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Review Notes: The Value Added Theory
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 Value Added Theory was first developed by Neil Smelser in A Theory of Collective Behavior, 1962   
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 Values   
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 KVBN AOII   
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 According to Smelser, all social behavior is driven by 1 of FOUR Components of Social Action:  Values,   Norms,   Social Organization,   Resources   
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 The Value Added Process: SIX Determinants must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur: These determinants must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur   
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          1.  Structural Conduciveness   
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          2.  Structural Strain 
 
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                   C. W. Mills' Sociological Imagination   
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                   Merton on Anomie   
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          3.  Generalized Belief:  Hysterica,  Wish-Fulfillment,  Hostile,  Norm-Oriented,  Value-Oriented 
 
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                   Culture   
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          4.  Precipitating Factors   
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          5.  Mobilization of Participants   
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          6.  Social Control:   Deterence,  Accommodation,  Redirection   
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                    Social Control   
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                   Durkheim:  Social Order & Deviance   

 
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  Outline on  Value Added Theory
by Neil Smelser
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  -  Project:  The Determinants of Collective Behavior
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  Value added theory was first developed by Neil Smelser in A Theory of Collective Behavior, 1962
 
  Value added theory integrates functional theory into an analysis of collective behavior
 
  Review:  Functional Theory  
  Functionalists assume that anything that exists for a long time, or that occurs over & over, must serve some benefit or function for society  
  Therefore for Smelser, collective behavior must serve some function for society  
  For value added theorists, collective behavior is not contagion, mass hysteria, or irrational mob behavior
 
  For value added theorists, collective behavior seems rational to the participants  
  For value added theorists, people don't stop thinking, they adjust their thinking to the situation in which they find themselves   
  For value added theorists, collective actors maintain the ability to reason  
  For value added theorists, circumstances & social factors create a situation where illogical or irrational behavior seems logical & rational to those w/in the situation   
  In stark contrast to contagion & emergent norm perspectives, Smelser focused on the structural/ social conditions that lead up to "collective seizures."
 
  Smelser believes that collective behavior can be analyzed under the same conceptual framework as any social behavior
 
  The primary difference is that collective behavior falls outside of normative expectations; i.e., it is deviant  
  There are FOUR basic areas of concern for Smelser's value added theory
 
  a.  Clearly identifiable determinants drive a collective episode, not any mysterious forces
 
  Smelser wanted to explain why, where, when & the ways collective episodes occur  
 
 b.  Collective behavior is caused by conditions w/in the social structure, organization or a specific setting, not by the psychology of the participants  
  The structural strain may be thought of as a social or institutional strain as opposed to an individual or psychological strain  
  Smelser argues that the factors leading to collective behavior are social, not psychological  
  Psychological factors are created & driven by social factors  
  However, social & individual strain can complement each other  
  Collective behavior is a reaction to social conditions & circumstances that lead to unusual behavior  
  c.  Collective behavior is driven by strain experienced by participants w/in a social setting
 
  Collective behavior is an episode of group behavior that relieves a structural or social strain  
  For Smelser, collective behavior is a relief valve for pent-up tension or strain in society  
  Collective behavior is deviant; i.e., it is not normative, institutionalized, or ceremonial behavior
 
  Deviance functions as a release for participants, lessening their strain
 
  Collective behavior may lead to social change  
  For Smelser, it is the deviance, not the potential for social change that lessens the strain, but for many other analysts, it is the social change that lessens the strain, not the deviance  
 
 d.  SIX determinants that must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur, including: 
1.  structural conduciveness 
2.  structural strain 
3.  generalized belief 		 4.  precipitating factors 
5.  mobilization of participants 
6.  social control
 
  1.  Structural conduciveness includes those spheres of society or relationships in society that enhance the exhibition of col beh; i.e. a positive soc & phys env for col beh  
  2.  Structural strain includes those spheres of society or relationships in society that motivate people to col beh in order to reduce or alleviate said strain  
  3.  Generalized beliefs include that set of consciousness (ideology, attitude, opinions, interests) that people must come to share to engage in col beh  
  4.  Precipitating factors include those temporary but immediate causes of col beh that 'inspire' people to act  
  5.  The mobilization of participants includes those factors that impact the ability of people to mentally & physically assemble  
  6.  Social control includes those formal, informal, legitimate, & illegitimate factors that socialize / control people to act or not act in a manner consistent w/ the culture of society  
 
 These determinants of collective behavior must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur
 
  The components of social action include values, norms, social organization, resources, any one of which may be sufficient to create col beh  
  EVALUATION  
  Unlike contagion & emergent norm perspectives, the value added perspective makes it possible to analyze any form of collective behavior OR group behavior  
  Value added theory analyzes not just the inside action of a collective action, but also the factors which cause a collective action  
  A weakness of value added theory is its functionalist roots:  
  a.  functionalism is accused of being circular:  a generalized belief causes a collective action, or does a collective action cause a generalized belief?   
  b.  functionalism is accused of being conservative
 

 
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 Outline on  Values
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  Values are shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life  
 
 Values are what a social actor, i.e. a person, group, society, etc., judges as good or bad in a social relationship, thing etc.
 
  A values is something (as a principle, quality, or entity) intrinsically valuable or desirable, as in a regulated system of values  
  Erich Fromm, the psychologist, said that all values are relative to a given culture   
 
 Values concerning social relations are often termed morals or ethics
 
  A value is a principle, standard, or quality considered worthwhile or desirable: "The speech was a summons back to the patrician values of restraint and responsibility"  
  Values are the beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment (either for or against something); "He has very conservatives values"  
 
 Morals are habits of life or modes of conduct; as in a principal of life
 
 
 People usually accept the ideology of dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interests
 
 
 Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality
 
  See Also:  Ideology  
 
 For conflict theorists, values should be determined by, or at the very least, harmonious w/ one's interests & interests should be determined by one's values
 
 
  See Also:  Interest
 
  People have an ideology characterized by class consciousness or authenticity when they have values & interests in support of their own group / sub culture  
  See Also:  Class & False Consciousness  
 
 But false consciousness prevents the correct interaction btwn interests & values because the interests of the ruling class come to predominate
 
 
 The ideology of the dominant group / class is often the most prominent ideology
 
 
 People accept the ideology of the dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interest
 
  RANGE OF VALUES  
  Values are always defined by their variability in that one may believe in monogamy or polyamory, i.e. having one lover / spouse, v. having more than one  
  Values imply a choice as in I prefer chocolate cake to coconut cake  
  Values may be more or less absolute in that I prefer chocolate cake but also have a taste for coconut cake  
  Our taste for food, does not demand mental consistency, we see variety as the spice of life,  
  Most people prefer a high level of consistency consistency in their values, & inconsistency causes the self to feel anxiety, & for SOs to judge one unfavorably, & for GOs to treat one w/ disdain  
 
 Because people are generally unaware of their real values (see below), there is often a wide range of inconsistent values operating in one person  
 
 When one has a life experience which calls for the demonstration of a value, if one has not developed that value, one often chooses a value w/ which one believes they are being consistent w/ their other values  
 
 Thus individuals seek to be consistent in one value, operating the same all the time, & to be consistent in their entire value set  
  Values are often in harmony, & sometimes in conflict  
  Values w/in one society are frequently inconsistent & even opposed to one another  
  Like all elements of culture, values change over time as seen in the fact that Americans are placing increased importance on leisure  
  Emerging values occur in even the most stable of societies & in open countries like England, emerging values are more generally accepted while in closed nations such as No Korea, emerging values are not accepted & in fact they are often the source of conflict & oppressed  
  A global perspective on values makes it clear that values vary from culture to culture around the world. .   
  People in lower income nations develop cultures that value survival  
  People in higher income countries develop cultures that value individualism & self expression  
  US VALUES  
  Robin Williams identifies ten key values of US culture including: 
1.  equal opportunity
2.  achievement and success 
3.  material comfort
4.  activity & work
5.  practicality and efficiency		 6.  progress 
7.  science
8.  democracy & free enterprise
9.  freedom
10.  racism & group superiority
 
 
 ORIGIN OF VALUES
 
  One word describes how we get our values:  socialization
 
  Some social scientists, physical scientists, theologians, philosophers, etc. believe or seek to demonstrate that values come from sources other than socialization   
  Non socialization arguments for the origin of values hold that values originate from one's physical being such as genes, e.g. the altruistic gene; god or his or her representative, e.g. God, Jesus, Mohammed, Diva, etc.; rationalizations e.g. "I think, therefore I am.... " or some other argument  
  Socialization is the only argument for the origin of values which has been scientifically established  
  Socialization includes the processes of selective exposure, modeling, identification, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & nurturance  ( SMIPNN )  
  See Also:  Socialization  
  The major task for social scientists is to determine the agent of socialization which is responsible for the creation of a culture's, org's, or individual's value set  
  Functionalists believe that we we gain our values primarily through all of the social structures ( PF REG M CEML )  
  See Also:  Functionalism  
  See Also:  The Social Structures  
  Conflict theorists believe that we gain our values primarily through work, the economy, & education, as well as the family, who gets it's values from it's experience of work, the economy, & education  
  See Also:  Conflict Theory  
  REAL & IDEAL VALUES  
  Core American values have an ideal & a real aspect  
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 Table: Core American Values: Ideal & Real Aspects
 
 
 Ideal values are those that actors hold "patriotically," or rhetorically, that actors believe that they hold
 
 
 Real values are those that actors actually practice; when faced w/ a "situation," actors show their Real Values
 
 
 The importance of a value, any value is the extent to which it is accepted
 
  Ideal values are that set of values that are popular, or widely held, in a society's culture, or sub culture  
  In some cases, some people may believe that they hold values, called counter values, which run contrary to the values of a society  
  Real values are the operative or in practice values, which a person may not be conscious of  
  Thus a person may believe in equal opportunity, but not practice it, operating instead on nepotism, cronyism, favoritism, bribery, etc.   
  A person is generally not aware of their real or actual set of values  
  A person may not even have a set of ideal values in that if asked what their opinion is, or their values around a subject, they don't know what it is  
  People gain awareness of their real values through several routes, including:  therapy, surveys, a 'test of life,' action in life, long consideration of a value or subject, etc.   
  MICRO & MACRO VALUES  
 
 Values range in extent from broad cultural forces to individual norms
 
 
 Three types:
 
 
 a.  Macro level values include cultural norms & expectations include the deep roots in a culture that are usually uncritically accepted in that norms are social rules, formal & informal, that are obvious because everyone follows them
 
 
 b.  Mid level values include ideological positions are rationalizations for particular policy views
 
 
 Agencies, legislatures, courts, interest groups, etc. all have norms & expectations about goals & behavior. 
 
 
 c. Micro level values include personal beliefs & attitudes that vary from individual to individual:  desire for power or fame, integrity. 
 
 
 -  Coleman's Rational Choice Theory on Norms & Values  
 
 -  Blau on Values  

 
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Table: Core American Values:
Ideal & Real Aspects
Core American Values: 
general consensus 
( may conflict )		 Ideal culture: 
accepted in principle		 Real culture: 
actually practiced
1.  Freedom   Freedom for all; Freedom is our Number 1 Value!  We allow more freedom for a middle majority & the upper class, less for the others.  Many groups have limited freedom
2.  Democracy
 
 
3.  Individualism 
 
 
4.  Responsibility 
 
 
5.  Religion / morality 
 
 
6.  Science/tech 
 
 
7.  Equal Opportunity
 
 
8.  Competition
 
 
9.  Work ethic
 
 
10.  Humanitarianism
 
 
11.  Practicality
 
 
12.  Nationalism
 
 
13.  Romance
 
 
14.  Sexuality
 
 

 
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 Outline on   KBVN AOII
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  -  Project:  Your KBVN AOII & the Env 
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  CULTURE & OUR AWARENESS OF CULTURE   
  Culture is the shared content of society 
 
  Culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ( K B V N ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content  
  Attitudes, opinions, interests, & ideology ( AOII ) are an individual's culture  
  Our consciousness or awareness of culture is manifested through our AOII  
  The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms       ( K B V N ) 
 
  Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life
 
  UNAWARENESS OF CULTURE
 
  We are generally unaware of our own culture, of the KBVN that we hold in common w/ most other members of society
 
  The fact that we are unaware of our culture is not to say that we are unconscious of our culture
 
  We can gain awareness of some of KBVN
- through living "the examined life"
- through therapy, counseling, etc.

"Know thyself"
 
  INTERSECTION OF K & B 
 
  Individuals usually believe that their K & B are the same
 
  What we K may not jive w/ what we believe such as is seen w/ general society beliefs on female & male drivers, & the knowledge that, for example, the insurance industry has about female & male drivers
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a person, that person has a consistent, healthy mental state
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it has a consistent, healthy mental state & would tend to be a functional social entity
 
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a person, that person has a conflict, possibly unhealthy mental state that may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it is in conflict, & may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
 
 The impact of culture on actions comes through our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI )
 
  ATTITUDE   
 
 An attitude is a mental state that one consciously feels (emotes) that affects beh & generally cannot be articulated
 
 
 An attitude is the amalgam of our culture, our KBVN, that we can sense but are not consciously enough aware of so that we can explain or voice it to ourselves or others
 
 
 But since we do often act on the basis of emotion or feeling, attitudes are important in shaping behavior
 
  We are generally unaware of our attitude in a rational sense, i.e. we find it difficult to explain or even understand it   
  When we have a strong attitude, we may be aware of it's general direction   
  Those significant others who know us well may know our attitude better than we do because they have a better chance to be an outside, objective observer   
  OPINION   
 
 An opinion is an attitude that one can articulate, at least to a minimum extent
 
  We can voice our opinion  
  It is a reflection of our K & B of which we are aware  
  An opinion is a reflection of our Vs & Ns which are general below our level of awareness   
  But in most cases our understanding of our opinion is a poor reflection of our actual or real attitudes   
  Because we often cannot totally explain opinions, or because it is obvious to us that they are based on beliefs or values, & not on knowledge, an opinion is a particular judgment or belief resting on grounds insufficient to produce certainty  
  Most people recognize that opinions are not rationales for doing or believing something   
  We generally accept that opinion can be easily swayed  
  PUBLIC OPINION   
 
 Public opinion is the opinions of people throughout a soc about 1 or more controversial issues
 
 
 Generally a group or society can voice its public opinion if they have a relatively free & open society & they have the resources in the form of media or social scientists to uncover that public opinion & make it known
 
  Public opinion is a reflection of our below awareness V & N but in most cases it is a poor reflection  
 
 In modern societies today there is often the sense that public opinion is true
 
  There are two reasons that public opinion is judged to be true  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because it is judge to be an accurate, scientific reflection of many people & thus the truth is based on the idea that the opinion has been reliably measured  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because we have a fundamental, democratic value "the people" are always right  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe it is accurate & if we have the same belief  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe that many people hold that belief  
  Many earlier social scientists examined what they called the spirit of society (SpS) which is the generally unconscious attitude of a society  
  The SpS is mostly below most people's awareness level & thus it is an emotional experience  
  Durkheim wrote about the collective unconsciousness which is similar to the SpS  
  Tocqueville wrote about the which is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of the sociological imagination, Mills writes that to understand our relationship in the world, it is necessary to understand the general character of the men & women who are coming to prevail in that society & thus the general character is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of class & false consciousness, Marx writes that a class of people must have a historical view of the social relationships that are the best for them, i.e. their interests, in that society, & thus class consciousness is similar to the SpS  
  INTERESTS   
  An interest is what social relationships an individual or group judge to promote their general welfare  
  Interests are usually economic  
  For Marx, an interests is determined by person's relationship to the means of prod  
  Interests are mostly below the level of awareness for an individual or a group & thus are an emotional experience  
  Marx & others pt out that we need to make interests more apparent to selves & others if we expect society to function properly  
  Example:  What is my interest in a new road going by my house?  What is my  interest in the war in Iraq?  What is my interest in the development of the space shuttle?   
  TYPOLOGY OF INTERESTS   
  People often act against there self interest & against the interest of soc  
 
Type of Interest
Real one's "objective" interest
Perceived what one believes to be their interest
False not in one's "objective" interest
Class the interest of a class
Community the interest of a community
Social the interest of a society
Human the interest of the world/all humanity
 
  IDEOLOGY  
  An ideology is a  particular system of ideas a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group or a person especially on social & political topics  
  Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality
 
  An ideology may be understood as a "worldview"  
  KBVN AOII AFFECTED BEHAVIOR  
  It is only logical to assume that one's attitude, opinion, etc. would affect or determine one's behavior  
  In most cases, we assume that our actions, therefore, are congruent w/ out KBVN AOII, but in practice that may not always be so  
  Because much of KBVN AOII falls below the level of explicit consciousness, & because we may have one or several conflicts, contradictions, or inconsistencies in our mental system of KBVN AOII, we may act in a way that does not represent what one would expect from our KBVN AOII  
  We may not act consistently because we may emphasis one part of our mental system in one context & another part in another context  
  A person may believe that K is motivating her/him, when in fact an inconsistent V is actually motivating them  
  To the extent that we know ourselves & to the extent that our mental system is consistent, we will act more predictably  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization  

 
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Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior
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Knowledge He wore a coat because he knew it would rain; he saw the weather radar report  
Belief She wore a coat because she believed in would not rain because it was nice in the morning  
Value He  work a coat because he valued being warm & dry, as opposed to the value of looking good w/o one  
Norm She wore a coat because Mom always made her wear one when it looked like rain  
Attitude His negative attitude about wearing his coat was apparent to everyone but him; he didn't believe he needed it.  
Opinion In her opinion, she didn't need to wear the coat.  
Real Int It was in his (real) interest to wear the coat because there was a high chance of rain.  
Perceived She saw that it was in her interest to wear the coat because she knew her mother watched the weather.  
False He didn't think it was in his interest to wear the coat because he thought it looked bad.  
Class It is in the interest of the lower class to have coats.  It is not in the interest of the rich for the lower class to have coats because it makes them comfortable & more likely to demand other things.  
Community It is in the interest of the community for the lower class to have coats.  
Natl It is in the interest of the nation for all classes to have coats.  
World It is in the interest of the world for everyone to have coats.  
Ideology Belief in an ideology of human rights including the basic necessity of life for all means that all people should have food, water, clothing, shelter, ed....  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  

 
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 Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding
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  Way of Understanding Cultural /mental state  
  Common sense BN O  
  Religion BN O  
  Science K  
  Emotion VN AI  
  All of the above Ideology  
  Ways of Understanding  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization   

 
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  Outline on   Value-Added Theory:   The Components of Social Action
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  According to Smelser, all social behavior is driven by 1 of FOUR components of social action:   values,   norms,   social organization,   resources  
  1.  Values provide a general source of legitimacy for social behavior  
  Behavior is judged at the most general level according to societal values
 
  If behavior meshes w/ social values, then it is generally accepted  
  If behavior goes against social values, it is condemned  
  Values guide what we as a society value  
  2.  Norms are formal & informal rules & laws  
  Norms give specific guidelines on how to enact values
 
  Norms guide how we go about getting what we desire  
  3.  Individual mobilization of motivation  a.k.a. social organization/structure/instit.
 
  Individual motivation creates organized actions w/in personal roles which occur w/in collectivities
 
  Social behavior occurs w/in the context of a social structure
 
  Society creates certain social organizations to fulfill certain functions
 
  Social organizations & social structure influence & sometimes even dictate individual behavior
 
  We are judged by how well we fulfill the demands of a particular role such as student, worker, etc.
 
  Individual motivation guides the structure or organization that we create in order to achieve our goals  
 
 4.  Situational facilities a.k.a.  resources
 
 
 Resources are  the means & obstacles that facilitate or hinder the attainment of goals:  tools, skills, & knowledge
 
  Situational facilities are the resources, i.e. the sources of supply, support, or aid that one has in one's life  
 
 Situational facilities guide how successful we are in achieving our goals
 
  Examples of situational facilities include financial independence, education, family support, social skills, & more
 
  Collective behavior occurs when strain is exerted on 1 or more of the 4 components of action & established ways of relieving strain are not available  
  Collective behavior is likely to occur anytime there is strain on values, norms, social organizations, or resources   

 
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  Outline on    The Value-Added Process
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  The term "value-added" was developed in the field of economics
 
  In economics, value-added denotes that each step in producing a product adds value to the resources used  
  In collective behavior, in the value-added process each stage must occur & occur in the correct order in order to add value
 
  Each step of producing a collective action must take place & add something to the collective action  
  The steps in the value-added process are called the determinants
 
  In Smelser's Value Added Process: SIX Determinants must be present in order for any collective behavior to occur: 
 
  1.  Structural Conduciveness  
  2.  Structural Strain  
  3.  Growth & Spread of a Generalized Belief:  Hysteria, Wish-Fulfillment, Hostile, Norm-Oriented, Value-Oriented  
  4.  Precipitating Factors  
  5.  Mobilization of Participants for Action  
  6.  Operation of Social Control:       Deterrence,  Accommodation,  Redirection  
  The value-added determinants of the production of collective action must come about in a particular order   

 
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Outline on    1.  Structural Conduciveness
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  In the Value Added Process SIX Determinants must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur: 
1.  Structural Conduciveness
2.  Structural Strain 
3.  Generalized Belief
4.  Precipitating Factors
5.  Mobilization of Participants 
6.  Social Control
These value-added determinants of collective behavior must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur		  
  Structural Conduciveness includes any factors in the social &/or physical environment that make collective behavior possible  
  The determinant of strucural conduciveness creates the conditions that make collective behavior possible, but cannot cause an episode to occur by itself  
  Each form of collective behavior has its own factors of structural conduciveness  
  Some structural factors are present in many places virtually all of the time, but the more factors that are present, the more likely a collective event is to occur; i.e. the more conducive the situation is to collective behavior  
  Some examples of Structural Conduciveness include physical surroundings, weather, time of day, week, year, physical layout, gender of the crowd, age of the crowd, class of the crowd  
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 Riots require a number of people in the same place at the same time  
  Many riots before the 1980s occurred in the middle of heat waves in July & August because there was little air conditioning then so people we outside milling  
  Today, w/ more air conditioning, people stay inside when it is hot & thus riots are now more likely in the spring & late summer  
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 Young men are more likely to engage in violent, aggressive behavior than older, gender-mixed crowds  
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 Both genders of any age are equally likely to engage in panics
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blank Lynchings, riots, & panics require numbers of people to be in the same place at the same time  
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 Fads, social movements, & crazes to not require people in one location
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  Outline on     2.  Structural Strain
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  In the value added process SIX determinants must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur: 
1.  Structural Conduciveness 
2.  Structural Strain 
3.  Generalized Belief 
4.  Precipitating Factors
5.  Mobilization of Participants 
6.  Social Control
These value added determinants of collective behavior must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur 		  
 
 STRUCTURAL STRAIN IS WHAT DRIVES PARTICIPANTS TO ENGAGE IN COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR 
 
  Structural strain is any institutionalized social relationship that causes stress, tension, or anxiety   
  MILLS POSITED THAT IT IS ONLY THROUGH COLLECTIVE ACTION, NOT INDIVIDUAL ACTION, THAT ONE CAN ADDRESS STRUCTURAL STRAIN  
  C. Wright Mills, through his concept of the sociological imagination, is the sociologist who most clearly distinguishes btwn structural strain & psychological strain   
  In developing his concept of the sociological imagination, Mills urges people to grasp the relationship btwn history & their own lives which he called biography   
  If one can use their sociological imagination, then one can distinguish btwn social issues & personal troubles, btwn structural strain & individual stress   
  THE MANIFESTATION OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR IS ENHANCED OR NEGATED BY FACTORS IN THE SOC ENV OR BY THE INTERSECTION OF PEOPLE'S CHARACTERISTICS  
  Collective behavior is more likely if the structural strain is caused by ambiguities, deprivations, conflicts or discrepancies that coincide w/ any factors of conduciveness  
  Structural strain alone cannot cause collective behavior, but strain compatible w/ structural conduciveness is sufficient  
  Structural strain may be seen in purely social terms as any event that does not meet cultural standards or personal expectations  
  Structural strain may be perceived as the result of personal factors such as insufficient reward, too much responsibility, not enough power, conflict of societal values, etc., but if social classes of people are experiencing them, they are structural  
  Structural strain may be the result of social factors such as unemployment, poverty, fear of unemployment, fear of poverty, discrimination, worry about the coming of a new century, natural disasters, or war  
  Recently, physical factors have been seen as a source of structural strain including such factors as architecture, heat, blackouts, traffic jams, etc.  
  Some forms of collective behavior are caused by long standing structural strain that originates from w/in the roots of a culture  
An example of a long standing structural strain originating w/in the roots of a culture that enhances the possibility of collective behavior includes race oppression, ethnic conflict, income divides, religious intolerance, etc.   
  Some forms of collective behavior is caused by a temporary structural strain that is short lived & unique to the situation  
  Examples of temporary societal strains that are conducive to collective behavior include blackouts, heat waves, gasoline shortages, etc.  
  Some forms of collective behavior are caused by a combination of long- & short term structural strain  
  Examples of long & short term societal strains that are conducive to collective behavior include a blackout combined w/ a climate of racial oppression; low income neighborhood conditions & police brutality; etc.   
  People are motivated by structural strain as well as individual stress & they want to lessen or remove it  
  The more structural strain people are under, the more likely they are to engage in unusual behavior  
  The more vague or general the structural strain, the more likely people are to feel anxious or helpless  
  Structural strain affects each of the other determinants of collective behavior  
  Under general strain, people are more likely to engage in bizarre or unusual behavior  
  Under general strain, people are more likely to believe things they normally would not believe  
  Structural strain makes ordinary events turn into the catalyst for an explosive release  
  Anxiety is the particular form of structural strain most likely to lead to collective behavior  
  Emotional reactions to structural strain include:  anxiety, anger, depression, nervousness  
  The behavior people choose as an outlet for anxious feelings can take any form  
  Smelser argues that anxiety leads to the widest variety of behaviors  
  Anxiety revolves around the unknown:  people cannot pin down the source of their unease  
  The connection between the anxiety & the behavior may not be obvious or logical  
  The behavior based on anxiety people choose as an outlet for anxious feelings hinges on how they choose to define their anxiety & how they decide to go about alleviating it  
  Anxiety caused by a depression may become the trigger for fads, crazes, panics, riots, religious revivals, social movements or any other form of collective behavior  
  If the behavior gives people something to focus their energy & attention on, it is more likely to occur  
  Which behavior participants take part in is dictated by the generalized belief that they attach to their structural strain
 
Link
 MERTON'S ANALYSIS OF THE INNOVATOR & REBEL LIFESTYLES ARE THE MOST LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN COLLECTIVE ACTION   
  Merton revised Durkheim's concept of anomie which results when the goals of society break down, i.e. the social order is weakened   
  Merton's concept of anomie is thus very similar to Smelser's concept of structural strain  
  Both Merton's anomie & Smelser's structural strain occur as a result of structural factors outside of the control of the individual   
  For Merton, there are FIVE types of lifestyles that people use to deal w/ anomie / strain / esp. when it results from a misalignment of socially sanctioned goals & the institutionalized means to achieve those goals, including:  the conformist, the innovator, the ritualist, the retreatist, & the rebel   
  The lifestyles Merton recognized to address anomie / strain did not include collective action, as Smelser did, but his analysis did validate the idea that people choose different lifestyles, ie have different reactions to stress   
  From Merton's analysis, in light of Smelser's analysis, the innovator & the rebel would be the most likely to choose a lifestyle which might include joining a social movement, or engage in collective behavior to induce social change   

 
Internal
Links

Top
Outline on the Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills
External
Links
  -  Project:  Sociological Imagination:  Marriage & Divorce 
Link
  -  Project: Video:   Social Insight: Families
Link
  A SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION IS THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND THE FORCES OF BIOGRAPHY & HISTORY ON ONE'S OWN LIFE & ON SOCIETY   
 
 C. Wright Mills developed the concept of the sociological imagination (Soc Im )
 
  Mills described how sociology helps us to see how social situations shape our private realities.
He called this the sociological imagination		  
  What factors influence our lives?
 
  We each have individual experiences of common patterns in life
 
  Individual experiences of
  common patterns of life: 

      family life 
      parents lifestyle 
      educational experience 
      regional setting 
      etc., etc., etc... 

  History

  
  We each live our life as bounded by a particular history
 
 
 For Mills, the sociological imagination can be thought of as the intersection of biography & history
 
  Our biography, our life is set w/in a history / social conditions over which we have very limited power   
  If we are caught up in a world event such as a war, disaster, major econ event, etc., then our life may be totally inundated by these forces   
  For many Westerners, our lives exist partially w/in / or are influenced by histl forces, but a large portion appears to exist outside of these forces   
  For a very few people, there is little or no impact of histl / social forces on their lives, though this is rare as in the case of a hermit or a very independent person   
 
 THE SOC IMAGINATION IS THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND ONE'S BIOGRAPHY / LIFE IN THE CONTEXT OF HISTL FORCES 
 
 
 The sociological imagination is the quality of mind which helps each person 
-  use information 
-  to develop reason 
-  in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on 
-  in the world
-  and what is happening in themselves
 
  The sociological imagination is an understanding, a feeling of the impacts of social forces shaping peoples' behavior  
 
 The sociological imagination is the insight that is gained through sociology  
  There are questions to ask to develop your sociological imagination  
  a.  WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY AS A WHOLE?   
       What components? 
     How are they related? 
     How does it compare to other social orders? 		  
  b.  WHERE DOES THIS SOCIETY STAND IN HUMAN HISTORY?   
      Top?  Bottom? Middle?   
  c.  WHAT VARIETIES OF MEN & WOMEN NOW PREVAIL IN THIS SOCIETY?   
      Farmers, industrial workers, hep cats, tech workers, soccer moms, yuppies...  
  d.  WHAT VARIETIES OF PEOPLE ARE COMING TO PREVAIL?   
      Who are the people & what are their lifestyles that are "behind the times?"  Dinosaurs?   
      Who has embraced the new... & is running w/ it?   
  SOC IMAGINATION CONCEPTS ALLOW ONE TO SEE THE GENERAL IN THE PARTICULAR; TO UNDERSTAND HOW SOCIAL FORCES IMPACT EVERYDAY LIFE 
 
  In using the sociological imagination, we learn to distinguish personal trouble from social issues  
  1.  TROUBLES ARE 'PERSONAL PROBLEMS'   
  Troubles are considered to be a private matter, a personal or individual problem in the sense that both the cause & the solution of the trouble lie w/in the control of a person  
  2.  ISSUES ARE PUBLIC / SOCIAL / POLITICAL PROBLEMS   
  Issues are considered to be a public matter, a social or group problem in the sense that both the cause & the solution of the issue lie w/ societal level action  
  Issues are also known as contradictions or social contradictions  
  In using the sociological imagination, we learn to distinguish excuses from explanations  
  3.  EXCUSES ARE RATIONALIZATIONS FOR 'PERSONAL PROBLEMS' 
 
  Excuses are reasons presented by individuals for a default of a duty or obligation, i.e. a trouble, as a defense, a pretext, or an apology  
  Only troubles may have excuses because responsibility lies only w/ the individual  
  4.  EXPLANATIONS ARE THE MAKING CLEAR OF THE REASONS FOR PUBLIC PROBLEMS   
  Explanations are reasons presented by groups or representatives of societies or segments of societies for a default of a duty or obligation, i.e. an issue, as a defense, a pretext, or an apology  
  Only issues may have explanations because responsibility lies only w/ groups, segments of societies or societies  
  5.  INDIVIDUALIZING IS THE ERROR OF TREATING ISSUES AS PERSONAL PROBLEMS   
  Individualizing is the personalizing of issues which have a social force component  
  A person who is individualizing views an issue as a trouble  
  In modern society, which is the most individualistic society in history, many people look only to the personal level for all problems  
  Many people look only at themselves:
Where did I go wrong?
Why did my spouse treat me that way?		  
  6.  COLLECTIVIZING IS THE ERROR OF TREATING PERSONAL PROBLEMS AS ISSUES   
  A person who collectives tries to avoid responsibility for a personal trouble by blaming it on social forces  
  Collectivizing is the socializing of troubles which have a person component  
  Since the 1960s there has been a trend away from individualizing toward collectivizing  
  7.  FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS IS THE ERROR LIVING ONE'S LIFE W/ NO CONCEPTION OF HISTL / SOCIAL FORCES   
  The opposite of a sociological imagination is false consciousness  
  False consciousness occurs when we live out a biography w/o seeing  impact of history or society  
  While the idea of false consciousness can be compared to the sociological imagination, Marx first developed the idea of false consciousness when he was trying to determine why workers support an oppressive system or tyrant  
  Today, many social scientists try to understand the phenomenon of false consciousness as seen when the people of Bosnia support Milsovic when the US was bringing him down in the early 1990s; or the people of the Middle East supported Salaam Hussein  
  False consciousness results in the inability to distinguish personal troubles from social issues  
  In using the sociological imagination we learn to distinguish personal troubles from social issues  
  EXAMPLE:  WE OFTEN INDIVIDUALIZE UNEMPLOYMENT, SEEING THE ISSUE OF NO JOB AS A PERSONAL PROBLEM   
 
 Unemployed 1929 & 2004--  is it an issue or a responsibility? 
 
Link
 Mills' quote on unemployment  
  War creates recognizable personal troubles that most people can easily link to the impersonal social forces of war, though many veterans suffer because of the tendency to individualize their issues:  medical & mental health care  
  Economic downturns create social issues that are more difficult to recognize & most people view these issues as troubles, thus individualizing the problem
 
Link
 Can one of our most intimate relationships, marriage, be affected by social forces?
Or is marital bliss or marriage on the rocks attributable only to individual causes?
 
  What are some of the factors affecting marriage & divorce?
 
Link
 Differing social forces affected marriage & divorce in the 50's & the 00's
 
  "College Women Faculty & Household Work in the US & China"
 
  Using the sociological imagination, we can see that the US & China are very different, but housework is divided similarly in both countries in that wives do about 65% of housework with the rest being done by men & hired help  
  Using the sociological imagination, we can see that many gender relations transcend cultures supporting feminist claims that understanding gender relations is essential to understanding society  

 
Top  

   C. Wright Mills

"In these terms, consider unemployment. 
When, in a city of 100,000, only one man is unemployed,
that is his personal trouble, 
and for its relief we properly look 
to the character of the man, 
his skills, and his immediate opportunities. 

But when in a nation of 50 million employees,
15 million men are unemployed, 
that is an issue, 
and we may not hope to find its solution 
within the range of opportunities 
open to any one individual."


 
Top  
Differing social forces affected marriage & divorce in the 50's & the 00's
1950s:  2.5 divorces per 1000 married women
1970s:  3.5 divorces per 1000 married women
1980s:  5.2 divorces per 1000 married women
1990s:  4.5 divorces per 1000 married women

 
Top  
Factors affecting divorce

Some factors change everyone's risk of divorce:
   1. newly married
   2. lower income
   3. young
   4. wife earns more than husband
   5. different social backgrounds
   6. divorce is less ostracized by society


 
Top
Using the Sociological Imagination: 
   "College Women Faculty and Household Work in the US and China" 

  The US & China are very different, but housework is divided similarly in both countries w/ women:  wives do about 65% of housework with the rest being done by men and hired help. 

  Many gender relations transcend cultures:  this supports feminist claims that understanding gender relations is essential to understanding society.


 
External
Links

Top
   Outline on  Merton's  (1910 - 2003 )
 Revision of Anomie
External
Links
  -  Video:  Merton on Anomie      5:21 
Link
 
 -  Project:  Anomie & Lifestyle 
Link
  -  Project:  Anomie & Your Research 
Link
  INTRO:  MERTON REFINED ANOMIE TO ADDRESS DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANOMIE IN DIFFERENT SEGMENTS OF SOCIETY   
 
 Merton revised Durkheim's concept of anomie   
  Structural functionalism had said that social values & norms were universal in that ALL values & norms are functional for society   
  Merton posits that social values & norms are not necessarily universal for society in that some values & norms may be functional for one segment of society, or one historical era, & not functional for another   
 
 Merton revised Durkheim's concept of anomie which results when the goals of society break down, i.e. the social order is weakened 
 
 
 Merton held that society socializes members for certain needs & desires, but fails to provide legitimate opportunities /  means to satisfy them, then anomie & crime result   
 
 It is not poverty itself that creates deviance, but poverty surrounded by wealth, i.e. the income gap   
  Merton's anomic argument is similar to the economic or achievement explanation of crime   
  For Merton, the problem is not so often that society fails to provide norms, but that society socializes members for certain needs & desires but fails to provide legit opportunities to satisfy them   
  Society does not provide the means to achieve normal goals of society   
  The "strain" between our culture's emphasis on wealth & the limited opportunity to get rich gives rise, especially among the poor, to theft, the sale of drugs, or other street crime   
 
 See Also:   Durkheim   
  See Also:   Durkheim on the Problem of Social Order, Deviance, & Crime   
 
 See Also:   Anomie   
Link
 The Table on Merton's Analysis of Anomie demonstrates that to avoid anomie, societally sanctioned goals must match societally institutionalized means   
  For Merton, there are FIVE types of lifestyles that compensate for societally sanctioned goals & institutionalized means, including:  the conformist, the innovator, the ritualist, the retreatist, & the rebel   
  CONFORMISTS HAVE NO ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY ACCEPT THE MEANS & GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The conformist     accepts means        accepts goals   
  The conformist is the 'normal person'   
  Merton believed that most of people color btwn the lines, pay taxes, & generally accept things as they are   
 
 Merton viewed a normal person as accepting society's goals & means to attain those goals   
  Conformity lies in pursuing conventional goals through approved means   
  INNOVATORS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY REJECT THE MEANS, BUT ACCEPT THE GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The innovator        rejects means        accepts goals   
  Accepts the goals society offers, but rejects the normal means for achieving those goals:   
  Examples:  Business entrepreneur:  do business in a new way 
Criminal:  develops a new/illegal was to do something 
Artist:  develops new or innovative artistic style, content, etc. 		  
  RITUALISTS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY ACCEPT THE MEANS BUT REJECT THE GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The ritualist          accepts means      rejects goals   
  Rejects the goals of society (none of that wealth & luxury, thank you) but yet comes to work every day to save up to buy a sailing boat or a hut on the mountain side   
  RETREATISTS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY REJECT THE MEANS & GOALS ESTABLISHED BY SOCIETY   
 
 The retreatist       rejects means        rejects goals  
  Wants neither goals of society & also does not want to work at a normal job: 
Wants to live on a boat or in a hut, etc. & supports such a goal through some strange life style (collecting/selling junk to illegal activities) 		  
  Examples:  hobos, alcoholics, and drug addicts   
  REBELS HAVE ANOMIE BECAUSE THEY ESTABLISH NEW MEANS & GOALS COMPARED TO THOSE OF SOCIETY   
 
 The rebel               new means           new goals   
  For Merton, the rebel does not want society's goals, but creates new unique goals   
  For Merton, the rebel lives simply, & prepares for Armageddon, the revolution, etc.   
  For Merton, the rebel does not want society's methods, but develops their own in harmony w/ their own goals   
  Examples of rebels might be those who raise & live off a garden or dig a bomb shelter   

 
Top  
Table on Merton's Analysis of Anomie 
To avoid anomie, societally sanctioned goals must match societally institutionalized means 
 
Acceptance of 
Sanctioned Goals
Acceptance of 
Institutionalized Means
Examples
Conformist
accepts
accepts
Norm & Norma Normal
Innovator
accepts
rejects
Entrepreneurs & Criminals
Ritualist
rejects
accepts
Bureaucratic personality
Retreatist
rejects
rejects
Drug User / Seller, Hermit
Rebel
rejects & substitutes
rejects & substitutes
Cult member, Hippie

 
Internal
Links

Top
Outline on the Value Added Process:   3. Generalized Belief
External
Links
  In the value added process SIX determinants must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur: 
1.  Structural Conduciveness 
2.  Structural Strain 
3.  Generalized Belief 
4.  Precipitating Factors 
5.  Mobilization of Participants 
6.  Social Control 
These value added determinants of collective behavior must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur		  
  For collective behavior to occur, after the structural conditions are in place, & the member experience nonspecific strain, potential actors must come to share a generalized belief
 
  A generalized belief is a shared definition of the situation that makes a particular course of action seem logical, rational, desirable, or unavoidable
 
  The generalized belief supplies meaning for the situation which:
-  identifies a source of strain
-  attributes certain characteristics to the source
-  specifies certain responses as possible or appropriate
 
  Structural conduciveness & strain are often present in society, but collective action cannot occur until a generalized belief forms  
  The generalized belief gives people something that they believe will eliminate or reduce the strain & anxiety they are feeling
 
  From symbolic interactionism it is understood that we always share a meaning of the situation we are in, we have some level of a generalized belief
 
  The difference btwn "the social construction of reality" aka everyday meaning creation & collective behavior's creation of generalized belief is that everyday meaning is more routine, clear, "a given" while collective behavior generalized belief is less routine, unclear, not given, but created on the spot
 
  The generalized belief does not have to be based on truth
 
  Participants act as if rumors were true
 
  Even in everyday life, we often act on beliefs, not knowledge
 
  As noted by W.I. Thomas, what we believe is true can become true in its consequences
 
  During the Detroit Riots of 1943, Whites & Blacks both believed the other had thrown a baby from a bridge, attacked a woman, & experienced the other side try to force them out of an area
 
  It is the generalized belief that determines what participants will do next
 
  The content of generalized belief will dictate what form of collective action occurs
blank
  The types of generalized beliefs in collective behavior are hysteria, wish fulfillment, hostility / scapegoating, norms, values  
  A.  Hysterical Beliefs  
  Hysterical beliefs transform an ambiguous situation into a specific threat  
  The TWO forms of hysterical beliefs are:
-  premonitions of disaster
-  fear		  
  A hysterical belief may seem to explain a past event or situation, report a present one, or predict a future one  
  Hysterical beliefs generally lead to some form of panic   
  An example of hysteria is that: 
-  recent floods were a warning for some that the world is going to end on Saturday 
-  some believed that there is more crime than ever because society is failing 
-  the market is crashing & the value of my stocks will evaporate by the closing bell 		  
  An example of a panic is that people will: 
-  stampede for the exits when threatened 
-  sell stocks at any price if they fear a major loss 
-  head for the wilderness w/ a gun & supplies when threatened 		  
  B.  Wish Fulfillment Beliefs   
  Wish fulfillment beliefs reduce ambiguity by producing what is believed to be an effective solution to the problem or by predicting some sort of positive event   
  Anxiety is replaced w/ hope & confidence   
  Participants believe something wonderful is going to happen, or that they can prevent something terrible from happening if they perform the right behavior   
  Wish fulfillment beliefs often include a magical faith in individuals, object or values, or anything   
  Wish fulfillment beliefs lead to behaviors known as crazes   
  Wish fulfillment is only different from hysteria in that it provides a bright hope that the source of strain is about to disappear, or that the participants themselves can eliminate it   
  Examples of Wish Fulfillment 
Speculation booms 
Certain fads 
Some types of religious or political revivals 
Faith healing 		  
  C.  Hostile Beliefs, aka Scapegoating  
  Hostile beliefs are similar to wish fulfillment, except the action required to fix the problem involves removing an agent or object perceived as the threat or obstacle  
  Strain & anxiety become focused into anger & hatred against some individual, group or institution  
  Participants believe that all of there strain is caused by one specific target  
  The specificity of the target may vary from a specific individual to a general social being such as foreigners, a government, or "The New World Order"  
  Participants believe that if they can only eliminate the target of their hostility, then everything will be all right  
  Examples of Hostile Beliefs
The world is going to end on Saturday unless we burn the witches
Hostile beliefs are the force behind violent episodes such as 
              scapegoating
              lynchings
              riots		  
  D.  Norm Oriented Beliefs   
  Norm oriented beliefs envision either replacing or renewing & reinforcing a threatened normative structure   
  Participants want to reorganize the basic organization of society or a social institution   
  They want to either restore, protect, modify or create social norms   
  This may be done by passing a new law or abolishing existing ones   
  Many social movements are driven by norm oriented beliefs, particularly reform mvmts & counter mvmts   
  Many reform & counter movements attempt to control the inadequate, ineffective, or irresponsible behavior of other individuals   
  Norm oriented beliefs make a connection, no matter how illogical, between a general source of strain & a specific course of action   
  Holders of these beliefs think that their actions are for the good of all society   
  Examples of Norm Oriented Beliefs 
Prohibition 
The war on drugs:  almost every ill can be blamed on illegal drugs 		  
  E.  Value Oriented Beliefs   
  Value oriented beliefs envision replacing a threatened value system   
  Their complaints are much more vague & general than norm oriented beliefs   
  The solution is usually more simple & straightforward   
  They have a preoccupation w/ the highest moral bases of social life, & vision of a future w/ harmony & stability   
  For value oriented beliefs, the source of strain is identified as inherent w/in the culture itself, w/in a value or set of values w/in the culture   
  Participants seek to w/draw or reshape society in their own image, usually by instituting a new value or set of values   
  Examples of Value Oriented Beliefs 
Cults 
Splinter religious groups 
Splinter political groups 
Social or political revolutions 
Group w/drawal into isolation 		  
  CULTURE IS THE SHARED KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES, NORMS ( K B V N ) & THE PHYSICAL & ABSTRACT MANIFESTATIONS OF THAT CONTENT & FOR VALUE ADDED THEORY, THERE IS A FOCUS ON PRIMARILY VALUES, BUT ALSO BELIEFS & NORMS  
  See Also:  Culture   
  If values & beliefs as well as knowledge & norms interact in our consciousness & are shared by enough members in a group, then we have a subculture   
  And if these same components of knowledge, values, beliefs, & norms (KBVN) are held by enough people in a society, then we have a culture   
  Value added theory is focusing on how people come to believe that the col behavior they are thinking of engaging in or actually engaging in has some value for them, usually, for this theory, by reducing stress / anomie / alienation   
  An analysis of culture informs us that the values & beliefs which value added theory focus on do not function in a vacuum, but rather are affect by knowledge, norms, as well as the social structure, which the theory does discuss   
  If one has a wish fulfillment belief about a speculative boom, then one probably has complementary knowledge, values, & norms about that boom too   
  If one has a particular norm oriented believe related to a soc mvmt, then they probably have complementary knowledge & values about that mvmt too   
  The expression of culture is accomplished in many ways including language, art, religion, customs, & for value added theory, culture is manifested through col beh; one can speak of the activist culture, or the culture of the NRA or the culture of Greenpeace   
  Non material culture is manifested in subjective, abstract, ideological, etc. representations of culture & these manifestations are the focus of value added theory   
  Many intersections of KBVN occur as a result of socialization & life experiences, & vary widely resulting in infinite manifestations of culture & for value added theory a particular set of V, but also B & N interact in such a way that they are conducive to col beh   

 
Internal
Links

Top
  An Overview of  Culture
External
Links
 
 -  Video:  Culture 
Link
  -  Project:  Identifying a Culture 
Link
  -  Project:  The Intersections of KBVN 
Link
  -  Project:  Real & Ideal Culture
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  What Is Culture? 
Link
 
 -  Project:  Video:  The Social Orgs of Culture 
Link
  -  Video:  Romeo & Juliet 
Link
  CULTURE IS THE SHARED KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES, NORMS ( K B V N ) & THE PHYSICAL & ABSTRACT MANIFESTATIONS OF THAT CONTENT   
  All societies have a culture   
 
 Culture may be defined as the shared content of society   
  The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, norms       ( K B V N )   
 
 The four components of culture are physically manifested through symbols & language 
 
 
 Symbols are defined as anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture 
 
 
 The meaning of the same symbols varies from society to society, w/in a single society, and over time 
 
 
 Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life   
  Do not confuse the common usage of the word "culture" w/ the sociological use   
  People commonly use culture to mean society &/ subculture & this usage would include both culture ( KBVN ) & social structure ( PF REG M CEML )   
  THE EXPRESSION OF CULTURE IS ACCOMPLISHED IN MANY WAYS INCLUDING LANGUAGE, ART, RELIGION, CUSTOMS, & MORE   
  When examining culture, KBVN are often expressed in SEVEN configurations 
 Roles                      Language                        Technology 
 Customs                 Material Objects 
 Religion                 Groups of People 		  
 
 Culture shock refers to personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life 
 
 
 Only humans depend on culture rather than instincts to ensure the survival of their kind 
 
  Culture is a long time in the making   
  Culture can be a constraint in that humans cannot live w/o culture, but the capacity for culture has some drawbacks   
  Culture can be a source of freedom in that culture forces us to choose as we make & remake a world for ourselves   
 
 The social sciences carry out 'cultural mapping,' i.e. a cataloging of the various aspects of culture throughout societies   
  THE SOCIAL SCIENCES EXAMINE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF CULTURE   
  1.  Sociologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in modern society & how culture impacts social structures & personality   
  2.  Anthropologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in ancient  &/ indigenous societies   
  3.  Geographers examine how place & space shape culture & vice versa & how culture is organized spatially   
  4.  Psychologists examine how the subconscious is manifested in culture   
  5.  Political scientists examine how culture affects govt & the political process   
  Sociologists generally accept TWO human manifestations of culture:  material & non material culture which occur in the TWO settings of the physical environment & the human environment   
  All the levels meld into one seamless culture: 
1.  Material culture 
     a.  Material culture & the physical environment 
     b.  Material culture & the human environment 
2.  Non material culture 
     a.  Non material culture & the physical environment 
     b.  Non material culture & the human environment 		  
  1.  MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED IN OBJECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF KBVN 
 
  a.  MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED THROUGH THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT   
  The physical environment includes the "natural" environment as well as human made rural landscapes, city-scapes, etc.   
  Even the physical environment in which we live comes to be identified as a representative of our material culture & the environment does shape our KBVN   
  Usually different regions have a cultural attachment to their environment   
Link
 Examples of material culture & the physical environment   
 Link
 b.  MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED THROUGH THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT   
Link
   1)   World symbols:  An example of a world symbol is the UN Building or the Earth picture   
Link
   2)   National symbols:  a nation's flag   
Link
   3)   Regional symbols:  race car   
Link
   4)   Homes/ businesses styles:  ranch home, mobile home   
Link
   5)   Cars, boats etc. styles:  SUV, mini van, sports car, etc.   
Link
   6)   Clothing styles:  woman in a black dress, men in black   
Link
   7)   Body shape / style:  body art   
  2.  NON MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFEST IN SUBJECTIVE, ABSTRACT, IDEOLOGICAL, ETC. REPRESENTATIONS OF CULTURE   
Link
 Non material culture is manifested in abstract representations of KBVN   
  a.  KNOWLEDGE IS MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE   
Link
 Knowledge is shared truth based on science   
  Examples of cultural manifestations of knowledge are Darwin fish symbols, Stanford T-shirts, math symbol jewelry, tech gear & the very ideas these symbols represent   
  b.  BELIEFS ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE   
Link
 Beliefs are shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense   
  Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content   
  Examples of cultural manifestations of beliefs are Christian fish symbols, Jesus T-shirts, Crescent Moon jewelry, religious dress, & the very ideas these symbols represent   
  c.  VALUES ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE   
Link
 Values are shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life   
Link
 Core American values have an ideal & a real Aspect;  See the Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values   
  Ideal values are those that actors hold "patriotically," or rhetorically, that actors believe that they hold   
  Real values are those that actors actually practice; when faced w/ a "situation," actors show their real values   
  The concept of  real values can be seen in the fact that Americans have the core cultural value of democracy, but fail to vote   
  d.  NORMS ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE THROUGH FOLKWAYS, MORES, LAWS, ETC.   
Link
 Norms are shared expectations about behavior, i.e. socially defined rules 
 
  i.   Folkways are informal, minor norms that usually carry only minor & informal sanctions, or punishments, when they are violated   
 
 Example:  Manners   
  ii.  Mores are informal norms, that are very important to people & may be written into law   
  Example:  People should not talk loudly in religious buildings 
 
  iii. Laws are formal, codified norms which everyone is expected to be aware & which carry specific, legal sanctions   
  Example:  driving regulations 
 
  Western cultural practices are exported by the media to remote corners of globe 
Paul Harvey:  Yet this is not “one world” 		  
  INTERSECTIONS OF KBVN OCCUR AS A RESULT OF SOCIALIZATION & LIFE EXPERIENCES, & VARY WIDELY RESULTING IN INFINITE MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURE   
Link
 Culture's components of  K + B + V + N, have limited intersections   
  Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content   
  WI Thomas on truth.... & culture:  'What we believe to be true, becomes true in its consequences'   
  Examples:  men are buffoons 
Cuban Missile Crisis:  the Russians are offering a way out / the Russians are holding a hard line 
A clique believing someone is cool 		  
Link
 We each have conflicting views on  KBVN   AOI  which often create anxiety, cognitive dissonance, etc. on an individual level and conflict, strife, war, etc. on a societal level   
Link
 Non material culture & the physical environment can be seen is the aesthetic question:  "What is the meaning of wind whispering in trees to your culture?"   
Link
 Non material culture & the human environment can be seen is the aesthetic question:  "What is the meaning of a veiled face?   of green hair?"   

 
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Material culture & the physical environment

Examples:    mountains, ocean, corn fields 
Midwest:  rich farm land, lazy rivers, flat land, cold winters 
West coast:  beaches, sunshine, warm winters, best climate 
Appalachia:  mountains, forests, strip mines 


 
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Material culture & the human environment
Physical objects representing non material or abstract culture 
      World Symbols 
      National Symbols 
      Regional Symbols 
      Homes
      Cars, boats, planes, etc. 
      Clothes 
      Body 

 
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World symbols
Not many of these 

UN Building


 
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National symbols

US Flag 
Confederate Battle Flag 

Some smaller items 
Food:  chocolate 


 
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Regional symbols
Silo 
Mississippi River 
Empire State Building 
Cheese 
Potatoes 
Tobacco 

 
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Homes
Shacks to Mansions to Castles 

 
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Car, boats, etc.
Mini van to SUV to Harley to junker 

 
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Clothing
Clothing, like language, is so personal that it identifies your culture 
We use clothing to indicate respect ( in a ritual such as marriage, or funeral ) or disrespect 

 
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Body
Body image & decoration is becoming more & more malleable: 
We now idolize the thin, athletic body 
But less thin that the "Twiggy" days of the late 1970's 
Heavier men & women were preferred in earlier times 
Women have been subject to greater pressures to achieve the ideal body image than have men.... but is this changing? 

 
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Non material culture
Abstract:  the knowledge, beliefs, values & norms  ( KBVN ) of a society 

           a.  Non Material culture & the physical environment 
           b.  Non Material culture & the human environment 

 
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1. Knowledge:  shared truth based on science   We believe it to be true 

Physical Sciences 
  Natural 
  Life 
Social Sciences 
Humanities 
Arts 

Knowledge is not absolute in that it changes from society to society from year to year 
Generally we can speak of scientific knowledge 


 
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2. Beliefs: shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense 
General recognition of less truth validity 
There is no clear line btwn Knowledge & Beliefs 

 
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3. Values:  Shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life

We are generally unaware of what our values are unless we have gone through training/coaching/therapy to "know thyself" 


 
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Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values
Core American values: general consensus 
( may conflict )		 Ideal culture: 
accepted in principle		 Real culture: 
actually practiced
1.  Freedom   Freedom for all; Freedom is our Number 1 Value!  We allow more freedom for a middle majority & the upper class, less for the others.  Many groups have limited freedom
2.  Democracy
 
 
3.  Individualism 
 
 
4.  Responsibility 
 
 
5.  Religion/morality 
 
 
6.  Science/tech 
 
 
7.  Opportunity
 
 
8.  Competition
 
 
9.  Work ethic
 
 
10.  Humanitarianism
 
 
11.  Practicality
 
 
12.  Nationalism
 
 
13.  Romance
 
 
14.  Sexuality
 
 

 
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4. Norms
 Folkways:    manners, grammar, dressing appropriately 
 Mores:        littering to flag burning 
 Laws:          littering, flag burning, to robbery & murder 

We are not generally conscious of norms 
Their impact is automatic:  internalized 

We often can ponder the norm of a particular situation 


 
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Knowledge, beliefs, values, norms are like four intersecting circles
 K & B can be tested, but are not 
V & N are not recognized as vague 

 
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Culture = K + B + V + N 
The sum of our culture 
(knowledge, beliefs, values, rules [norms]) 
creates truth for each of us 
What people agree on is “the truth”

WI Thomas:  If people believe something is true, it becomes real in its consequences. 
 Knowledge & beliefs define action 
 Earth:  flat or round 
 Love:  eros, filial, romantic 
Beauty: 

We are not generally aware of what our culture is 
We do not know what is in our own mind w/ regards to K B V N 


 
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KBVN AOI
We are generally not explicitly conscious of our KBVN 
We hold conflicting positions in relation to KBVN AOI 
But some people are more introspective about 
     Attitudes 
     Opinions 
     Interests 

 
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Non Material culture & the physical environment
Humans definitely attribute abstract meanings to the physical environment 
As scientists, we cannot judge this, only try to understand it
Durkheim delved deeply into this question: 
Some critics today decry our loss of connection w/ the environment & the mystical 

What is the meaning of an untouched forest? 
What is the meaning of a Clinch River freshwater mussel?
What is the meaning of Antarctica?
The moon?
The stars?
The planets? 


 
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Non Material culture & the human environment
As human influence & material creations grow, so does the amount of meaning we attribute to human made creations 

What is the meaning of a Ford Excursion?  ( the largest SUV ) 
What is the meaning of green hair? 
What is the meaning of a 5 caret diamond ring?  estimated value $1/4 million 


 
Internal
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Outline on the Value Added Process: 4. Precipitating Factors
External
Links
  In the value added Process SIX determinants must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur: 
1.  Structural Conduciveness
2.  Structural Strain 
3.  Generalized Belief 
4.  Precipitating Factors
5.  Mobilization of Participants 
6.  Social Control 
These value added determinants of collective behavior must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur		  
  Precipitating factors or Events are the occurrence that sparks the beginning of a collective action
 
  All of the previous THREE determinants must be in place for a precipitating factor to be effective in sparking a collective action
 
  A specific precipitating event gives a generalized belief concrete, immediate substance
 
  Many researchers place precipitating factors w/in the generalized belief category because not all people must witness the precipitating event & therefore they must hear about it as a rumor & it may not even be true, i.e. there was not actual precipitating event
 
  Thus precipitating events are not necessary for a collective action, because a rumor may serve that role
 
  Yet precipitating events are worthy of separate categorization & analysis because actual precipitating events do occur 
 
  Precipitating events can be influenced/controlled, are powerful, & can serve as long term sources of collective action or social movements  
  Precipitating events are often looked at as important for collective behavior because w/ hindsight they have historic importance though at the time there relevance may not be immediately recognizable
 
  Historically, The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan is often considered to be a precipitating event for the Womens' Mvmt  
  Historically, Silent Spring by Rachel Carson & the Santa Barbara Oil Spill in So Cal in the late 60s are considered to be precipitating events for the Env Mvmt  
  Historically, wars have precipitating events such as seen in the assassination of the Arch Duke Ferdinan in Sariavo, Pearl Harbor, Gulf of Tonkin, 9 11, etc.  
  Precipitating events were important in the formation of MADD  
  The Haymarket Square Bombing & the beating of Rodney King were significant precipitating events  
  The "Great Man Theory of History" as validated by the lives Hitler, Henry VIIIth, Churchill, Reagan, et al, also validates the concept of precipitating events  
  An example of a precipitating factor includes:  
  -  instances of police corruption  
  -  violence, injustice/ corruption ( perceived or real ), alienation, boredom  
  -  riots:  many cities have the necessary structural conduciveness & strain for a riot to occur at almost any time  
  -  racial inequality, police brutality, unbridled wealth, poverty, i.e. any perceived (whether real or not) social injustice  
  -  young people & the poor who are bored, on edge, alienated, & believe the system is corrupted  
  -  a specific event such as any racial incident, accusation of police brutality or a sign of the weakness or corruption of the system such as a power blackout  

 
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Outline on the Value-Added Process:    5. Mobilization of Participants
External
Links
  In the Value Added Process SIX Determinants must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur: 
1.  Structural Conduciveness 
2.  Structural Strain 
3.  Generalized Belief 
4.  Precipitating Factors
5.  Mobilization of Participants 
6.  Social Control 
These value-added determinants of collective behavior must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur		  
  The Mobilization of Participants is part of the actual collective action
 
  The previous FOUR Determinants must have occurred for a collective episode to reach this stage
 
  The mobilization of participants is affected by the ability of people to get to the action & the action of individuals at the action  
  The actions of "Leaders" are very important at the mobilization of participants stage
 
  In a collective action, leaders are anyone who shapes the behavior of the rest of the participants  
  In a collective action, leaders are often those who act first or attract the attention of potential participants  
  The effectiveness of the leaders in a collective action can be affected by them as well as by outside people or events  
  If potential participants are actively encouraged to take part in the collective action by leaders they know & trust, the event is likely to be much larger than if they had been discouraged
 
  The right person at the right time can have a great effect such as sending people into a frenzy or pulling them out of one
 
  Timing is key for leaders
 
  The most effective leaders are reflecting generalized beliefs that are already held thus timing is important as the leader must stay current w/ changing generalized beliefs & the leader must make concrete the vague or unformed generalized beliefs
 
  Examples of Mobilization of Participants
 
  Riots can only occur if individual are already gathered together in at least small groups  
  Consumer crazes can only occur if people have access to info about the product & have the means to purchase it  
  Social movements only occur if enough people an be mobilized & motivated to give their time & money  

 
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  Outline on the Value-Added Process:   6. Social Control
External
Links
  In the Value Added Process SIX Determinants must be present in order for any form of collective behavior to occur: 
1.  Structural Conduciveness 
2.  Structural Strain 
3.  Generalized Belief 
4.  Precipitating Factors
5.  Mobilization of Participants 
6.  Social Control
These value-added determinants of collective behavior must come about in a particular order for an episode to occur		  
  Social Control includes those social processes that minimize deviance from social norms
 
  Social Control is the process by which members of a culture encourage conformity to cultural norms
 
  Social control often operates as a counter-determinant for collective actions, though sometimes the major agents of control (i.e., the govt) will encourage actions
 
  Some social controls operate before, during & after collective actions, though particular controls may be ignored or over-ridden by others
 
  a. Social controls that minimize conduciveness &/or structural strain may prevent a collective action from occurring
 
  b. Social controls that are mobilized after a collective event begins the attempt to limit it or stop it or direct it through accommodation or redirection
 
  The TEN Social Structures all serve as the Agents of Socialization as well as Agents of Social Control & have specific actors that implement the Culture ( KBVN ) of society
 
  While all of the social structures are important for collective action, 
-  the govt, especially the police & the National Guard
-  the media
-  religious leaders
-  community leaders
often have an immediate & powerful influence		  
  Any individual or group w/ Legitimate Authority w/in that setting represents an agent of social control
 
  Social Control Agents must choose from THREE Social Control Strategies which are to deter, accommodate, or redirect the action
 
  A.  Deterrence includes controls that minimize conduciveness &/or strain & prevent that action from occurring
 
  One method of deterrence is to prevent crowds from forming
 
  One method of deterrence is to overwhelm participants w/ police
 
  One method of deterrence, which is very difficult to implement, is to eliminate general strain  
  One method of deterrence is to prevent or eliminate precipitating events
 
  Examples of Deterrence of Collective Action
Stock Market "Circuit Breakers"
Bank Holidays
Changing segregation laws
 
 
 B.  Accommodation is a method of social control where actors attempt to conform or reconcile & thus implicitly accept an action
 
  We routinely accommodate nearly all non-violent forms of collective action such  fads, fashions, non-violent group behavior, protests, etc.  
  Merchants & media provide info to participants & on-lookers  
  Violent or threatening Collective Actions often give Agents of Social have little choice but to do nothing or to accommodate  
  There are  FOUR types of typical accommodations
-   Provide traffic control & a "security wall" that contains the collective action
-   Possibly give into specific demands 
-   Possibly offer a gesture of accommodation
-  Possibly offer a scapegoat		  
  Examples of Accommodation of Collective Action
Police sometimes look the other way:  can't do much else
Rodney King Incident:  Suspended, Arrested & Prosecuted the officers involved		  
  C.  Redirection is a method of social control where actors attempt to reshape the generalized belief &/or the mobilization for action  
  Redirection as social control is more difficult & less common than prevention, deterrence or accommodation  
  Try to shape the Generalized Belief to a more positive, less violent direction  
  Examples of Redirection of Collective Actions
Offering free ice cream during a riot
Redirect a wartime anti-immigration movement to help out a govt-sponsored war effort 
Offer a scapegoat		  

 
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Outline on   Social Control
External
Links
  -  Video:  Social Control                  1:26 
Link
  -  Video:  Norms & Conformity      6:53 
Link
  SOCIAL CONTROL IS THE CONTROL OF THE INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR BY SOCIETY OR CONTROL OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE INTEREST OF THE WHOLE SOCIETY   
 
 Soc con is an important part of soc stability 
 
  All of us are subject to social control, attempts by society to regulate people's thought & behavior   
 
 Much of soc control is done through culture, socialization, & formal control by authorities 
 
 
 Soc controls are organized methods for teaching & enforcing conformity 
 
  Cases of serious deviance may provoke action by the criminal justice system, a formal response by police, courts, & prison officials to alleged violations of the law  
 
 Durkheim held that in modern society social control was slipping because the old forms, found in traditions, which he called mechanical solidarity, had not yet been replaced by the new form, found in the interdependence of society, which he called organic solidarity 
 
  See Also:  Durkheim   
  Where soc control fails, we see deviance, collective behavior, soc mvmts, crime, alienation, other social problems, & other forms social behavior that are outside the norm   
Link
 Examples of Deviance as a violation of social norms   
  A.  FOLKWAYS ARE THE MOST INFORMAL OF NORMS   
 
 Examples of folkways include manners, etiquette, customs, normal behavior, etc. 
 
  B.  MORES ARE SERIOUS NORMS THAT MAY OR MAY NOT BE WRITTEN INTO LAW   
 
 Examples of a more include flag burning, questioning someone's religion or politics, etc. 
 
  C.  LAWS ARE A TYPE OF NORM W/ THE SUPPORT OF THE STATE / GOVT SANCTION W/ EITHER CRIMINAL OR CIVIL PUNISHMENT   
  i.  Criminal law is law which the state will prosecute 
The body of rules or principles prescribed by authority or established by custom, which a state, community, society, or the like recognizes as binding		  
  ii.  Civil law is law which allows one citizen to prosecute ( sue ) another   
  SOCIAL CONTROL INCLUDES ALL PROCESSES USED TO MINIMIZE DEVIANCE FROM SOCIAL NORMS; E.G., CULTURE, NORMS, SOCIALIZATION, LAW, ETC.   
  Social control includes all social processes used to minimize deviance from social norms; e.g., culture, norms, socialization, law, etc.   
  There are TWO Types of Social Control   
  FORMAL OR DIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL IS REGULATION THROUGH THE ENFORCEMENT OF NORMATIVE STANDARDS   
  It is often done by a person(s) w/ authority & responsibility   
 
 Formal con is defined by legal sanctions & enforced by instits such as the police, the courts, & the various local, state, & fed legislatures 
 
  The formal enforcement of norms is done through the threat of & implementation of rewards or punishments by those who represent an org or instit or the whole society   
  The formal agents of socialization act on the basis of rules & laws most of which are written   
 
 See Also:  Formal or Direct Social Control   
  INFORMAL OR INDIRECT SOCIAL CONTROL IS REGULATION THROUGH IDEOLOGICAL OR CULTURAL MANIPULATION   
  It is often done by surrogate human authority such as rules, customs, laws, even machines   
  Indirect social control is accomplished through socialization   
  Indirect social control is the most powerful type of social control   
 
 At the heart of informal social controls are relationships w/ significant others (SOs) 
 
  Review:  For Mead, SOs are people whose affection & approval are very important   
  SOs will reward, punish, or use other methods of socialization to enforce the norms of society   
Link
 Examples of direct & indirect control   
  Sanctions are rewards for conforming behavior & punishments for non conforming behavior   
 
 There are FOUR Types of Sanctions   
  1.  A FORMAL POSITIVE SANCTION IS A FORMAL REWARD   
 
 A formal positive sanction is a formal reward, etc. is applied by a socially recognized actor ( person, organization, institution, etc. ) empowered to give that reward  
 
 Formal Positive Sanction are well defined & can only be applied by people w/ proper institutional credentials   
Link
 Examples of Formal Positive Sanctions   
  2.  AN INFORMAL POSITIVE SANCTION IN AN INFORMAL REWARD   
 
 An informal positive sanction is an informal reward, etc. by almost any actor  ( person, organization, etc. )   
  The Functions of Positive Social Control Methods are social control, inducement, & reward   
Link
 Examples of Informal Positive Sanctions   
  3.  A FORMAL NEGATIVE SANCTION IS A FORMAL PUNISHMENT   
  A formal negative sanction is a formal punishment, etc. by a socially recognized actor ( person, organization, institution, etc. ) empowered to give that punishment   
  Formal sanctions are well defined and can only be applied by people with proper institutional credentials   
Link
 Examples of Formal Negative Sanctions   
  4.  AN INFORMAL NEGATIVE SANCTION IS AN INFORMAL PUNISHMENT   
  An informal negative sanction is an informal punishment, etc. by almost any actor ( person, organization, etc. )   
  The functions of negative social control methods are social control, deterrence, & punishment   
Link
 Examples of Informal Negative Sanctions   
Link
 Chart of Examples of FOUR Types of Social Control   
  For Durkheim, the positive consequences of deviance and social control include increased solidarity 
 

 
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Chart of Examples of FOUR Types of Social Control 
 
Formal 
Informal 
Positive 
 Formal Positive 
Pay, grades, awards 		 Informal Positive 
Tip, praise, smile, inclusion 
Negative 
 Formal Negative 
Fine, pay cut, bad grade, note in a file, 
Excommunication from a religious organization, expulsion from high school, & criminal punishment 		 Informal Negative 
No tip, criticism, scowl, ostracism 

 
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Examples of Deviance & Norms 
Men w/ long hair, women in pants    Dress 
Norms: 
Folkways:  dressed in casual clothes for formal occasion 
Mores: no shirt in dept. store 
Laws: 
Criminal:  no shirt, no shoes in food store 
Civil:  copying super model's look 
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Civil law 
Body of law proper to the city as distinct from that common to all nations 
Also, the whole system of Roman law 
Hence the body of private law developed from Roman law 
Law pertaining to the citizen as an individual 
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Examples of direct & indirect control 
Factory Work: 
Supervisor harangues or beats workers to work faster 
Supervisor issues penalties 
Computer measures output w/ pay proportional to this output 
Elementary school:  Teacher constantly making sure child turns in work 
College:  Prof establishes goals.  It's up to the student to achieve them 
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Examples of Formal Positive Sanctions 
A raise 
An awards dinner 
A certificate of achievement 
A reward 
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Examples of Informal Positive Sanctions 
Giving an "atta boy"
Taking someone out to lunch for a reward 
A pat on the back 
A big thank you 
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Examples of Formal Negative Sanctions 
Bad Grades 
Expulsion from High School 
Prison 
A ticket 
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Examples of Informal Negative Sanctions 
Taking someone to the woodshed 
A talking to 
A frown 
Ostracism 

 
External
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Durkheim on  Social Order & Deviance
External
Links
  -  Video:  Durkheim on Deviance      1:35 
Link
  -  Project:  Durkheim on Deviance, Social Control, & Social Order 
Link
  SOCIAL ORDER IS NOT AUTOMATIC; IT MUST BE MAINTAINED THROUGH A NUMBER OF SOCIAL PROCESSES WHICH ARE ACTIVE EACH & EVERY DAY   
  The key insight of the structural functional approach is that deviance is a necessary element of social organization, especially in establishing social order   
 
 Durkheim believed that a major sociological question was the question of social order, which considers how society might establish & maintain social stability & cohesiveness 
 
 
 Dev behavior keeps society stable by estbing boundaries, the boundaries btwn normalcy & dev   
  Dev beh establishes boundaries btwn rewarded behavior & punished beh   
  For Durkheim, some amt of dev is a normal part of social organization   
  For Durkheim, social control can help maintain norm violating w/in some limits but it cannot eliminate it   
 
 If dev were eliminated, society would be less stable   
 
 Regardless of what we do in the name of social control, there will always be some deviance   
  For Durkheim, there is nothing abnormal about deviance in the sense that deviance is found in every society   
  Deviance performs essential social control functions for society   
  THE FUNCTION OF DEVIANCE, BROADLY SPEAKING, IS TO HIGHLIGHT WHAT IS 'NORMAL,' I.E. SOCIAL ORDER, W/ WHAT IS ABNORMAL / DEVIANT / CHAOS   
  A function of deviance is that:   
  a.  it affirms cultural values & norms   
  b.  responding to it clarifies moral boundaries   
  c.  responding to it brings people together   
  d.  it encourages social change   
  The kind of deviance people generate depends on the moral issues they seek to clarify   
  IN COMPARING DURKHEIM W/ OTHER THEORISTS ON SOCIAL ORDER, THERE IS A RANGE OF PROCESSES MAINTAINING IT, INCLUDING:  SOCIAL APPROVAL, FORCE, CIVIC PARTICIPATION, ECON INCENTIVES, ETC.   
  In relation to the nature of social order, Durkheim contrasts his own view to Hobbes, the utilitarians, St. Simon, & Comte   
  Hobbes believed that social order is result of fear of a Leviathan, a central power   
  St. Simon & Comte both advocated a Hobbesean solution to problem of order   
  In relation to the social order, many social theorists w/ Hobbesean leanings believe that because of industrial development, conflicts of interest, urbanization, etc., society is tearing at the very social fabric that holds it together 
 
  For the many social theorists w/ Hobbesean leanings concerned w/ maintaining the social order, the solution was often state imposed social peace   
  Utilitarians such as JS Mill & Harriet Taylor were diametrically opposed to the Hobbesean state 
 
  Utilitarians believed that central authority must be eliminated 
 
  For Durkheim, social order & harmony resulted from the division of labor 
 
  Order was an automatic consequence of economic system where every individual pursues their own interests 
 
  The modern era is characterized by laissez faire capitalism wherein the economy works best when left alone & will create the "greatest good of the greatest number" 
 
  See Also:  false/class consciousness, ideology, interests 
 
  Durkheim recognized the successes & the failures of the utilitarian position 
 
 
 THE SOCIAL ORDER IS BASED ON MECHANICAL OR ORGANIC SOLIDARITY 
 
  Durkheim developed the concepts of mechanical & organic solidarity to denote the "social glue" which held the respective traditional & modern social fabrics together   
 
 See Also:  Mechanical & Organic Solidarity 
 
  For Durkheim, the problem of social order occurs primarily when, during the process of modernization, mechanical solidarity breaks down, & is not yet replaced w/ organic solidarity 
 
  The problem of social order may also occur when a given traditional or modern society becomes so stressed that solidarity is weakened or destroyed 
 
  Anomie, deviance & crime exist in all societies as they change at the margins & for boundary maintenance, etc., but they become social problems when solidarity breaks down 
 
  Deviance is so crucial to social order that societies lacking a given amount of it would redefine acceptable behavior to create deviance 
 
  Regarding deviance & dysfunctions, Durkheim believed that deviance, beyond a certain level, threatens the social order and can be dysfunctional 
 
  For Durkheim, high levels of immigration may be a major social problem, but not because of economic or job issues 
 
  Immigration is a major problem in our modern society because immigrants do not know the norms & laws of this country & therefore are a source of social instability 
 
  The instability fostered by immigration can be functional if it is limited & the society can absorb & integrate the new culture 
 
  The instability inherent in immigration can undermine the old order creating conflict, instability, anomie, crime, deviance, etc. 
 

The End
 
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