors & non-white sectors of employment		  
  6.  SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION IS THE PROCESS WHERE WE ARE SOCIALIZED TO BELIEVE WE SHOULD TAKE 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS,' AS APPROPRIATE   
  Sex role socialization occurs in all the social structures & it: 
- reinforces “correct” jobs for men & women
- makes women less likely to complain		  
 
 GENDER PAY DIFFERENTIAL IS IMPROVING BUT AT THE CURRENT RATE WILL TAKE DECADES MORE TO EQUALIZE   
  The average female full time worker earns about 77 cents for every dollar earned by a male full time employee   
  In general it has been shown that the more women that work in an occupation, the lower the pay of that occupation  
  Historically, the movement of women into an occupation has lowered pay & status as is the case in secretarying, teaching, & nursing  
  Historically, the movement of women out of an occupation has increased pay & status as is the case w/ factory work  
  The best predictor of whether a family's income will fall below the federal poverty level is the sex of the primary breadwinner  
  The fact that being a woman has become associated w/ being poor is termed the feminization of poverty  
  Among families w/ a female householder, the poverty rate in 1986 was over  34%, which is over twice the total poverty rate  
  Working class women are especially hurt by the low wages earned by women  
  Occupational gender segregation explains some of the difference in pay for men & women  
  C.  THE EIGHT REASONS FOR GENDER PAY DIFFERENTIAL,( besides occupational gender segregation ) INCLUDE:
1.  HIRING PATTERNS 
2.  COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN 
3.  LESS ACCESS TO OJT 
4.  OUTRIGHT DISCRIMINATION 		 5.  CULTURAL LAG 
6.  HISTORICALLY LOW PAY 
7.  FEW UNIONIZED FEMALE JOBS 
8.  MEN W/ FEW COMPETING EXPECTATIONS & MORE OJT 
 
  All of the factors which cause genders socialization in the wkplace & OGS also contribute to gender pay differential   
  1.  HIRING PATTERNS REINFORCE GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE WKPLACE & OGS AS THEY HIRE MEN FOR 'MEN'S JOBS,' ETC.   
  Most of the gender pay differential results from the different kinds of jobs held by men vs. women  
 
 2.  THE COMPETING EXPECTATIONS OF WOMEN, BECAUSE OF FAMILY & CHILDREN, HAVE HISTORICALLY PULLED WOMEN AWAY FROM THE WKPLACE & THEREFORE MADE THEM LESS VALUABLE WKRS
 
  The greater responsibility for family & childcare tasks that our society has traditionally assigned to women is another factor explaining the earnings differential  
  3.  LESS ACCESS TO OJT REDUCES SKILL & EXPERIENCE   
  that women seem to have less access than men to OJT that increases their skills  
  4.  OUTRIGHT DISCRIMINATION OCCURS WHEN MGRS BELIEVE WOMEN SHOULD BE PAID LESS BECAUSE THEY ARE SUBORDINATE TO MEN  
  Some male & female mgrs still see women's wk are a mere supplement or part time addition to family income because the man should still be the primary breadwinner   
  5.  CULTURAL LAG OCCURS WHEN SOME PEOPLE RETAIN TRADITIONAL PATRIARCHAL VALUES   
  Cultural lag; i.e., a carry over from the days when it was widely believed that men should be paid more because they were more likely to be supporting a family  
  6.  HISTORICALLY LOW PAY RESULTS IN THE FACT THAT WHILE WOMEN MAY GET RAISES EQUIVALENT TO THOSE OF MEN, THEY ARE STARTING AT A LOWER PLACE   
  The fact that employers do not want to raise pay in occupations that have historically had low pay  
  7.  FEW UNIONIZED FEMALE JOBS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO LOW FEMALE WAGES, BUT TODAY TRADL WOMEN'S JOBS ARE BEING UNIONIZED AT A HIGH RATE   
  The fact that predominantly male occupations are more highly unionized, & therefore pay better, than are predominantly female occupations  
 
 8.  MEN W/ FEW COMPETING EXPECTATIONS & MORE OJT CONTINUES TO BE THE NORM TODAY, GIVING THEM AN ADVANTAGE AT WORK, BUT IT IS SLOWLY EQUALIZING AS SMALLER FAMILIES BECOME THE NORM, & MEN CONTRIBUTE MORE TO THE FAMILY 
 
  Men do not bear children & therefore get more experience, OJT, etc.  
  One of the most difficult problems to overcome in leveling the playing field on the job btwn men & women is that women bear children, men don't   
  Pregnancy Leave Act of 1993 was passed by the Clinton Administration & it allows females 6 weeks unpaid leave following pregnancy, but allows men no leave  
  Our culture is now establishing norms over gender relations in the workplace, & YOUR generation will develop them more  
 
 WOMEN HAVE DEVELOPED STRATEGIES TO CONFRONT SEXUAL HARASSMENT WHICH RANGE FOR ACCEPTING IT TO FIGHTING IT ON THE SHOP FLOOR, TO LEGAL DEFENSES 
 
  Victims of sexual harassment find it very difficult to report the violation  
  Based on her study of an underground coal mine, Yount, 1991, developed a typology of three strategies that female coal miners used to confront sexual harassment  
  There are FIVE general strategies to confront sexual harassment in the workplace which include
 
  a.  LADIES USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF RESPECT FOR WOMEN TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
 
 Ladies confront sexists as gentlemen w/, for example, “Why sir, what would your mother say?”
 
  Yount found that Ladies cast their co-workers as gentlemen & socially w/drew  
  b.  FLIRTS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SEXUALITY TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
 
 Flirts confront sexists w/ sexuality w/, for example, “I save that for my favorite men, & you haven't qualified... yet.”
 
  Yount found that flirtatiousness encouraged come ons from men & sometimes resulted in more severe harassment if the men perceived that the women were using this strategy to gain preferential treatment  
  c.  TOMBOYS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF FEMALE TOKENISM TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
 
 Tomboys confronting sexists w/ balance w/, for example, “I would, but you're better suited for Joe!”
 
  Tomboys emphasized their occupational role & engaged in joking relationships w/ their male co-workers  
  d.  GIRLS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SUBMISSION TO TRY TO AVOID OR IGNORE SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
 
 Girls do not confront sexists but ignore it, or w/draw
 
  Girls' role of non confrontation & w/drawal may work if the harassment is not too severe; however, it risks the possibility that passivity may evoke more severe harassment  
  e.  TODAY'S WOMEN USE THE NON TRADL METHOD OF LEGAL REDRESS, IN THE ORG OR IN THE COURT SYSTEM, TO DEFEAT SEXUAL HARASSMENT   
 
 e.  Today's Woman confronts sexists w/ legal or formal action w/, for example, the statement that, “That's harassment.  I'm filing a complaint.” 
 
  Today's women's, strength & resolve of the direct confrontation of illegal & boorish behavior will cause most harassers to back down  

 
Top  
What message does OGS give? 

Men are more capable, worth more, etc.


 
Top  
The courts & gender discrimination

1970   ATT   $ 52 mm to 3,600 females
1973   US Steel   $ 31 mm to 61,000 females & minorities
1978   GE   $ 29 mm to females
1980   Ford   $ 23 mm to minorities
1996   Texaco agrees to pay  $ 1.5 bb for discrimination


 
Top  
a. Examples of Competing Expectations of Working Women

Women miss more work to care for family
Women have babies:  interrupted career track
Women take principle responsibility for home duties      (see Gender & the Family      Link )
But these are societal assumptions:
Despite competing expectation, the reality is that Women devote more time to work than men


 
Internal
Links
Outline on the  Social Mobility of Women
External
Links
  Social mobility patterns differ for men & women 
 
  There is a gender as well as a race bias in the occupational structure   
  Most strat studies did not include women   
  When using the five job patterns of upper non manual, lower non manual, upper manual, lower manual & farm, the mobility patterns of men & women are very similar 
 
  The job patterns of men & women in the five job patterns are similar because women are concentrated in occupations such as clerical worker, i.e. in the lower non manual category and the studies are not able to detect important differences in the other occupational categories   
  Studies w/ 18 occupational categories demonstrate differences btwn men & women 
 
  Tyree & Treas (1974) found that daughters of professional fathers were more likely to be in white collar occupations than were sons of professional fathers   
  Daughters of farm workers were more likely to be in white collar occupations & less likely to be in blue collar occupations than their fathers   
 
 Overall, working women are less likely to be in an occupational status close to their father's   
  Because women are concentrated in the middle occupations, they are more likely to be both upwardly & downwardly mobile 
 
  While black men are often pushed down in the occupational structure, women tend to stay in the middle w/ some upward & downward mobility   
  Traditionally, the status of women has been assumed to follow that of their husbands 
 
  With more women than men working ( 50+ % of women & 50- % of men ), this assumption can no longer go untested   
  The status of the unworking spouse is usually determined by that of the working spouse   
  Women marry men w/ similar occupations as their brothers more than they entered occupations similar to their brothers 
 
  The marriage market more closely reproduces the intergenerational mobility patterns of men   
  The marriage market more closely reproduces the intergenerational mobility patterns of men because men & women marry people closer to their educational attainment than to their father's status   
  Mobility for women is slightly greater through marriage than is mobility for men through occupation 
 
  It is commonly believed that women had more upward mobility through marriage than did men through occupations 
 
  The old story of the poor but attractive girl marrying a rich man is still common today   
  In fact, women are as likely to marry down as to marry up   
  But still women have more mobility through marriage than men have through occupation   
  Wright ( 1997 ) has the most complete studies involving women & men 
 
  Men & women have the same patterns of mobility; w/ a few differences, the property class boundary was the most impermeable   
  Occupation skill level had a medium level of permeability   
  Authority level was the least restrictive   
  About the same % of men & women move across these barriers   
  Wright found the property class barrier was somewhat more permeable for women 
 
  Women do marry into the upper class more than men do   
  Wright found that women in the US are more able to move up the occupation ladder than in other countries 
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
History of Gender Relations A Socio Historical Overview
External
Links
  INTRODUCTION:  Note in this historic overview that sexism & patriarchy do not develop until "civilization" begins, circa 13,000 to 4,000 BC.  Thus humans have spent 99+% of existence in non-sexist society.  Thus, those who say that male domination is "natural" are mistaken  
 
 1. GEOLOGIC ERA
     5 bb - 5 mm		 Socio Biology
 
 
 2. PRE HUMAN ERA
      5 mm - 1.5 mm		 "The sex contract"
 
 
 3. HUNTER
    GATHERER
    SOCIETY
     1.5 mm - 10 K BC		 During the Hunter Gatherer Era,  there was gender equality in that there was little or no patriarchy or sexism
Gender & Racial Equality has existed for over 99 % of human existence		  
 
 4. PRE EMPIRE ERA
     10 K BC - 3 K BC		 Patriarchy & sexism began  
         Morgan:  The Origin of Patriarchy  
         Marx & Engels:  The Origin of the Family, Private Property
           & the State		  
 
 5. EARLY EMPIRES
    3 K BC - 200 BC		 Women in the Ancient World  
 
 6. ROMAN ERA
     200 BC - 500 AD		 Women in the Roman Era   
 
 7. MIDDLE AGES
   500  - 1300		 Women in the Middle Ages
( Modern form of Racism begin )		  
 
 8. EARLY 
    INDUSTRIAL AGE
    1300 - 1700		 Mutual & reward: 
- marriage develops
- romance develops
- sexuality becomes more widespread 
- companionship develops
... as patriarchy recedes		  
 
 9. INDUSTRIAL AGE
    1700- present		  First Wave Feminism develops  
     Suffragette movement develops  
     Depression & WW II Era Women  
 
 10. GLOBAL
      CAPITALISM
       1910 - present		 Second Wave Feminism develops  
 
 11.  POST
       INDUSTRIAL
       SOCIETY
        1970 - 		 The New Woman: 
3rd Wave Feminism develops		  

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on    Gender in Hunter Gatherer Society   circa 1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC
External
Links
  -  Project:  Patriarchy, Matriarchy, & Equality in H-G Society & Today 
Link
  THERE WAS A VERY HIGH LEVEL OF GENDER DIFFERENTIATION, BUT LITTLE GENDER DISCRIMINATION / PATRIARCHY   
  During the Hunter Gatherer Era, humanity lived in 100's of thousands of mostly isolated tribes   
  Hunter Gatherer Societies, aka primitive communalism, have the major feature of   
  Living by hunting & gathering 
Only minimal agriculture, which developed at the end of this era 
Semi nomadism 
No accumulation of wealth 
Status achievement in "traditional" roles 		  
  Most roles in Hunter Gatherer Society are ascribed, though increased status often served as a reward for achievement   
  There was gender based division of labor in Hunter Gatherer Society   
  In H-G society women & men had different, but essentially equal roles   
  The major female roles in H-G Society include gatherer, herder, mother, sometimes leader  (matrilineal), homemaker,  medicine woman / religious leader (shaman, etc.),  home defense   
  WOMEN RAISED BABIES TO GIRLS & BOYS, & GIRLS TO WOMEN, BUT MEN RAISED BOYS TO MEN   
  Many tribes used a matrilineal methods of tracing descent   
  The major male roles in H-G society include hunter, sometimes leader, explorer, warrior, medicine man / religious leader (shaman, etc.), home defense   
  Men raised boys to men   
  Women brought in 70 % of the food, but the 30 % that men brought in by hunting was critical   
  Men & women had equal status, power & privileges in Hunter Gatherer Society & because 99 % of human existence has occurred in Hunter Gatherer Society, therefore patriarchy, sexism, men controlling women IS NOT "natural"   
  The roles of leader, doctor, shaman, defender are all male roles today, but they were definitely filled by both genders in Hunter Gatherer Society   

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the  Women of the Depression & WW II Era
circa 1930's to the 1950's
External
Links
  WOMEN BECAME CRITICAL PARTICIPANTS IN THE 'WAR MACHINE,' IE THE MILITARY INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX OF WW 2   
  Women move into the industrial economic sphere of society 
 
  During the depression era, the need to put food on table overrides patriarchy 
 
  During WW2, the marketing concept of Rosie the Riveter is used to popularize the concept of women factory workers 
 
  Women played a vital part in this country's success in WW 2   
  WW 2 took place during the industrial era so since so many men were sent off to fight in the war, many women took on the jobs that were left behind   
  The women worked in all manners of production in the factories   
  Skilled women could earn $2.15 a week, & while to them this must have seemed a lot, men doing the same wk were paid more   
  In some factories the women went on strike, & were finally able to be rewarded w/ better pay   
  Many women also joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service where they would act as drivers, work in mess halls, clean, & work on anti aircraft guns   
  As the war went on the women in the ATS were able to become electricians, carpenters, &  welders which were not traditional jobs that women held during that period   
  A few women became secret agents & their work was exceptionally dangerous as just one slip could lead to capture, torture & death.  
  Women were also extremely important in entertainment.  
  During the war the Waves & Wacs supplement the traditional nursing roles of women   
  WHEN WW 2 ENDED, MOST WOMEN WERE FORCED TO LEAVE THE JOBS THEY HAD; THEY WERE REPLACED BY RETURING SOLDIERS & RELEGATED BACK TO THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE OR 'WOMEN'S WORK'  
  The war ended in 1945 & at this time there were 400 K women in the military &  over 6.5 million in civilian war work   
  Without their contribution, our war effort would have been severely weakened &  it is probable that we would not have prevailed as we did w/ their work   
 
 Several million women took factory jobs, but after the war, they had to leave the wk force 
 
 
 Even though the women made such an impact on the work force during the war, after the war ended many of them lost their jobs due to the returning soldiers 
 
  The returning soldiers had to have jobs & many wanted society to return to normal, ie men at work & women at home   
  During this time women found employment in the Civil Service, in teaching & in medicine but they usually had to leave when they got married   
  Many women received a taste of the amount of pride that went in to holding down a job &  wanted to reach the goal where they would be able to have jobs the same as men   
  WOMEN, WOMEN LEADERS, & WOMEN'S GRPS INCREASED THE STRUGGLE FOR MORE EQUALITY, & WON SOME IMPORTAT RIGHTS   
 
 NAWSA became the League of Women voters 
 
 
 Francis Perkins served as Secretary of Labor for FDR
 
 
 Elanor Roosevelt was very influential 
 
  During the mid 1900s, women gained increased protection against job discrimination 
 
  In the 1940s, the U.S. govt established a policy of equal pay for equal work 
 
  Under the policy of equal pay for equal work, the govt forbade businesses w/ federal contracts to pay a woman less than a man for the same job 
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
Outline on  First Wave Feminism
The Industrial Age    circa 1700 - 1920
External
Links
 
 FIRST WAVE FEMINISTS WERE ACTIVE BEFORE & DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT ERA ESTBING SOME OF THE FIRST RATIONALE FOR WOMEN'S RIGHTS 
 
  First wave feminism began during the Enlightenment   
  The women of the Enlightenment created a theoretical & practical basis for equal rights for women   
  First wave feminists repudiated sexist notions about women   
  First wave feminists advocated equal education & laid the foundation for the women's movement for the next few centuries   
  The Enlightenment, circa 1689 - 1789, was the awakening of modern ideas on freedom, science, religion, and early feminist thought, etc., aka the Age of Reason, & was one factor in the Fr Revolution of 1789   
  See Also:  The Enlightenment:   
 
 LEADING FIRST WAVE FEMINISTS, E.G. WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARTINEAU, ET AL, ESTBED A STRONG SOC MVMT & RATIONAL FOR SUFFRAGE & EQUAL ED 
 
  Leading thinkers of first wave feminism include Wollstonecraft, Macauley, Martineau, Taylor, Tubman, Rousseau, et al  
  Mary Wollstonecraft, 1759 - 1797, in The Vindication of the Rights of Women, which was a response to Edmund Burke, held that women should have equal education  
  The Vindication of the Rights of Women an important book in the Enlightenment & for US Constitution  
  Catherine Macauley  
  Harriet Martineau, 1802 - 1876, fought for women's education  
  Harriet Taylor Mill, 1807 - 1858, was forced to live behind her husband, John Stuart Mill, but was the intellectual leader  
  John Stuart Mill, 1807 - 1873, was an important utilitarian philosopher  
  Harriet Tubman, 1820 - 1913, was a fugitive slave, underground railroad conductor, Union scout, & an entrepreneur who founded two hospitals  
  Other Enlightenment ideas on women:  
  Rousseau wrote Emile & Sophy, in which he advocated sexist ideas though he is considered to be a progressive political philosopher  

 
Internal
Links

Top
Outline on the  Suffrage Movement
Industrial Age        1700 - present
External
Links
  -  Video:  Iron Jawed Angels 
Link
  -  Video:  Project:  Iron Jawed Angels & Theories of Feminism 
Link
  IN THE 16 & 1700s, AS LC MEN BEGAN TO GET POL POWER & THE RIGHT TO VOTE, WOMEN BEGAN TO STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHT TO EDUCATION & SUFFRAGE   
 
 Suffrage means the right to vote & woman suffrage is the right of women to vote 
 
 
 Today, women in nearly all countries have the same voting rights as men, but they did not begin to gain such rights until the early 1900's, & they had to overcome strong opposition to get them 
 
 
 The struggle for women's rights in the US at first concentrated on gaining the right to vote   
  Women did not begin to gain such rights until the early 1900's, & they had to overcome strong opposition to get them   
  During colonial times, the right to vote was limited to white, adult, property owning, mortgage free, males   
  Many people thought property owners had the strongest interest in good govt & so were best qualified to make decisions, but today we see early voting restrictions as biased in favor of those who traditionally held power   
  Regardless, the limited voting rights of early Am were a dramatic expansion of rights for the general populace  
  Most women could not vote, though some colonies gave the vote to widows who owned property  
  By the mid 1700s, many colonial leaders were beginning to think that all citizens should have a voice in govt  
  Citizens expressed there belief in universal voting rights with such slogans as "No Taxation Without Representation" & "Government by the Consent of the Governed." which were considered radical ides now, but today are part of our culture  
  After the US became an independent nation, the Constitution gave the states the right to decide who could vote  
  One by one, the states abolished property requirements and, by 1830, all white male adults could vote  
  Only NJ gave women the vote, but in 1807, that state also limited voting rights to men  
  IN THE EARLY 1800s THE SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT BEGINS AS WOMEN FORM ORGS TO FIGHT FOR SUFFRAGE   
  Changing social conditions for women during the early 1800's, combined with the idea of equality, led to the birth of the woman suffrage movement  
  In the US, the men & women who supported the drive for woman suffrage were called suffragists  
  As women started to receive more education, take part in reform movements, & become involved in politics, they started to ask why they were not also allowed to vote  
  SENECA FALLS IS THE FIRST MAJOR WOMEN'S RIGHTS CONFERENCE   
  One of the first public appeals for woman suffrage came when two reformers, Lucretia Mott & Elizabeth Cady Stanton, called for women's rights convention in Seneca Falls, N.Y., where Stanton lived  
 
 In 1848, in Seneca Falls, NY, the first Women's conference took place in the US
 
 
 In Seneca Falls, Women & Men adopted a Declaration of Sentiments which called for Women to have equal rights in education, property, & voting, & used the Declaration of Independence as a model, saying that, "We hold these truths to be self evident: that all men & women are created equal..." 
 
  Leaders of the early suffrage movement include Lucretia Mott, who called for Women's rights conference in Seneca Falls, NY, 1848; Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who called for Women's rights conference in Seneca Falls, NY, 1848; & Susan B. Anthony  
  SUFFRAGE IS THE GOAL OF THE FIRST WOMEN'S RIGHTS MVMT   
  Suffrage quickly became the chief goal of the women's rights movement  
  Leaders of the women's movement believed that if women had the vote, they could use it to gain other rights  
  Most people who opposed woman suffrage believed that women were less intelligent & less able to make political decisions than men  
  Opponents of suffrage argued that men could represent their wives better than the wives could represent themselves  
  Some people feared that women's participation in politics would lead to the end of family life  
 
 When the 15th Amendment passed in 1869, & was ratified 1870, giving black men the right to vote, the Women's suffrage movement gained strength
 
  The drive for woman suffrage gained strength after the passage of the 15th Amendment  
 
 NWSA  
 
 In 1869, the National Women's Suffrage Assoc. (NWSA) was led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Susan B. Anthony & was considered to be more radical than other women's groups 
 
  The chief goal of the NWSA was to pass an amendment to the Constitution giving women the vote   
 
 In 1872, Anthony & others Women voted in the presidential election in NY & were arrested & Anthony developed the speech & slogan: "Resistance to Tyranny is Obedience to God." 
 
  AWSA   
  The American Women's Suffrage Assoc. (AWSA) was led by Lucy Stone & her husband, Henry Blackwell & was consider to be a more conservative women's group  
  The main goal of the AWSA was to induce individual states to give the vote to women  
  A proposed constitutional amendment granting women the vote was introduced in every session of Congress from 1878 to 1919  
  NAWSA, WCTU, YWCA  
 
 In 1890, the National American Women's Suffrage Assoc. (NAWSA) was created when the 2 prior assoc's merged
 
  The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) & other orgs also made woman suffrage a goal  
  The WCTU later morphed into the YWCA  
  SEVERAL STATES GAVE WOMEN SUFFRAGE BEFORE IT BECAME A FED RIGHT   
 
 Some territories, & then some states, pass woman suffrage
- 1869   The territory of Wyoming is the first US govt to award women the right to vote
- 1870   Utah Territory 
- 1890   Wyoming entered the Union & was 1st state to give women the vote
- 1896   Colorado gave women the vote
- 1920   15 states had given women the vote
             12 others gave women the vote in presidential elections
 
  THE NEXT GENERATION OF SUFFRAGISTS CONTINUED THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MVMT IN THE 1900s  
  During the early 1900s, a new generation of leaders brought a fresh spirit to the woman suffrage movement  
  The next generation of suffrage leaders:
- Carrie Chapman Catt
- Alice Paul
- Maud Wood Park
- Lucy Burns
- Harriot Blatch  (Stanton's daughter)		  
  The new generation of suffrage leaders devoted most of their efforts to marches, picketing, & other active forms of protest  
  Paul & her followers chained themselves to the White House fence while others were often arrested & sent to jail, where many of them went on hunger strikes  
  Carrie Chapman Catt, Maud Wood Park, & others were skilled organizers who received much of their support from middle class women  
  Suffrage leaders stressed organizing in every congressional district & lobbying in the nation's capital  
  Other suffrage leaders, including Lucy Burns, Alice Paul, & Stanton's daughter Harriot E. Blatch, appealed to young people, radicals, & working class women  
  SUFFRAGE ADVANCED DURING WW I AS WOMEN'S CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIETY BECAME MORE OBVIOUS   
 
 During World War I (1914-1918), the contributions of women to the war effort increased support for a suffrage amendment
 
  In 1918, the House of Representatives held another vote on the suffrage amendment  
  Spectators packed the galleries, & several congressmen came to vote on the suffrage amendment despite illness  
  One congressman was brought in on a stretcher  
  Representative Frederick C. Hicks of NY left his wife's deathbed, at her request, to vote for the suffrage amendment  
  In 1918, the House passes the suffrage amendment, but the Senate defeats it  
  In 1919, the Senate passes the suffrage amendment  
  SUFFRAGE IS WON IN 1920 W/ THE PASSAGE OF THE 19th AMENDMENT   
  By August of 1920, two thirds of states ratify the suffrage amendment  
  By late August 1920, the required number of states had ratified what became the 19th Amendment  
  The 19th Amendment to the US Constitution reads:  "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex."   
 
 The suffrage amendment, the 19th Amendment passed by Congress in 1919; & was ratified in 1920
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
Approximate
Date
Top  

Table of Women's Suffrage Timeline
External
Links
 
1776
 Only land owning, mortgage free, white, adult males may vote
 
 
1849
 Lucretia Mott & Elizabeth Cady Stanton called a women's rights convention in Seneca Falls, NY
 
 
1850
 The first US national convention on equal rights for women is held in Worcester, MA
 
 
1870s
 The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) is formed by Lucy Stone & Henry Blackwell
 
 
 
 The first women win the right to vote when the Territory of Wyoming gives women right to vote
 
 
1879 -
1919 
 A female suffrage amendment reintroduced in every session of Congress  
 
1880s
 Susan B. Anthony is arrested for voting illegally in the presidential election
 
 
 
 Victoria Claflin Woodhull  becomes the 1st woman to run for president
 
 
1890s
 Stanton persuaded Sen. Aaron Sargent to sponsor a woman suffrage amendment to the Constitution
 
 
 
 The National American Woman Suffrage Association united women's suffrage groups
 
 
 
 Wyoming becomes the first state with woman suffrage
 
 
 
 New Zealand becomes the first nation to grant women full voting rights
 
 
1900s
 Australia gave women right to vote in national elections
 
 
 
 Susan B. Anthony & Carrie Chapman Catt estbed the Intl Woman Suffrage Alliance
 
 
 
 The Equality League of Self Supporting Women was founded by Harriot E. Stanton Blatch
 
 
 
 The 1st US suffrage parades & open air messages are held  
 
1910s
 Alice Paul formed the National Woman's Party  
 
1920s
 The US House of Representatives passed a woman suffrage amendment, but the Senate rejected it  
 
 
 Woman suffrage became nationwide in Canada  
 
 
 Women were allowed to vote in Germany for the first time  
 
 
 The Senate passes a woman suffrage amendment  
 
 
 Paul submitted the 1st version of an Equal Rights Amendment to Congress (An ERA is never passed & the latest version to go down was in the 1970s defeat)  
 
 
 Catt founded the National League of Women Voters which survives today at the League of Women Voters  
 
 
 The 19th Amendment was ratified, giving all US women, age 21, or over the right to vote  
 
1930s 
 Women received equal voting privileges in Britain  
 
1940s 
 Paul founded the World Woman's Party  
 
 
 Women in France voted for the first time.  
 
 
 The new Constitution of Japan gave women as well as men the right to vote  
 
 
 Women won voting rights in national elections of Switzerland  
 
 
 US suffrage was expanded to include male & female citizens age 18 or older  
 
 
 Women had suffrage in every country men did, except Kuwait
 
    The Women's Suffrage Timeline demonstrates:   
    -  several qualities of social mvmts such as the fact that major social changes take decades, generations, or even centuries  
    -  that because the timeline of social change is beyond that of a generation, & because soc mvmts require many diverse participants whom may have a diversity of interests, a plethora of soc mvmt grps & orgs is required for success  
    -  that success depends, in part, on the ability of soci mvmt grps & orgs to network over a long period of time  
    -  that successful soc mvmts require an active constituency who is willing to sacrifice in the form of money, time, protests, etc.   
    -  that successful soc mvmts require a dedicated, radicalized leadership who is willing to sacrifice in the form of ruined careers, jail time, or even injury or death, & yet stays in touch w/ the sentiments of the constituency, e.g. pushes the constituency by making radical proposals & taking radical actions, but also does not go too far beyond the sentiments of the constituency  

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on the "New Woman" / The "New Man:"  Gender in Contemporary Society
the  Post Industrial Age  circa 1970 to Present
External
Links
  -  Project:  Issues in defining the new Women & Men
Link
  WOMEN BORN TODAY ARE THE CHILDREN OR GRANDCHILDREN OF 'LIBERATED WOMEN' & THUS EXPERIENCE LITTLE OR NO DISCRIMINATION   
  Summary:  Possibly, many women, in the first world, born in this generation will experience little or no discrimination; however, academics & feminists point out that sexism still exists, & middle class women report "mostly" or "high" levels of equality  
Link
 The 3rd wave?  Many social theorists ask, "Do we need the 3rd wave of feminism, or can we just coast to equality?"  
Link
 Look to your future: What will gender issues be life for your kids?  
  NEW, NON TRADL, GENDERED NON GENDERED ROLES ARE DEVELOPING   
Link
 Non-traditional gender roles are developing, & defining femaleness & maleness today includes such issues as  
  - dating & relationships at work  
  - the cultural definitions of sexual experience, "promiscuity," & the number of partners which are socially acceptable  
  - the cultural values of marriage & the single's life  
  - marrying later & youth lived as a single vs. marrying earlier & an early commitment  
  - women's ability to be active in initiating relationships & men's ability to be receptive to a woman's initiative  
  - the cultural definitions of body shape & the ideal body  
  - women in combat, meeting the requirements of combat, & fulfillment as a warrior  
  - men providing nurturing, finding fulfillment in the home for man or woman  
  - the portrayal of sexuality in the media & in our personal lives  
  - the portrayal of sexuality through revealing dress, & sexuality in public   
  WOMEN ARE GAINING MORE POSITIONS OF POWER, BUT THE GLASS CEILING & THE STRENGTH OF THE OLD BOY SYSTEM IS STRONGEST AT THE TOP   
  Geraldine Ferraro is nominated as the VP candidate by the Democrats in 1984   
 
 During the Clinton Administration, Madeline Albright (D) became the Secretary of State, which is the fourth in line to be President, holding the highest office of any woman in US history 
 
 
 Nancy Pelossi ( D ) attains the highest rank of any women in the House of Representatives in 2002 when she becomes minority leader for the Democrats 
 
 
 Condi Rice (R) becomes the Secretary of State during the Bush Jr. Admin. in 2005 
 
  Sarah Palin is nominated as the VP candidate by the Republicans in 2008   
  Carly Fiorina is the first women to lead a Fortune 500 firm   
  Fiorina lead HP in the early 2000s, but was fired in 2005 after over 5 yrs at the helm for low profits, lack of increase of mkt, & disagreements on how to integrate Compaq Computer, a new acquisition, into HP  
  It is not unusual for firms to switch leaders just as teams switch coaches   
  In 2008, 12 of the Fortune 500 CEOs are women   

 
Top  
The New Woman:  The Third Wave? 

Do we need it, or can we just coast to equality?
How are Gender Relations different in the 2000s than in the 1980s?
What will Gender Relations look like in 2050, 
    - when Baby Boomers will be gone
    - when Gen X & Y are old
    - when the children of Gen X & Y are in power?


 
Top  
Look to your future:  What will gender issues be life for your kids?

- Equal opportunity will become the norm
- Women in places of power will become the norm
- Women's wages will continue to equalize
- Families will continue to change
- Sexual relations will continue to equalize
- Lessening of abuse, rape, etc. 


 
Top  
Non-traditional gender roles:  issues in defining femaleness & maleness today

Rape
Paternity
Paternal responsibility
Out of wedlock birth
Orphans:  unwanted children


 
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 Outline on the  Summary of Gender, Race, & Class Strat
External
Links
 
 THE DREAM OF EQUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE, THROUGHOUT SOCIETY, IS MOVING TOWARD REALITY
 
  Before the 1940s, the WW II era, college & hi level jobs were only available to white, upper class males   
  During the 1940s, after WW II, college opened up to middle & lower class white males, resulting in the econ boom of the 40s, 50s, & early 60s   
  Some white women attended college during the 1940s, after WW II, to become teachers, secretaries, nurses, & wives   
  Black universities grew significantly during the 1940s, after WW II   
  As a result of the Civil Rights Mvmt & other cultural changes, educational opportunities & occupational opportunities began to open up in the 60s, & have continued this 'opening' through today, resulting in the dream of equality moving toward reality, thus creating a middle class & reducing levels of strat   
  The growth of the middle class & the decrease in hi levels of strat occurred as the the first world nations of today shifted from an agricultural, 3rd tier nations, to indl, leading nations where bias & the resulting strat declined   
 
 THERE ARE NOW MORE WOMEN IN THE WKFORCE THAN MEN, BUT THEY STILL HAVE LOWER PAYING JOBS BECAUSE SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION CREATES 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS' 
 
 
 The three most popular occupations for women are still nurse, teacher, & secretary; all which are relatively low paid 
 
 
 Today women earn about 60 - 75 % of what men earn, & there has been little change in the last decade 
 
  Women's wages have, compared to men, equalized the greatest at the lower levels, thus they appear more equal in more transparent, lower level jobs   
  Wages, salaries, benefits, etc. are 'more private' the higher one's career, & thus it is easier to disguise pay inequity at the higher levels of occupations   
 
 THE GLASS CEILING DENOTES THAT DISCRIMINATION INCREASES DRAMATICALLY AT OR ABOVE THE MID MGT LEVEL 
 
 
 The concept of the glass ceiling denotes that the "old boy network" is the most powerful at the top 
 
 
 Women will break the glass ceiling as they get more education, training, & experience 
 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF RACE & GENDER DISCRIMINATION IS MAGNIFIED BY CLASS STRAT IN THAT THE HI AMT OF DISCRIM IN THE UPPER CLASS BRINGS UP THE OVERALL AVERAGE OF DISCRIM 
 
  Wealth is more unequally stratified than income w/ the upper fifth of the pop earning about half the income & owning about  80% of the wealth   
 
 In the 1990s, whites on average had 10 times the wealth of blacks or hispanics 
 
  The 10 times disparity of wealth among whites, blacks, or hispanics is distorted by the fact that the upper fifth of the pop is mostly white & the upper 5 % of the pop is nearly all white   
  Middle & lower class income & wealth strat is much less than the overall average   
  Thus, class distinctions distort racial distinctions, ie they magnify them   
 
 The wages of Black college grads have risen faster than those of White college grads, but are still behind 
 
 
 The wages of Black high school grads have fallen even further behind White high school grads 
 
 
 Affirmative Action has helped created a Black middle class, but has done little to help the large Black underclass, & has barely broken "the glass ceiling" of upper level jobs 
 
 
 Inequality in wages by race has been exasperated by the concentration of Blacks & Hispanics in regions & urban areas w/ high unemployment 
 
 
 OVERT RACIAL DISCRIMINATION HAS TRANSFORMED INTO INSTITUTIONAL, & OTHER SUBTLE FORMS, WHICH LIMIT EQUAL OPPORTUNITY 
 
 
 While some violent, oppressive discrim does still exist, today most of it occurs subtly in orgs, w/o acknowledgment, & it attempts to remain hidden
 
  The legislatures & judicial systems are attempting to eliminate these forms of subtle discrim, but like conflicts of the past, powerful interests align on both sides each arguing that 'progress' can only be achieved by embracing their policies   
 
 DUAL LABOR MKTS, CAREER LADDERS, ETC. ARE MORE ACCURATELY DESCRIBED AS ADVANCEMENT MAZES IN WHICH INSTITL BIASES OF THE PAST MAY LIMIT EQUAL OPPORTUNITY 
 
 
 Dual labor mkts, career ladders, & other normal process of rationalization of occupations, i.e. ensuring that the most qualified candidate succeeds & is rewarded, make it difficult to tell when discrimination occurs 
 
 
 Normal processes of rationalization of occupations allocate rewards according to skill, but histl practices may distort this allocation
 
 
 THE CULTURAL DIVISION OF LABOR DENOTES THAT PEOPLE CHOOSE OCCUPATIONAL ROLES BASED ON CULTURAL IDENTITY, WHICH IN SOCIETY TODAY IS A FUNCTION OF GENDER, RACE, CLASS, & OTHER FACTORS
 
 
 In the 'post racial world' of today, many people still live & work in cultural enclaves, & thus occupation, & thus strat, are all still conditioned by the opportunities & rewards of these cultural enclaves 
 
 
 Society today is trying to eliminate some differences of culture, gender, race, class, etc. esp as related to histl discrim practices of the past, which simultaneously embracing those unique, positive aspects of each one of our differences 
 
 
 The ultimate challenge for society is to sort difference from discrimination wherein the former is a justification for the stratification of society's rewards & the latter is not 
 

 
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 Outline on  Gender Bias in the Workplace
External
Links
  WOMEN ARE STILL OFTEN STEERED INTO TRADL FEMALE OCCUPATIONS WHICH HAVE LOW PAY  
  Women face the hurdle that they are steered into occupationally segregated, gender typed jobs (Game & Pringle, 1983)
 
  Occupations involving helping & serving others, such as nursing & waitressing, have been identified w/ the female role because women have historically been responsible for these activities w/in the family (Cockburn, 1983)
 
 Link
 The Table on the Percentage of Women in Various Occupations demonstrates that some occupations are characterized by an almost exclusively female labor force
 
  Unfortunately "women's jobs" are often relatively poorly paid & their incumbents are treated as subordinate, a position in keeping w/ the traditionally subordinate role of wives to husbands
 
  In many female typed occupations, qualifications of attractiveness & pleasantness may be more important than acquired skills & competencies
 
  Not only are physical traits fleeting, but they do not form a package of skills necessary for promotion to higher positions
 
  Women compose only a small percentage of the skilled trades
 
  Female professionals face special problems of gender typing
 
  Channeling women into a relatively narrow range of female typed professions:  nursing, teaching, library work, social work, & other helping professions
 
  Because of women being channeled into female typed jobs there is overcrowding in these profession, which leads to lowered wages
 
  FAMILY DECISIONS ALSO OFTEN STEER WOMEN INTO LOWER LEVEL JOBS, FOLLOWING THE MALE'S JOB & RELEGATING THE WOMAN'S CAREER TO THE SECOND TIER IN THE FAMILY   
  The fact that many female professionals marry male professionals & managers also creates the possibility that geographic moves will be made that facilitate the husband's career rather than that of the wife
 
  Such decisions often appear rational to the extent that the husband's job pay more
 
  The result of decisions to professionals to marry & follow the male's career is a cumulative detriment to the wife's career trajectory, which makes future decisions even more likely to be weighted toward the husband's career
 
  AS WOMEN ARE GAINING MORE ED, TRAINING, & EXPERIENCE, THEY GAIN ON MALES & MANY ARE THE SOLE OR PRIMARY BREAD WINNERS & THEIR CAREERS ARE SEEN AS OF EQUAL IMPORTANCE   
  Gender differences in job placement are not explained by differing education
 
  Male & female workers both have an average of 12.7 yrs. of education
 
  Men & women have approximately the same rate of college completion, although fewer women have advanced degrees  
  Fewer women than men have advanced degrees  
  Btwn 1970 & 1990, the proportion of masters degrees awarded to women increased from 40.1% to 47.4% & the proportion of professional degrees awarded to women increased from 19.7% to 24.6%  
 
 Women now exceed men in two & four year degrees  
Link
 Table  on Women's Educational Attainment by % of College Degrees demonstrates that the greater number of advanced degrees going to men, is decreasing as more women gain advanced degrees  
  For full time workers, in 1993, women earned about 70% of what men earned & by 2000 women earned 75% of what men earned  

 
Top  

Table on the Percentage of Women in Various Occupations, 1991
HS 0205
Occupation
% Women in Workforce
Pay
Secretaries
99 %
  
Receptionists
97
  
Dental Hygienists
99
  
Childcare Workers
97
  
Carpenters
  1
  
Brick Masons
0.3
  
Electricians
1.5
  
Machinists
3.7
  
Crane Operators
0.4
  
Low Level Assembly Positions
25
  
Federal Employment of Women by Rank:    
Grades 16 - 18
9.1
$ 69 - 78 K
Grades 13 - 15
17
43 - 77
Grades 11 - 12
33
30 - 47
Grades   7 - 10
54
20 - 35
Grades   1 -  6
75
11 - 24
In 2000, the % of women in female gender typed jobs stayed the same except for the changes in Federal Employment as listed below, demonstrating that women are advancing in this sector
Grades 16 - 18
11.1
Salaries now individually set
Grades 13 - 15
19.0
52 - 94
Grades   9 - 12
34.7
30 - 57
Grades   5 -   8
51.4
20 - 36
Grades   1 -   4
72.6
13 - 23
The Table on the Percentage of Women in Various Occupations demonstrates that some occupations are characterized by an almost exclusively female labor force

 
Top
  

Table  on Women's Educational Attainment by % of College Degrees
HS 0305
Type of Degree
Percentage of Female Degree Holders
Associate
61
Bachelors
55
Masters
56
MBA
38
Law
44
Medicine
41
Doctoral
40
Table  on Women's Educational Attainment by % of College Degrees demonstrates that the greater number of advanced degrees going to men, is decreasing as more women gain advanced degrees
Diana Furchtgott-Roth & Christine Stolba, 1999, Women's Figures:  An Illustrated Guide to the Economic Progress of Women in America.  Washington, DC:  American Enterprise Institute

 
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 Outline on   Comparable Worth
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  NYT: 'Comparable Worth' Makes a Comeback
Link
  Comparable worth denotes that women & men doing the same level of work, should get paid the same
 
  Today women earn about 60 - 75 % of what men earn, & there has been little change in the last decade
 
Link
 The Table on the Comparison of Median Earnings of Year Round Full Time Workers, by Sex demonstrates that gender based pay discrimination is declining but persistent  
  The biggest actual change in status of women, to date, has been the large pay increases that have brought the salaries of women closer to men's
 
  Comparable worth discrimination occurs when companies base their pay on existing market rates for jobs, & such market rates build in discrepancies in pay btwn jobs that have typically been filled by men & those that have typically been fill by women
 
  Pay discrepancies btwn men & women have little to do w/ the skill required in the job, & a lot to do w/ discrimination
 
  While the concept of "comparable worth" is new in its connotation related to equal pay for equal work, the idea of comparing jobs & paying according to skill, education, responsibility, risk, etc. is as old as the human relations era in business, i.e. from the late 1800s on
 
  Job evaluations consist of a formal set of procedures fro hierarchically ordering jobs on the basis of their relative skill, effort, responsibility & working conditions for the purpose of establish relative pay rates (Hartmann, Roos, & Treiman, 1985, p. 5)
 
  Other criteria for job evaluations include education, intelligence required, on the job training, verbal aptitude, numerical aptitude, complexity of the task, perceptual skills, dexterity, motor coordination, physical strength, social skills such as speaking persuasively, supervising, instructing, negotiating, & mentoring
 
  About 30% of the difference in pay btwn men & women would be eliminated if rationalized, objective criteria were consistently used in determining pay for men & women
 
  The legal basis of comparable worth is hotly debated
 
  In 1978 Judge Fred Winner ruled against the doctrine of comparable worth in a case brought by public employees in the state of Washington
 
  Judge Winner argued that redressing pay discrimination would result in "restructuring the entire economy of the US... & I am not going to do it..."  (Hartmann, Roos, & Treiman, 1985, p. 12-13)
 
  In 1983, a District Judge overruled Judge Winner & found overwhelming evidence that intentional & pervasive discrimination had caused jobs held mostly by women to be paid an average of 20% less than jobs held by men in Washington public sector employment (Walsh, 1985a)
 
  The settlement in this the Washington Public Employees comparable worth case approached $1 billion
 
Link
 The Table on Job Evaluation Points & Gender Difference in Pay demonstrates that there was discrimination in pay against female Washington Public Employees
 
  The criteria used to establish job comparability can be endlessly debated
 
  Employers can contend that they are merely offering the prevailing wage for a particular job placing the responsibility for inequality outside of any particular employer; i.e., if there is pay discrimination, it is in the market & an employer cannot go against the market
 
  Proponents of comparable worth argue that unequal market rates of pay embody past discrimination & that pay discrimination should be determined by discrepancies btwn the value or skill of an occupation, not by disparities btwn a specific employer's pay scale & prevailing market rates (Buchele & Aldrich, 1985)
 
  THE FUTURE OF COMPARABLE WORTH  
  Currently most case law had held that there must be intent to discriminate, weakening any arguments for comparable worth  
  Congress is unlikely to act to address issues of comparable worth especially given the failure ot the ERA  
  Collective bargaining by unions to address comparable worth issue will be unlikely from male dominated unions, but female dominated unions are continuing the legal & legislative battle  
  Local govts. have taken a wait & see approach, but do respond to pressure from voters  

 
Top
  

Table on Comparison of Median Earnings of Year Round Full Time Workers, by Sex
HS 0305
Year
Median Earnings
for Women
Median Earnings
for Men
Women's Earnings as a % of Men's
1955
$ 2,719
4,252
64 %
1956
2,827
4,466
63
1957
3,008
4,713
64
1958
3,102
4,927
63
1959
3,193
5,209
61
1960
3,293
5,417
61
1961
3,351
5,644
59
1962
3,446
5,974
60
1963
3,561
5,978
60
1964
3,690
6,195
60
1965
3,823
6,375
60
1966
3,973
6,848
58
1967
4,150
7,182
58
1968
4,457
7,664
58
1969
4,977
8,227
60
1970
5,323
8,966
59
1971
5,593
9,399
60
1972
5,903
10,202
58
1973
6,335
11,186
57
1974
6,772
11,835
57
1975
7,504
12,758
59
1976
8,099
13,455
60
1977
8,618
14,626
59
1978
9,350
15,730
59
1979
10,151
17,014
60
1980
11,197
18,612
60
1981
12,001
20,260
59
1982
13,663
21,655
63
1983
14,488
22,506
64
1984
15,422
24,004
64
1985
16,252
24,999
65
1986
16,843
25,897
65
1987
17,504
26,722
66
1988
18,545
27,342
68
1989
19,643
28,605
69
1990
20,586
29,172
71
1991
21,376
30,092
71
1992
22,167
31,012
70
1993
22,276
31,173
70
1994
22,388
31,334
70
1995
22,497
31,496
71
1996
23,710
32,144
74
1997
24,973
33,674
74
Table 5.4   The Comparison of Median Earnings of Year Round Full Time Workers, by Sex demonstrates that gender based pay discrimination is declining but persistent
US Dept. Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1991, Money Income of Households, Families, & Persons in the US, 1990, Washington, DC, US Govt. Printing Office.  Also US Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 2000, Statistical Abstract of the US, 1988.  Washington, DC, US Govt. Printing Office.

 
Top
  

Table on Job Evaluation Points & Gender Difference in Pay
HS 0205
 
Average Annual Salary, 1983 - 1984
Job Title
Evaluation Points
Male Dominated
Female Dominated
Warehouse Worker
97
$ 17,030 
  
Delivery Truck Driver
97
19,367
  
Laundry Worker
105
  
$ 12,276 
Telephone Operator
118
  
11,770
Data Entry Operator
125
  
13,051
Intermediate Clerk Typist
129
  
12,161
Civil Engineering Tech
133
18,796
  
Library Tech
152
  
13,963
Licensed Practical Nurse
173
  
14,069
Auto Mechanic
175
22,236
  
Maintenance Carpenter
197
22,870
  
Secretary
197
  
14,857
Chemist
277
25,625
  
Civil Engineer
287
25,115
  
Senior Computer System Analyst
324
24,019
  
Registered Nurse
349
  
20,954
Librarian
353
  
21,969
Table 5.5   Job Evaluation Points & Gender Difference in Pay demonstrates that there was discrimination in pay against female Washington Public Employees
Helen Remick, 1984.  "Comparable Worth and Wages:  Economic Equity for Women."  Manoa, Hawaii:  Industrial Relations Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Table 3

 
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 Outline on  Conflict Theory on Gender
External
Links
  Conflict analysis explains contemporary sex roles in terms of dominance, subordination, & sexism
 
  CONFLICT THEORY ON GENDER & OTHER CONTEMPORARY ISSUES  
  While conflict analysis has it's roots in Marxism & thus class conflict based on economic exploitation, it has been usefully applied by many social theorists to gender, race & many other social problems
 
  Thus conflict theory has been generalized so that it may be usefully applied to any social conflict
 
  Some social scientists question which conflict is the conflict, i.e. is at base the most fundamental conflict:  economic, race, gender, religion, etc. 
 
  While the debate over the most fundamental conflict is important in some decisions, for most people & social change orgs, more important questions lie w/in the social problem / change they are dealing w/ 
 
  MORGAN, ENGELS & MARX  ON GENDER
 
  See Also: The Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State by  Friederich Engels & Karl Marx,  1884  
  See Also:  Morgan on the Development of the Patriarchal Family  
  Morgan, Engels & Marx believed that capitalism intensified male domination because it allowed the concentration of wealth in the hands of males, esp upper class males
 
  Patriarchy & the monogamous family began when civilization began, which began when agriculture was well established
 
  Patriarchy & the monogamous family created the first surplus of goods which could be bequeathed 
 
  Men established monogamy & patriarchy so that they could control their wealth, who their heirs were, & what they would receive 
 
  Before the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed female lines  (matriarchy) while after the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed male lines  (patriarchy) 
 
  Men gained power over women by controlling agriculture, war, husbandry, & bequeathal
 
  These new relationships of patriarchy & strict monogamy created what Marx & Engels called "The historic defeat of women"
 
  CRITIQUE OF CONFLICT THEORY ON GENDER
 
  The conflict view of gender has been criticized for casting conventional families as morally evil & for minimizing the extent to which people live happily in families  
  The conflict view of gender has been criticized for arguing, perhaps falsely, that capitalism stands at the root of gender stratification  
  However, there is little doubt among social scientists that family structure does play an important role in patriarchy as well as other forms of social exploitation  

 
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Outline on  Feminism on Social Structure
External
Links
  THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES INCLUDE PF REG M CEML   
  Traditional social theorists generally accept a number of social structures:  peers, family, religion, economy, government, military, charity, education, media, leisure   ( PF REG M CEML )   
  A Marxist analysis of social structure holds that the economic structure determines the relationships in the other nine social structures & of culture, which includes belief systems & ideology   
  For Marxists, the base determines the superstructure   
  Neo Marxists & functionalists believe that culture determines the nature of the social structures   
  THE SOC RELATIONSHIPS STRUCTURED IN THE SOC STRUCTURES ALSO STRUCTURE PATRIARCHY, FAMILY FORMS, GENDER RELATIONS, WOMEN'S LIB, ETC.   
  Feminist theorists emphasizes that the social relationships inherent in 
-  social structure (marco objective productions) & 
-  ideology (macro subjective productions) 
-  on micro relations is powerful, i.e. determinant of gender relations 		  
  For feminists, the base includes the social relations of production & reproduction   
  Feminists call the base social production, which includes the social relations of production & reproduction   
  For feminist Marxists, the concept of social structure denotes that all roles & spheres & power relationships merge   
  For feminist Marxists, a group's power is based on arrangements where some actors control resources & act as masters   
  Thus life is a balancing act for people w/ a given level of power to exert that power in different spheres   
  Within the merging of roles, spheres & power relationships, women often experience the double bind   
  One example of a gendered double bind is that women are expected to be mothers & yet not bring outside concerns to workplace   
  One example of a gendered double bind is that if women are aggressive in the workplace or in general, they are bitches; if they are not aggressive, they are submissive   
  One example of a gendered double bind is that if women are aggressive in sexuality, they are sluts, etc.; if they are not aggressive, they are a lady, etc.   
  One example of a gendered double bind is that if men are aggressive in the workplace or in general, they are sharks or go getters; if they are not aggressive, they are a drudge   
  One example of a gendered double bind is that if men are aggressive in the sexuality or in general, they are a stud, a man about town, a ladies man, etc.; if they are not they are a confirmed bachelor, etc.   
  Note that there are no negative terms for overaggressive maleness   
  IN ADDITION TO SOC STRUC, IDEOLOGY STRUCTURES GENDER BY, FOR EXAMPLE TRIVIALIZING WOMEN'S WORK, IDEALIZING MOTHERING, MYSTIFYING WOMEN'S WORK, STRUCTURING WOMEN'S WK OUTSIDE THE ECON   
  The notion of distinct spheres of life represents a male view of society   
  For feminists, the practice of role merging should be generalized throughout society, w/ an emphasis on molding society's ideology to accept it   
  We must be aware that there is a "patriarchal consensus" in society   
  “Public knowledge of social reality” is not a consensus culture, but rather is a reflection of dominant groups interests   
  Ideological control is the basic process in domination & knowledge & discourse is the key element [ Habermas ]   
  Gender is reproduced via ideology, an ideology which   
  a.  trivializes women's work   
  b.  idealizes mothering   
  c.  makes women's work invisible,   
  d.  categorizes women's work as non marketplace work   

 
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 Outline on  Functionalism on Gender
External
Links
  A functional analysis of gender suggests that traditional sex roles emerged in hunting & gathering societies where they promoted the efficient functioning of the family 
 
  Each sex plays a role that complements the role played by the other, w/ men taking the instrumental part & women the expressive 
 
  DURKHEIM ON GENDER   
  With roots in anthropology, Durkheim was well aware that women take on very many different roles in different societies & that women's roles have changed over time   
  In relation to functionalism on gender, w/ roots in anthropology, Durkheim was well aware that women's roles have changed over time   
  Applying the concepts of modernization & the development of mechanical solidarity, Durkheim's theory supports feminist goals to the extent that fostering the interdependence of members & parts of society regardless of organic / traditional constraints mandates that women function to the full extent of their true capacities   
  PARSONS & GENDER COMPLEMENTARITY 
 
  Parsons argued that: 
 
  a.  gender role complementarity helps to integrate society   
  b.  girls & boys are socialized into expressive & instrumental roles, respectively 
 
  c.  social control reinforces gender linked behavior 
 
  d.  gender roles, like all functional imperatives, are interdependent, i.e. defines the other   
  CRITIQUE 
 
  The functionalist analysis of gender is criticized for ignoring the fact that many women have had to work outside the home out of necessity 
 
  The functionalist analysis of gender ignores the personal strains & social costs produced by rigid gender roles 
 
  Functionalism is often criticized for supporting the status quo, but this is more the result of the individuals such as Parsons who applied the theory w/ their own predilections, & not necessarily inherent in the theory itself 
 

 
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 Outline on a   Summary:  A Comparison of Race, Gender, & Class Stratification
External
Links
  Stratification based on the ascribed characteristics of race & gender remain important, influential factors even in modern societies whose primary method of stratification is achievement, i.e. the merit system
 
  Women & racial or ethnic minorities receive lower pay & work at lower status jobs than white males
 
  In 1994, median incomes of year round, full time workers for both black males & white females were about three quarters of white males 
 
  In 1994, median incomes of year round, full time workers for both black females & Hispanic males were about two thirds of white males & other groups had even lower incomes
 
  Race & gender bias compounds inequality in modern societies
 
  While wealth is more unequally distributed than income, the ownership of major wealth is even more stratified by race & gender than income
 
  The overwhelming majority of income producing wealth remains in the hands of a small proportion of the white, male population
 
  Median wealth of whites is six to ten times that of blacks & Latinos and the disparity is even greater for income producing assets
 
  Relative to the rest of the population, during the 1980’s, poor blacks have become poorer  
  The average black life expectancy is lower than that of whites  
  Mexican Americans & Puerto Ricans have experienced severe discrimination & disproportionate poverty  
  Among Asian Am's, the level of educational attainment is the highest of any racial or ethnic group in Am society  
  Edl levels among Jewish Am's are above the national average  

 
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Outline on  Radical Feminism
External
Links
  There are EIGHT common principals of radical feminism  
  1.  WOMEN HAVE AN ABSOLUTE POSITIVE VALUE  
  We must celebrate the absolute positive value of women to combat the negativism, violence against, objectification of women that is rampant in society  
  2.  PATRIARCHY IS FULLY INTEGRATED INTO THE CULTURE, STRUCTURE, IDEOLOGIES, INTERACTIONS, ETC. OF SOCIETY   
  The effects of patriarchy are wide-spread, in every class, race, society, religion, etc.  
  3.  PATRIARCHY IS AT THE CENTER OF OPPRESSION, CONTRA SOCIALIST FEM WHICH HOLDS THAT ECON DOMINATION IS PRIMARY   
  All other systems of oppression are secondary & are structured by patriarchy  
  Patriarchy was the first structure of oppression    ( Pre Empire Era:  10 to 3 K BC )  
  The effects of patriarchy are stronger today than any other oppression; i.e. less women are in power positions than any other oppressed group  
  4.  VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IS A METHOD OF DIRECT OPPRESSION   
  Women everywhere are violently oppressed  regardless of age, class, race, etc.  
  Radical feminists focus on violence against women & the crimes against women including  rape, sex abuse, sex slavery, prostitution, porno, sadism, spouse abuse, incest, molestation, forced hysterectomies, cosmetic surgery, and more  
  Patriarchy exists because men have physical force  
  5.  MEN CAN MAINTAIN PATRIARCHY BECAUSE THEY HAVE RESOURCES  
  Men muster resources from many social systems to sustain patriarchy  
  The radical feminists are in essential agreement w/ Marxist feminists on the sustainability of patriarchy being based in men's control of resources, but unlike the Marxist feminists, the radical feminists do not believe that socialism is the solution  
       See Also:  The Marxist Feminists   
  6.  THE EFFECTS OF PATRIARCHY ACCRUE TO ALL MEN  
  Patriarchy allows for the satisfaction male sexual desire  
  Patriarchy allows men to control reproduction  
  Patriarchy maintains women as ornaments  
  7.  MOST OTHER FORMS OF FEMINISM ARE INSUFFICIENT TO ACHIEVE EQUALITY FOR WOMEN   
  Social science has been around for two centuries, & it is the work of women like the suffragettes & feminists who have made progress for women, & not the social sciences   
  8.  SOME RADICAL FEMINISTS ADVOCATE SEPARATISM, LESBIANISM, THE DEV OF WOMEN'S IDEOLOGY, SISTERHOOD, CONFRONTING PATRIARCHY, & A SEPARATE WOMEN'S ECON   
  Radical feminist solutions for patriarchy include  
  a.  separatism & for some, total separatism is the only solution  
  b.  separatism in sexuality; i.e. lesbianism  
  c.  reworking women's consciousness so that women value themselves  
  d.  building sisterhood & confronting patriarchy  
  e.  developing separate women's businesses, homes, communities, etc.  

 
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  Outline on  Liberal Feminism
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  LIBERAL FEMINISM EMBRACES THE IDEALS & POSITIONS OF EVERYDAY WOMEN TODAY, INCLUDING PAY EQUITY, ENDING SEXUAL HARASSMENT, SHARING HOUSEWORK, ENDING PORNOGRAPHY & SIMILAR EXPLOITATION, REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS, ETC.   
  "Mainstream" liberal feminism:  In academe, etc., liberal feminism is a minority position, aka second wave feminism  
  But liberal feminism is the most important approach w/in the contemporary women's movement including NOW, AAUW, etc.  
  Less than 10% of women will claim to be a feminist, but over 80% subscribe to its tenants.  Why?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Because many of the schools of feminism are more radical than liberal feminism, & many women do not subscribe to radical forms of feminism but do support much of mainstream / liberal feminism

  
  There is a sexual division of labor in public & private spheres in that men dominate the public sphere, while women the private sphere  
  The sexual division of labor in the public & private spheres is a major cause of the oppression of women  
  Different values are accorded to the public & private spheres w/ the public sphere being, generally, more valued & rewarded  
  According to liberal feminists, society sees private work, i.e., the tasks of housework, child care, & the emotional, practical, & sexual servicing of men, as demanding, mindless, & unpaid  
  According to liberal feminists, society sees the true rewards of life lie in money, power, status, freedom, opportunities, & self worth  
  Liberal feminists do not agree w/ society's gender based values; they only note that these gendered, biased values are pervasive in society  
  The liberal feminists view of sexism is one that most people can relate to  
  The prejudices & discriminatory practices against women are based on taken for granted beliefs about "natural" differences  
  Sexism is similar to racism in that prejudices & discriminatory practices against women are based on taken for granted beliefs about “natural” differences btwn W & M  
  MARRIAGE HAS MORE BENEFITS & LESS COSTS FOR MEN & MORE COSTS & LESS BENEFITS FOR WOMEN   
  Bernard, in The Future of Marriage (1982), documents that marriage is good for men, & bad for women as measured by stress & life span; i.e. married men live longer & are healthier than single men, while single women live longer & are healthier than married women  
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 Divorce is good for men economically & bad for women, but single women live longer  
  Marriage is a cultural system, an institutional arrangement of roles & norms, & an interactional experience & as currently constituted, marriage is patriarchially oriented  
  Liberal feminists note demographic social facts such as 
-  never married women live the longest amount of time
-  never married men live the shortest amount of time
-  after divorce, women live longer than men
-  marriage shortens life span of women & lengthens it for men
to demonstrate that patriarchal relations benefit men & harm women		  
  There are two marriage experiences in any marriage
For liberal feminists, in marriage, women lose power & men gain power		  
  Under current patriarchal marriage, the female experience affirms the cultural belief of marriage, seeing women as losing independence, becoming powerless, dependent, & obligated to the male  
  Under current patriarchal marriage, the male experience affirms cultural belief of marriage, seeing men as gaining authority, independence, the right to domestic, emotional and sexual service by the Female  
  Sexism & racism force people into rigid molds, deny community talents, diminish people, deny values of worth & freedom  
  The most important issues for women, that should be directly addressed by the women's movement include pay equity, equity in housework, reproductive rights, the abuse of women, etc.   
  Liberal feminists believe that the ideal lifestyle is where each person, man or woman, can choose the lifestyle most suitable to them  

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