Internal
Links

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Review Notes: The Emergent Norm Perspective
External
Links
Link
 Socialization is the process by which people 'learn,' internalize, & create norms 
 
Link
 The Processes of Socialization 
 
Link
 KBVN AOII:  Norms are one aspect of culture, which is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms (KBVN) 
 
Link
 Values are the basis for norms, which are the social, informal rules we embrace to perserve or support our values   
Link
 The Emergent Norm Perspective:  1957
 
Link
                   Organizational Culture   
Link
                   Conformity   
Link
                   Cohesion   
Link
           The Emergent Norm Perspective's Roots in Symbolic-Interactionism & Small Group Dynamics
 
Link
           The SIX Steps in the Emergent Norm Process
 
Link
           The FIVE Types of Particpants in the Emergent Norm Process
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on     Socialization
External
Links
  -  Project:  Socialization by the Social Structures 
Link
  -  Video:  The Agents of Socialization       4:51 
Link
  -  Video:  Socialization                               3:03 
Link
  -  Video:  Review of Socialization             1:03 
Link
  -  Supplement:  Putting the Social into Science.  Forget about Nature vs. nurture.  The answer lies in between.  Nicholas A. Christakis.  Time Magazine.  Dec. 19, 2011 p. 28. 
Link
  INTRO:  FERAL, AS COMPARED TO NORMAL CHILDREN, DEMONSTRATES THE POWER OF SOCIALIZATION   
  Is the existence of Feral Children a myth or fact? 
 
Link
 Tableau on Feral Children   
  Harlow's experiments w/ baby monkeys demonstrates the devastating effects of social isolation during early stages of life   
  Monkeys raised in isolation from other monkeys did not develop normally   
  Artificially inseminated female monkeys who had been raised in isolation from other monkeys usually neglected or abused their offspring   
  When monkeys raised in isolation were given a choice, they preferred a soft, cloth artificial “mother” over a nursing, wire mother   
  Cases of children raised by animals have never been authenticated, but are very popular in myth   
  Institutionalized children who are deprived of interaction typically experience ongoing developmental & emotional problems, even if they receive all the necessary physical care   
  In relation to feral or neglected children,  the total absence of interaction w/ other human beings produces personalities that cannot participate in human society   
  Babies whose parents largely ignore them over an extended time typically show poor intellectual development & high rates of personality difficulties   
 
 SOCIALIZATION IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY ARE TAUGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN THAT SOCIETY, LEARN THEIR ROLES, & DEVELOP SELF IMAGE 
 
  Socialization is the process whereby people learn, through interaction w/ others, that which they must know in order to survive & function w/in their society   
  The results of socialization are internalized   
  Internalization is the process whereby cultural or social psychological values, norms, attitudes, etc. are taken inside or to the inner part of the social self so that they become an integrated part of the social self indistinguishable from other facets of the self & personality   
  Internalization in relation to socialization is to unconsciously accept or assimilate the attitudes & behavior of one's culture or peer group   
  An example of internalization in relation to socialization is that a woman who believes that women are intellectually inferior to men might be said to have internalized the sexist attitudes of the dominant culture   
 
 SOCIALIZATION IS A LIFELONG PROCESS   
 
 Socialization is a lifelong process through which we are "taught" roles & "develop" a self image 
 
  Socialization is the lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential & learn culture   
  Social experience is also the foundation for the personality, a person's fairly consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, & acting   
 
 Socialization is essentially the same as learning or imprinting, aka "deep learning" 
 
 
 The processes of socialization are generally “natural” processes in that we are largely unaware of them 
 
  There is debate is sociology about the relative importance of nature versus nurture in shaping human behavior.  This debate could be characterized biology versus socialization   
  Those who believe that an individual's genetic or hormonal makeup shapes human behavior would come down on the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate   
  Those who believe that social forces are the most important in shaping human behavior would come down on the nurture side of the nature verses nurture debate   
  Symbolic interactionist theories of socialization weigh heavily on the side of nurture   
 
 The processes of socialization affect our personality, that is, Socialization goes deeper than education 
 
 
 The majority of the processes of socialization occur before “consciousness,” i.e. before age 5
 
  All schools of thought agree that what happens in childhood has maximal influences throughout a person's life because it is in childhood that people first develop their patterns of thought & behavior   
 
 But the processes of socialization do continue throughout life 
 
  The adult life cycle presents us w/ numerous new situations that require the learning of new roles   
  Social scientists do not accept the notion that all behavior in adulthood is a product of childhood experiences   
 
 Our socialization may be “correct” or “incorrect” based on its congruence w/ the prevailing culture & subcultures in which we live 
 
  SOCIALIZATION FUNCTIONS TO HELP PEOPLE MEET NEEDS, PROVIDE INTERACTION, LEARN ROLES, & LEARN NORMS   
 
 Socialization has FOUR functions 
 
  a.  Socialization functions so people can to meet physical needs:  coop hunter gatherers 
 
  b.  Socialization functions to provide needed interaction 
 
       Normal human development is impossible w/o human interaction   
  c.  Socialization functions so people can learn social roles 
 
       How well we perform in a role affects our self esteem   
  d.  Socialization functions so people can learn norms 
 
  Childhood socialization is sometimes referred to as primary socialization   
  THERE ARE 6 PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION, INCLUDING  SMIPNN   
  1.  SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IS THE CONTROLLING OF THE INFLUENCES TO WHICH ANOTHER IS EXPOSED   
  Selective exposure is the process of exposure to those behaviors & attitudes considered desirable & sheltered from those regarded as undesirable   
  Maximization of good influences is selective exposure socialization   
  Examples:  the V Chip; a father talking to his 11 year old son, "No, you may not watch Baywatch."  Friends choosing what music to listen to;  CNN's coverage of the news   
Link
 2.  MODELING IS THE DEMONSTRATION OR ACTING OUT OF BEHAVIOR   
  Modeling is imitating the behavior of significant others & role models   
  Modeling begins w/ observing the behavior of another & w/ retention of images of such behavior in a person's memory   
  After observing a behavior, one imitates, or reproduces that behavior   
  Eventually, however, imitation goes beyond mere habit, & it is repeated in situations beyond that in which it was originally observed   
  Examples:  The little boy, dressing up like Dad & going off to work, or girls watching cheerleaders   
Link
 3.  IDENTIFICATION IS AN EXTREME FORM OF MODELING WHERE THE OTHER ESTABLISHES AN EMOTIONAL BOND W/ THE MODEL   
 
 Identification is seeing ourselves as the same as someone who nurtures us   
 
 Identification is the positive feelings toward an individual that lead a child to want to be like that person   
  Example:  The little boy, day-dreaming of being a great baseball player 
  The little girl, day-dreaming of being President 		  
 
 4.  POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT INCLUDES REWARDS & REMOVAL OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT   
  A friendly slap on the back or an invitation to join a group activity may be reward for an approved action or viewpoint   
 
 5.  NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT INCLUDES PUNISHMENTS & REMOVAL OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT   
  Positive & negative reinforcement socialization may also be known as reward & punishment socialization   
  Reinforcing correct behavior is reward & punishment socialization   
  Example:  “You are such a good girl, eating w/ your fork like a grown-up!”   
Link
 6.  NURTURANCE IS SUPPORT, AFFECTION, ETC.   
  Nurturance is a special form of reward & punishment which is the support, affection, etc., or lack of, given by a significant other role model   
  Development of strong positive feelings towards another w/ whom one has a primary relationship is nurturance   
  Loving your child is an example of nurturance   
  THE PROCESSES OF SOCIALIZATION ARE CARRIED OUT BY THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES WHICH ACT AS THE AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION:  EG, THE SOC STRUCTURES (PF REG M CEML) ALL CARRY OUT SMIPNN  
Link
 Individuals, groups & the social structures are the agents of socialization 
 
  There are both manifest & latent functions of socialization by social structures 
 
Link
 Table on Manifest & Latent Socialization by AOS  
 
 - Project:  socialization by the social structures 
Link
Link
 Methods of socialization  by social structures 
    How do each of these social structures apply SMIPNN? 
 
 
 Socialization occurs in the home, in school, on the job, etc. 
 
  Socialization takes place in each of the 10 social institutions   
  Agents of socialization rarely give a person the same messages about what kind of person they are   
  But the AOSs may preach one thing & do another   
 
 PEOPLE, GRPS, & SOCIAL STRUCTURES ALL ACT AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION, I.E. THEY PARTICIPATE IN THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION 
 
Link
 Table on the Methods of Socialization of the Social Structures   
Link
 1.  PEERS AS AN AOS become influential about age 2 & are the most influential on tweens & teens 
 
  Peer groups are those whose members have interests, social position, & age in common   
  Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of social learning directed toward gaining a desired position & commonly occurs among peers   
 
 Peers are the social structure that is the most likely to ostracize 
 
  It is in junior high & high school years that the Peer agent of socialization has its greatest influence, as young people seek to establish their independence   
Link
 2.  FAMILY AS AN AOS is the most important in the childhood years 
 
  Not all family learning results from intentional teaching by parents; children also learn from the type of environment adults create   
  The family also gives children a social identity & thus in part, social identity involves race   
  Socialization w/in the family also varies markedly by social class   
 
 The family is the social structure that is the most likely to use selective exposure 
 
  In the early years, the years is the most important agent of socialization   
  The institution w/ a profound effect not only on children's knowledge, but also on their self image, their understanding of reality, & their mode of reasoning, is the family   
 
 In the home, Girls learn  expressive skills ( nurturing, communication ) that are later useful in the workplace 
 
 
 In the home, Boys learn instrumental skills ( work, goal oriented ) that are later useful in the workplace 
 
  Children need not be told they are good at everything; a balanced self image is much healthier than one that cannot accept any shortcomings   
  Parents’ socialization of kids depends on their job experience; e.g., LC teaches obedience & the UC teaches initiative   
  The job dependent socialization by Parents often influences or leads to occupational inheritance   
Link
 3. RELIGION AS AN AOS lost influence at mid century, but is now regaining influence   
  Religion as an AOS varies widely since fewer than half of Americans participate in it weekly   
 Link
 4.  THE ECONOMY / WORK AS AN AOS is, for such theorists as Marx, & to a certain extent Weber, & others, one of the most important agents of socialization, & may be even more influential than the family / parents   
 Link
 Formal socialization in the workplace is called orientation   
  Informal socialization in the workplace is called occupational culture   
  Occupational culture encompasses such factors at dress, sociability, pace of work, length of breaks, & much more   
  Workers must learn the job culture (a job's shared knowledge, beliefs, values & norms) on dress, sociability, performance, attitude, etc. or risk ostracism or failure   
 Link
 5.  GOVERNMENT AS AN AOS is becoming more pervasive   
  The govt socializes us in general to national commitment, patriotism, & specifically to a particular policy   
  The govt uses formalized processes of socialization such as speeches:  JFK:  Ask not what your country can do for you.  Ask what you can do for your country"   
  The govt uses informal processes such as sloganeering: 
My Country, Right or Wrong!   America:  Love It or Leave It! 		  
  Because of govts' past excesses, many fear govt over socialization via the "Big Brother" Syndrome   
 Link
 6.  THE MILITARY AS AN AOS socializes members & citizens to loyalty, honor, sacrifice, etc.   
 Link
 7.  CHARITY AS AN AOS socializes people to the ethic of giving, the value of helping, & the belief that some are deserving of others' help   
 Link
 8.  EDUCATION AS AN AOS is expanding from secular knowledge to cultural beliefs   
  Schools join w/ families in socializing children into gender roles   
  In education, children learn "a hidden curriculum" including how to work, punctuality, orderliness, etc. which prepares them for the world of work   
  Some researchers say the hidden curriculum in school is more influential than what is learned   
  The hidden curriculum is based on race, gender, class, looks, apparent intelligence, sociability, etc. in that children are socialized based on race, gender, class, etc.   
  The hidden curriculum passes on important cultural values   
  For most children, school is their first experience w/ bureaucracy   
Link
 9.  THE MEDIA AS AN AOS socializes people to mass & popular culture which is heavily influenced by the profit motive of the media itself & those commercial interests that utilize it   
  The mass media are impersonal communications aimed at a vast audience & also shape socialization   
  The influence of the media is growing dramatically   
  In recent decades the media has become, perhaps, the most influential agent of socialization 
 
  National surveys show that the average household has at least one TV set turned on for more than eight hours each day & that people spend half their free time watching television  
  Years before children learn to read, television watching is part of their daily routine   
  Liberals note that racial & ethnic minorities are largely invisible in the medium or included only in stereotyped roles; the latter charge   
  Conservatives note that television & film industries are dominated by a cultural elite   
  The public is concerned about the amount of violence & crudeness on television & other media   
Link
 10. LEISURE / RECREATION AS AN AOS socialize people to take & enjoy leisure w/out guilt, to live a consumptive lifestyle, & to live more for today rather waiting until retirement   

 
Top  

Tableau on Feral Children
The existence of Feral Children is both myth & fact. 
     1.  lived wild
     2.  abused:  complete neglect

The Wild Girl of Champagne

1700s in the Champagne region of France

She was guessed to be 10 to 18 yrs. old when discovered 
      stealing apples from a tree in 1731

Reportedly had a small body covered only by rags & animals skins

Amazed everyone by skinning & eating rabbits & chickens... raw, entrails & all

The girl was eventually transferred to a hospital & later to a convent.

She could not adapt to a sedentary lifestyle & civilized food 

She lost all her teeth & lost her previously robust health

She was named Angelique Memmie LeBlanc


 
Top
Table on Manifest & Latent Socialization by AOS
  Social Institutions Socialization is a:
1. Peers latent function
2. Family manifest function
3. Religion manifest function
4. Econ/Work latent function
5. Govt / Politics latent function
6. Military latent function 
7. Charity latent function
8. School manifest function
9. Media latent function (one way?)
10. Leisure / Recreation latent function

 
Top  
Table on the Methods of Socialization of the Social Institutions
 
Social Institutions
( PF REG M CEML )
Method of Socialization 
( SMIPNN )
1.
Peers
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
2.
Family
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
3.
Religion
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
4.
Econ/Work
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
5.
Govt / Politics
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
6.
Military
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
7.
Charity
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
8.
Education
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
9.
Media
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance
10.
Leisure / Recreation
1.  Selective Exposure 4. Positive Reinforcement
2.  Modeling 5.  Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification 6. Nurturance

 
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b. Modeling
Demonstration or acting out of behavior
Children, esp, imitate behavior especially of Significant Others & Role Models
As a child we model almost everyone & everything around us
Teens & adults also imitate
But we model only those people/things that we feel are important to us

 
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c.  Identification
While we model almost everyone as a child, & important people as an adult,  we only identify w/ those who inspire  or nurture us
Strongest examples
Heroes
Lovers
Identification is a subset or type of modeling
Identification is a more powerful version of modeling
We may model our favorite boss, religious leader, actor
   but we may or may not id w/ them

Almost all children identify w/ parents

Some say:  we have no models / heroes today......   true? 


 
Top  
f.  Nurturance
Giving....   care   help   affection   attention  ( listening )
The lack of nurturance is extremely powerful
Ostracism is one of most powerful social weapons
Greater than punishment

We develop strong positive feelings toward person acting as an AOS because any of previous 5 methods of socialization can be seen as nurturance
Example:  how can punishing a child be seen as nurturance?    Tough Love


 
Top  
Individuals, groups & the Social Structures are the Agents of Socialization 

They act as importance influences on
- knowledge
- beliefs
- values          CULTURE
- norms
- attitudes          (what we "consciously" believe)
- & thus behavior
We get conflicting messages


 
Top  
1.  Peers as AOS
Peers as an AOS become influential about age 2 & are the most influential on tweens & teens
It is in junior high & high school years that the Peer agent of socialization has its greatest influence, as young people seek to establish their independence
- children “choose” their own SOs
- demand tremendous conformity
- greatest influence
 
1.  Selective Exposure Let's do that;  don't do that-- it's nerdy
2.  Modeling Hey, watch me!
3. Identification Leader of the pack
Big brother/sister complex;      Best friend
4. Positive Reinforcement You did  great!!
5.  Negative Reinforcement You are a jerk!!  gossip, ostracism
6. Nurturance Hey, it's ok...  that person is just a &#@%!      YOU are cool

 
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2.  Family as AOS

In the early years, the family is the most important agent of socialization
The family is the social structure that is the most likely to use selective exposure
The institution w/ a profound effect not only on children's knowledge, but also on their self image, their understanding of reality, & their mode of reasoning, is the family
The child's world is the parents’
- truth is what the parents say
- boys & girls are given different messages
- different ages are given different messages (parents change)
 
1.  Selective Exposure expose kids only to what they want to 
2.  Modeling kids see "real parents"
3. Identification kids id or reject parents based on many factors
4. Positive reinforcement  Hug, $$ for report card, candy, Good Job!
5. Negative reinforcement  Time out, grounding, spanking
6.  Nurturance Some parents very warm; give attention every day
Help; support all the time
Appropriate pos & negative rein


 
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3.  Religion as AOS
Religion as an agent of socialization varies widely since fewer than half of Americans participate in it weekly
Focus on moral socialization & ultimate goals
- use of religion as AOS varies widely
- half of Am attend church once a week
- historically lost influence; is on a come-back
 
1.  Selective Exposure Exposure mostly to own religious doctrine
May be taught other religious doctrine is wrong / evil
2.  Mod Religious objects are models; religious leaders are models
3.  Identification Religious objects:  cannot over identify:  sacred
4.  Positive reinforcement Heaven; rewards on Earth
5.  Negative reinforcement Hell; oblivion; reincarnation; justice on Earth
6. Nurturance Religious leaders, gods, flock nurture us;  church is a community

 
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4.  Econ / Wk as AOS
Most imp form of adult socialization
- socialize us to “higher needs:”  recognition, fulfillment, SA
 
1.  Selective Exposure Exposure to KBVN of that workplace
Start or don't start on time
Wk late until job is done
2.  Modeling Other workers model behavior in selective exposure
3.  Identification Id w/ boss, co-workers, union, one group of workers, no one
4. Positive reinforcement Pay, benefits, responsibility, autonomy
5.  Negative reinforcement Berated in front of others, nasty memo, no raise, promo
6.  Nurturance Usually from other workers, 
Mentoring = nurturance from senior worker/boss

 
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Formal socialization in the workplace
Entry level intros;  Orientation
UVaW:  1 week of orientation:  Meet all top level mgrs.  Meeting w/ all new Professionals;  Meet w/ Department; 
OJT:  large variation among workplaces
Becoming more prevalent in US; 
Europe, Japanese way ahead
US more likely to assume worker is prepared for wk
    & offer little training OJT

 
Top  
5.  Govt as AOS
Builds on / employs loyalty
 - Complicated system that “the people control”
 - becoming ever more rationalized/effective
 - becoming ever more pervasive (its everywhere)
 
1.  Selective Exposure Provides much info on our govt
W/holds much info on our govt
W/holds info on other forms of govt
2.  Modeling Idea of citizenship
3.  Identification For decades, US political leaders were idolized
Some still are; most are not
Continue to idolize past leaders
4.  Positive reinforcement Govt now advertises to make us feel good about 
govt obligations:  what census is for
Offers honors
5.  Negative reinforcement Govt has most power to punish, along w/ family
6.  Nurturance Via advertising, makes us feel good, e.g. Nat Guard is there
Govt can offer assistance: Nat Guard, social sec, etc.

 
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6.  Military as AOS
 Boot camp
 
1.  Selective Exposure Total exposure to mil way of life
2.  Modeling DI is direct model; mil way of life
3.  Identification Id w/ model soldier; soldier as hero
4.  Positive reinforcement Rest, food, praise, graduation, end to boot camp
5.  Negative reinforcement Physical & verbal abuse, more wk, Mot Training, brig
6.  Nurturance Team; trained to be nurtured by other soldiers

 
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7.  Charity as AOS
1.  Selective Exposure We are usually exposure to everyday life
Exposure to what is hidden:  others need help
Exposure to happy person who has contributed
2.  Modeling Model of one who is helping
3.  Identification Super model of one who is helping
Sister Teresa, movie star, etc.
4.  Positive reinforcement Feel good, duty, do unto others
5.  Negative reinforcement Feel bad, do unto others, this could happen to you
6.  Nurturance Gratefulness of peers, & those you helped

 
Top  
8.  Education as AOS

School:  1st major separation from home life
    1st evaluation based on performance/ 
     vs. unconditional support given in home
 - knowledge
- mode of reason:  rationality, not traditional
- self image
- obedience:  much of school/work/life is following rules
- beliefs & values of society
- understanding reality
 
1.  Selective Exposure Exposure to some know, but not others;
Exposure to know, but not BV
2.  Modeling Teachers strong model for youth
Less so for adults
Learn about models in other sectors
3.  Identification As child, may id w/ early teacher 
As adult, may find respected mentor,
   but this is rare today
4.  Positive reinforcement Grades, praise, self respect
5.  Negative reinforcement Grades, flunk
6.  Nurturance Teachers can nurture, students can nurture


 
Top  
9.  Media: - one way socialization, generally
- gaining influence
- becoming ever more rationalized/effective
- becoming ever more pervasive (its everywhere)
 
1.  Selective Exposure Debate:  does media reflect society's culture
or feed a culture to society? 
2.  Mod 1,000's of role models
3.  Identification Adulation for stars
4.  Positive reinforcement Media offers us social rewards for conforming
5.  Negative reinforcement Pun:  opposite of reward is true
6.  Nurturance
Use to relax & validate self

 
Top  
10.  Recreation / Leisure as AOS: - most imp of adult child socialization
 - socializes us to “higher needs”
 
1.  Selective Exposure Advertising, prime time
2.  Modeling We model athletes: good & bad
3.  Identification We id w/ athletes, good & bad
4.  Positive reinforcement Reward self w/ recreation, leisure
     & for success in recreation, leisure
5.  Negative reinforcement Pun self, others for failure
6. Nurturance We recreate to relax & achieve

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on the  Processes of Socialization
 
External
Links
  -  Project:  Socialization by the Social Structures 
Link
  -  Video:  The Agents of Socialization       4:51 
Link
  -  Video:  Socialization                               3:03 
Link
  -  Video:  Review of Socialization             1:03 
Link
 
 Socialization is a lifelong process through which we are "taught" roles & "develop" a self image
 
 
 Socialization is essentially the same as learning or imprinting, aka "deep learning"
 
  There are   SIX   processes of socialization        ( SMIPNN )  
  1.  Selective exposure is the controlling of the influences to which another is exposed  
  Selective exposure is the process of exposure to those behaviors & attitudes considered desirable & sheltered from those regarded as undesirable  
  Maximization of good influences is selective exposure socialization   
  Examples:  the V Chip; a father talking to his 11 year old son, "No, you may not watch Baywatch."  Friends choosing what music to listen to;  CNN's coverage of the news   
Link
 2.  Modeling is the demonstration or acting out of behavior  
  Modeling is imitating the behavior of significant others & role models  
  Modeling begins with observing the behavior of another and with retention of images of such behavior in a person's memory.  Then one imitates, or reproduces that behavior.  "Eventually, however, this goes beyond mere habit, and it is repeated in situations beyond that in which it was originally observed."   
  Examples:  The little boy, dressing up like Dad and going off to work, or girls watching cheerleaders   
Link
 3.  Identification is an extreme form of modeling where the other establishes an emotional bond w/ the Model  
 
 Identification is seeing ourselves as the same as someone who nurtures us   
 
 Identification is the positive feelings toward an individual that lead a child to want to be like that person  
  Example:  The little boy, day-dreaming of being a great baseball player
  The little girl, day-dreaming of being President		  
 
 4.  Positive reinforcement includes rewards & removal of negative reinforcement  
  A friendly slap on the back or an invitation to join a group activity may be reward for an approved action or viewpoint  
 
 5.  Negative reinforcement includes punishments & removal of positive reinforcement  
  Positive & negative reinforcement socialization may also be known as reward & punishment socialization  
  Reinforcing correct behavior is reward & punishment socialization   
  Example:  “You are such a good girl, eating with your fork like a grown-up!”   
Link
 6.  Nurturance is support, affection, etc.   
  Nurturance is a special form of reward & punishment which is the support, affection, etc., or lack of, given by a significant other role model  
  Development of strong positive feelings towards another w/ whom one has a primary relationship is nurturance  
  Loving your child is an example of nurturance  

 
Top  
b. Modeling
Demonstration or acting out of behavior
Children, esp, imitate behavior especially of Significant Others and Role Models
As a child we model almost everyone & everything around us
Teens and adults also imitate
But we model only those people/things that we feel are important to us

 
Top  
c.  Identification
While we model almost everyone as a child, & important people as an adult,  we only identify w/ those who inspire  or nurture us
Strongest examples
Heroes
Lovers
Identification is a subset or type of modeling
Identification is a more powerful version of modeling
We may model our favorite boss, religious leader, actor
   but we may or may not id w/ them

Almost all children identify w/ parents

Some say:  we have no models / heroes today......   true? 


 
Top  
f.  Nurturance
Giving....   care   help   affection   attention  ( listening )
The lack of nurturance is extremely powerful
Ostracism is one of most powerful social weapons
Greater than punishment

We develop strong positive feelings toward person acting as an AOS because any of previous 5 methods of socialization can be seen as nurturance
Example:  how can punishing a child be seen as nurturance?    Tough Love


 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on   KBVN AOII
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your KBVN AOII & the Env 
Link
  CULTURE & OUR AWARENESS OF CULTURE   
  Culture is the shared content of society 
 
  Culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ( K B V N ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content  
  Attitudes, opinions, interests, & ideology ( AOII ) are an individual's culture  
  Our consciousness or awareness of culture is manifested through our AOII  
  The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms       ( K B V N ) 
 
  Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life
 
  UNAWARENESS OF CULTURE
 
  We are generally unaware of our own culture, of the KBVN that we hold in common w/ most other members of society
 
  The fact that we are unaware of our culture is not to say that we are unconscious of our culture
 
  We can gain awareness of some of KBVN
- through living "the examined life"
- through therapy, counseling, etc.

"Know thyself"
 
  INTERSECTION OF K & B 
 
  Individuals usually believe that their K & B are the same
 
  What we K may not jive w/ what we believe such as is seen w/ general society beliefs on female & male drivers, & the knowledge that, for example, the insurance industry has about female & male drivers
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a person, that person has a consistent, healthy mental state
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it has a consistent, healthy mental state & would tend to be a functional social entity
 
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a person, that person has a conflict, possibly unhealthy mental state that may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it is in conflict, & may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
 
 The impact of culture on actions comes through our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI )
 
  ATTITUDE   
 
 An attitude is a mental state that one consciously feels (emotes) that affects beh & generally cannot be articulated
 
 
 An attitude is the amalgam of our culture, our KBVN, that we can sense but are not consciously enough aware of so that we can explain or voice it to ourselves or others
 
 
 But since we do often act on the basis of emotion or feeling, attitudes are important in shaping behavior
 
  We are generally unaware of our attitude in a rational sense, i.e. we find it difficult to explain or even understand it   
  When we have a strong attitude, we may be aware of it's general direction   
  Those significant others who know us well may know our attitude better than we do because they have a better chance to be an outside, objective observer   
  OPINION   
 
 An opinion is an attitude that one can articulate, at least to a minimum extent
 
  We can voice our opinion  
  It is a reflection of our K & B of which we are aware  
  An opinion is a reflection of our Vs & Ns which are general below our level of awareness   
  But in most cases our understanding of our opinion is a poor reflection of our actual or real attitudes   
  Because we often cannot totally explain opinions, or because it is obvious to us that they are based on beliefs or values, & not on knowledge, an opinion is a particular judgment or belief resting on grounds insufficient to produce certainty  
  Most people recognize that opinions are not rationales for doing or believing something   
  We generally accept that opinion can be easily swayed  
  PUBLIC OPINION   
 
 Public opinion is the opinions of people throughout a soc about 1 or more controversial issues
 
 
 Generally a group or society can voice its public opinion if they have a relatively free & open society & they have the resources in the form of media or social scientists to uncover that public opinion & make it known
 
  Public opinion is a reflection of our below awareness V & N but in most cases it is a poor reflection  
 
 In modern societies today there is often the sense that public opinion is true
 
  There are two reasons that public opinion is judged to be true  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because it is judge to be an accurate, scientific reflection of many people & thus the truth is based on the idea that the opinion has been reliably measured  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because we have a fundamental, democratic value "the people" are always right  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe it is accurate & if we have the same belief  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe that many people hold that belief  
  Many earlier social scientists examined what they called the spirit of society (SpS) which is the generally unconscious attitude of a society  
  The SpS is mostly below most people's awareness level & thus it is an emotional experience  
  Durkheim wrote about the collective unconsciousness which is similar to the SpS  
  Tocqueville wrote about the which is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of the sociological imagination, Mills writes that to understand our relationship in the world, it is necessary to understand the general character of the men & women who are coming to prevail in that society & thus the general character is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of class & false consciousness, Marx writes that a class of people must have a historical view of the social relationships that are the best for them, i.e. their interests, in that society, & thus class consciousness is similar to the SpS  
  INTERESTS   
  An interest is what social relationships an individual or group judge to promote their general welfare  
  Interests are usually economic  
  For Marx, an interests is determined by person's relationship to the means of prod  
  Interests are mostly below the level of awareness for an individual or a group & thus are an emotional experience  
  Marx & others pt out that we need to make interests more apparent to selves & others if we expect society to function properly  
  Example:  What is my interest in a new road going by my house?  What is my  interest in the war in Iraq?  What is my interest in the development of the space shuttle?   
  TYPOLOGY OF INTERESTS   
  People often act against there self interest & against the interest of soc  
 
Type of Interest
Real one's "objective" interest
Perceived what one believes to be their interest
False not in one's "objective" interest
Class the interest of a class
Community the interest of a community
Social the interest of a society
Human the interest of the world/all humanity
 
  IDEOLOGY  
  An ideology is a  particular system of ideas a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group or a person especially on social & political topics  
  Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality
 
  An ideology may be understood as a "worldview"  
  KBVN AOII AFFECTED BEHAVIOR  
  It is only logical to assume that one's attitude, opinion, etc. would affect or determine one's behavior  
  In most cases, we assume that our actions, therefore, are congruent w/ out KBVN AOII, but in practice that may not always be so  
  Because much of KBVN AOII falls below the level of explicit consciousness, & because we may have one or several conflicts, contradictions, or inconsistencies in our mental system of KBVN AOII, we may act in a way that does not represent what one would expect from our KBVN AOII  
  We may not act consistently because we may emphasis one part of our mental system in one context & another part in another context  
  A person may believe that K is motivating her/him, when in fact an inconsistent V is actually motivating them  
  To the extent that we know ourselves & to the extent that our mental system is consistent, we will act more predictably  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization  

 
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Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior
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Knowledge He wore a coat because he knew it would rain; he saw the weather radar report  
Belief She wore a coat because she believed in would not rain because it was nice in the morning  
Value He  work a coat because he valued being warm & dry, as opposed to the value of looking good w/o one  
Norm She wore a coat because Mom always made her wear one when it looked like rain  
Attitude His negative attitude about wearing his coat was apparent to everyone but him; he didn't believe he needed it.  
Opinion In her opinion, she didn't need to wear the coat.  
Real Int It was in his (real) interest to wear the coat because there was a high chance of rain.  
Perceived She saw that it was in her interest to wear the coat because she knew her mother watched the weather.  
False He didn't think it was in his interest to wear the coat because he thought it looked bad.  
Class It is in the interest of the lower class to have coats.  It is not in the interest of the rich for the lower class to have coats because it makes them comfortable & more likely to demand other things.  
Community It is in the interest of the community for the lower class to have coats.  
Natl It is in the interest of the nation for all classes to have coats.  
World It is in the interest of the world for everyone to have coats.  
Ideology Belief in an ideology of human rights including the basic necessity of life for all means that all people should have food, water, clothing, shelter, ed....  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  

 
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 Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding
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  Way of Understanding Cultural /mental state  
  Common sense BN O  
  Religion BN O  
  Science K  
  Emotion VN AI  
  All of the above Ideology  
  Ways of Understanding  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization   

 
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 Outline on  Values
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  Values are shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life   
 
 Values are what a social actor, i.e. a person, group, society, etc., judges as good or bad in a social relationship, thing etc. 
 
  A values is something (as a principle, quality, or entity) intrinsically valuable or desirable, as in a regulated system of values   
  Erich Fromm, the psychologist, said that all values are relative to a given culture   
 
 Values concerning social relations are often termed morals or ethics 
 
  A value is a principle, standard, or quality considered worthwhile or desirable: "The speech was a summons back to the patrician values of restraint and responsibility"   
  Values are the beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment (either for or against something); "He has very conservatives values"   
 
 Morals are habits of life or modes of conduct; as in a principal of life 
 
 
 People usually accept the ideology of dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interests 
 
 
 Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality 
 
  See Also:  Ideology   
 
 For conflict theorists, values should be determined by, or at the very least, harmonious w/ one's interests & interests should be determined by one's values 
 
 
  See Also:  Interest 
 
  People have an ideology characterized by class consciousness or authenticity when they have values & interests in support of their own group / sub culture   
  See Also:  Class & False Consciousness   
 
 But false consciousness prevents the correct interaction btwn interests & values because the interests of the ruling class come to predominate 
 
 
 The ideology of the dominant group / class is often the most prominent ideology 
 
 
 People accept the ideology of the dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interest 
 
  RANGE OF VALUES   
  Values are always defined by their variability in that one may believe in monogamy or polyamory, i.e. having one lover / spouse, v. having more than one   
  Values imply a choice as in I prefer chocolate cake to coconut cake   
  Values may be more or less absolute in that I prefer chocolate cake but also have a taste for coconut cake   
  Our taste for food, does not demand mental consistency, we see variety as the spice of life   
  Most people prefer a high level of consistency consistency in their values, & inconsistency causes the self to feel anxiety, & for SOs to judge one unfavorably, & for GOs to treat one w/ disdain   
 
 Because people are generally unaware of their real values (see below), there is often a wide range of inconsistent values operating in one person   
 
 When one has a life experience which calls for the demonstration of a value, if one has not developed that value, one often chooses a value w/ which one believes they are being consistent w/ their other values   
 
 Thus individuals seek to be consistent in one value, operating the same all the time, & to be consistent in their entire value set   
  Values are often in harmony, & sometimes in conflict   
  Values w/in one society are frequently inconsistent & even opposed to one another   
  Like all elements of culture, values change over time as seen in the fact that Americans are placing increased importance on leisure   
  Emerging values occur in even the most stable of societies & in open countries like England, emerging values are more generally accepted while in closed nations such as No Korea, emerging values are not accepted & in fact they are often the source of conflict & oppressed   
  A global perspective on values makes it clear that values vary from culture to culture around the world   
  People in lower income nations develop cultures that value survival   
  People in higher income countries develop cultures that value individualism & self expression   
  US VALUES   
  Robin Williams identifies ten key values of US culture including: 
1.  equal opportunity 
2.  achievement and success 
3.  material comfort 
4.  activity & work 
5.  practicality and efficiency 		 6.  progress 
7.  science 
8.  democracy & free enterprise 
9.  freedom 
10.  racism & group superiority 
 
 
 ORIGIN OF VALUES 
 
  One word describes how we get our values:  socialization 
 
  Some social scientists, physical scientists, theologians, philosophers, etc. believe or seek to demonstrate that values come from sources other than socialization   
  Non socialization arguments for the origin of values hold that values originate from one's physical being such as genes, e.g. the altruistic gene; god or his or her representative, e.g. God, Jesus, Mohammed, Diva, etc.; rationalizations e.g. "I think, therefore I am.... " or some other argument   
  Socialization is the only argument for the origin of values which has been scientifically established   
  Socialization includes the processes of selective exposure, modeling, identification, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & nurturance  ( SMIPNN )   
  See Also:  Socialization   
  The major task for social scientists is to determine the agent of socialization which is responsible for the creation of a culture's, org's, or individual's value set   
  Functionalists believe that we we gain our values primarily through all of the social structures ( PF REG M CEML )   
  See Also:  Functionalism   
  See Also:  The Social Structures   
  Conflict theorists believe that we gain our values primarily through work, the economy, & education, as well as the family, who gets it's values from it's experience of work, the economy, & education   
  See Also:  Conflict Theory   
  REAL & IDEAL VALUES   
  Core American values have an ideal & a real aspect   
Link
 Table: Core American Values: Ideal & Real Aspects 
 
 
 Ideal values are those that actors hold "patriotically," or rhetorically, that actors believe that they hold 
 
 
 Real values are those that actors actually practice; when faced w/ a "situation," actors show their Real Values 
 
 
 The importance of a value, any value is the extent to which it is accepted 
 
  Ideal values are that set of values that are popular, or widely held, in a society's culture, or sub culture   
  In some cases, some people may believe that they hold values, called counter values, which run contrary to the values of a society   
  Real values are the operative or in practice values, which a person may not be conscious of   
  Thus a person may believe in equal opportunity, but not practice it, operating instead on nepotism, cronyism, favoritism, bribery, etc.   
  A person is generally not aware of their real or actual set of values   
  A person may not even have a set of ideal values in that if asked what their opinion is, or their values around a subject, they don't know what it is   
  People gain awareness of their real values through several routes, including:  therapy, surveys, a 'test of life,' action in life, long consideration of a value or subject, etc.   
  MICRO & MACRO VALUES   
 
 Values range in extent from broad cultural forces to individual norms 
 
 
 Three types: 
 
 
 a.  Macro level values include cultural norms & expectations include the deep roots in a culture that are usually uncritically accepted in that norms are social rules, formal & informal, that are obvious because everyone follows them 
 
 
 b.  Mid level values include ideological positions are rationalizations for particular policy views 
 
 
 Agencies, legislatures, courts, interest groups, etc. all have norms & expectations about goals & behavior 
 
 
 c. Micro level values include personal beliefs & attitudes that vary from individual to individual:  desire for power or fame, integrity 
 
 
 -  Coleman's Rational Choice Theory on Norms & Values   
 
 -  Blau on Values   

 
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Table: Core American Values:
Ideal & Real Aspects
Core American Values: 
general consensus 
( may conflict ) 		 Ideal culture: 
accepted in principle 		 Real culture: 
actually practiced 
1.  Freedom   Freedom for all; Freedom is our Number 1 Value!  We allow more freedom for a middle majority & the upper class, less for the others.  Many groups have limited freedom
2.  Democracy 
 
 
3.  Individualism 
 
 
4.  Responsibility 
 
 
5.  Religion / morality 
 
 
6.  Science/tech 
 
 
7.  Equal Opportunity 
 
 
8.  Competition 
 
 
9.  Work ethic 
 
 
10.  Humanitarianism 
 
 
11.  Practicality 
 
 
12.  Nationalism 
 
 
13.  Romance 
 
 
14.  Sexuality 
 
 

 
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Outline on the   Emergent Norm Perspective
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  Summary:  Just as people generally follow the norms of whatever situation we are in, members follow the norms of the crowd.  Park's & Blumer's circular reinforcement is the process of individuals collectively defining appropriate behaviors w/in that specific situation.  The emerging norms of the situation are the sources of the collective behavior   
  The emergent norm perspective was 1st developed by Ralph Turner & Lewis Killian in  Collective Behavior, 1957 
 
  For Turner & Killian, the emerging norms of the situation are the sources of the collective behavior   
  Turner & Killian define collective behavior in 1957 as instances in which change [ rather than stability ], uncertainty [ rather than predictability ] & disorganization [ rather than stable structure ] are characteristic (1957, Brackets in original)   
  Turner & Killian define collective behavior in 1957 as those forms of social behavior in which usual conventions cease to guide social action & people collectively transcend, bypass, or subvert established institutional patterns & structure   
  In the emergent norm perspective, collective behavior is the instance in which traditional norms & / or patterns of behavior seem inadequate or inappropriate to those individuals w/in the situation  
  Premises of the emergent norm perspective:  
  1.  People follow norms in most situations most of the time
 
  2.  These norms are specific to the situation as seen in different norms operating in school, church, etc.  
  3.  In uncertain situations there are no norms, so new norms must be created for the situation  
  4.  Once everyone believes they know the appropriate behaviors, they engage in those behaviors  
  5.  The emergent norm process is rational & logical ( no "contagion" or mass hysteria )  
  For Turner & Killian, as opposed to the contagion theorists, the process of collective behavior is rational & logical  
  6.  There are particular types of collective behavior, depending on the situation  
  7.  People participate in collective behavior for different reasons  
  For the emergent norm perspective, there are FIVE types of participants in collective behavior 
a.  ego involved
b.  concerned 
c.  insecure 
d.  curious spectators 
e.  exploiters		  
  The emergent norm Perspective retains most of the elements of contagion theory except for the irrationality of members  
  The emergent norm perspective holds that people retain their rationality  
  People engage in collective behavior not because of any irrationality, but because it seems like the right thing to do under the circumstances
 
  It is not the rationality or the behavior of the group that is so different; it is the norms
 
  Collective behavior is caused by conformity, not irrationality  
  Turner & Killian assume that collective behavior can occur absolutely anytime any group of people are faced w/ uncertainty  
  When people find themselves in new & confusing situations, when we don't know what to do, they look around to see what others are doing
 
  Pre-existing social or personal stress may make an event more likely, but are not necessary
 
  The peculiar stress of social uncertainty creates a sense of urgency w/in members which drives them to collective behavior  
  As soon as any behavior is carried out, people in the group observe what happens
 
  If there are no negative reactions, people assume it is acceptable, & thus are much more likely to engage in that behavior  
  Through the process of observation & failure to detect negative reactions which create a circular reinforcement, new group norms emerge  
  Because most people conform to the local norms, they will follow the group's new emergent norms
 
  People engage in collective behavior not because they don't know what they are doing, but because it is what everyone else is doing  
  People generally conform to the norms of any given situation & when the situation calls for the creation of new norms, they simply follow the new guidelines  
  The ideas that groups exert normative based constraint over individuals throughout the collective behavior episode distinguishes the emergent norm perspective from contagion theory  
  Crowds are short lived, loosely knit, disorderly collectivities of people  
  Crowds are required for collective behavior to occur  
  A collectivity forms once new norms begin to emerge that contradict or reinterpret the norms & / or organization of society   
  EVALUATION:  
  The emergent norm perspective is strong in explaining crowd group dynamics  
  The emergent norm perspective is strong in its completion of the logic of the circular reinforcement process & the process of emerging norms  
  The emergent norm perspective has the same weaknesses as does symbolic interactionism:  it does not deal w/ outside forces  
  The emergent norm perspective focuses on individual perception & small group dynamics & does not deal w/ outside forces:  structural & non-structural  
 
 The emergent norm perspective's roots in symbolic interactionism & small group dynamics  
 
 From symbolic interactionism the emergent norm perspective draws the concept that people follow the norms of their social surroundings  
 
 From small group dynamics the emergent norm perspective draws the concept that the influence of the group on the individual accounts for otherwise incomprehensible behavior  
 
 The SIX Steps in the emergent norm process  
  1.  Participants  
  2.  Urgency  
  3.  Communication  
  4.  Constraint   
  5.  Suggestibility  
  6.  Permissiveness  
 
 The FIVE Types of participants in the emergent norm process  
  a.  Committed  
  b.  Concerned  
  c.  Insecure  
  d.  Spectators  
  e.  Exploiter  
  Emergent Norm Perspective's Roots in Symbolic Interactionism & Small Group Dynamics  
THERE ARE EMERGENT NORMS IN EVERYDAY LIFE, & SINCE MOST NORMS ARE SITUATION SPECIFIC, WE SEE NORMS EMERGE IN ORG CULTURE & EXPERIENCE PRESSURE TO CONFORM, & COHESION WHEN WE DO CONFORM 
  See Also:  Org Culture   
  See Also:  Conformity   
  See Also:  Cohesion   
Norms exist as part of our culture which is made up of our collective or shared knowledge, beliefs, values & norms (KBVN) 
Since norms are the 'rules' we share & follow in support of KBV, typically norms only emerge when the rest of culture changes 
But norms to emerge anew in everyday life & perhaps one situation where we encounter frequent emergent norms is in our organizational life, wherein each org has a culture 
Workplaces are dynamic orgs which develop norms in support of their actual mission or goal 
  Since norms are specific to the situation, in the workplace or org I participate in, I feel pressure to conform to that org culture & this makes me feel part of the group; ie, org cohesion is established 
Two other processes that impact norms & the emergence of norms are social conformity & social cohesion where people conform to the norms they are confronted w/ 
People have a set of general norms, but will tend to conform to the norms in the immediate situation as when we stand for an ovation even when we may not feel it was that great of a performance 
Once I conform to a groups actions / norms, I feel more a part of that group; ie, I experience cohesion 
The emergent norm process does occur in organizations & everyday life, & thus emergent norm theories have pulled the dynamics of this process together to explore the culture, & specifically, the norms, where col behavior can & does emerge 

 
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 Outline on  Organizational Culture
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  Culture may be defined as the shared content of society & thus organizational culture is the shared content of an org 
 
  The content of a society or org is it's shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( K B V N ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content 
 
  Org culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms of an org 
 
  Org culture is the interaction of the formal & informal structures of an org w/ the goals & objectives of the org leaders   
  Org culture is a special type of subculture that is unique to the network that includes & surrounds an org 
 
  An org culture includes all of an org's stakeholders or constituencies including customers, suppliers, govt regulators, families, similar orgs, etc. 
 
  All orgs have an org culture which is based on the social relationships, as organized by the formal org structure, that emerge among the people who work in or w/ the org 
 
  Lauer & Handel, 1983, found that all orgs have an org culture, a negotiated order   
  W/in an org, there are frequently org subcultures among the different org constituencies, such as employees in a dept, employees at a particular level of the org such as blue collar workers, middle mgt, & upper mgt 
 
  An example of a slice of an org culture is where two workers in an engineering firm may become friends & help each other w/ their work which a third worker may be excluded from this friendship & thus not have help w/ her/his work
 
  Org culture has a impact on how the bureaucracy of the org actually operates, in contrast to how it operates "on paper" 
 
  Org culture & the groups w/in an org, each of which who may possess it's own org subculture, often called a workplace culture
 
  Org culture & workplace culture may facilitate or hinder the attainment of stated org goals 
 
  The org, w/ it's org culture & workplace culture may even develop their own goals, which may be inferior or superior to the org's stated goals, depending on one's perspective 
 
  Org & workplace cultures are sometimes known as the org's "negotiated order" in recognition of their emergence from the ongoing informal negotiations among different members of the org (Fine, 1984, Ouchi, & Wilkins, 1985, Miller, 1991) 
 
  Scott, 1992, holds that regardless of the formal structure, people ultimately make the org 
 
  The negotiated order is the aggregation of the org's members needs, objectives, & experiences of others in the org 
 
  People in orgs push to get what they want, try things out, test the limits of the rules 
 
  Anselm Strauss, et al, 1964, found that the nature of the hospital they studied at any given time was the outcome of pressures, actions, & reactions of the people who made up the org 
 
  The doctors, attendants, nurses, administrators, patients, & others each has their own objectives, understandings or reality, and ideas about mental illness, which governed his or her behavior & relationships to others   
  Compromises, "looking the other way" & "agreements to disagree" were abundant in the hospital & were always subject to change as the situation changed or as new people entered the org   
  Strauss held that the hospital on one day is not the same as the hospital at a later time even though the formal structure stayed the same   
  Org culture is unique to each org & cannot be understood by examining the org's formal structure (Fine, 1984, Ouchi, & Wilkins, 1985)   
  As w/ any culture, new members must be socialized into the org culture & new employees who do not become socialized or accept the org culture experience conflict   
  The grapevine is the informal communication structure of the org culture   
  The national culture of a nation impacts the org & it's org culture   

 
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Outline on  Conformity in Groups, Organizations, etc.
 External
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 DEFINITION:  CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE
 
Link
 Conformity:  ( Voluntary ) Adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )
 
  When a group majority forms, this leads to conformity w/in the group
 
  If a group has a clear majority, the group will generally move toward consensus  
 
 THE SOLOMON ASCH EXPERIMENT DEMONSTRATES THAT PEOPLE CONFORM TO GROUP PRESSURE
 
  In the Solomon Asch Experiment, when confederates made mistakes in comparing the lines, the subjects conformed
 
  The Solomon Asch Experiment demonstrates conformity in that subjects conformed to group pressure  
  Solomon Asch found that one in three people would conform to the group's opinion even when the group was wrong  
  Asch's research into group conformity showed that many of us are willing to compromise our own judgment to avoid being different, even from people we do not know  
  Groups influence the behavior of their members, often promoting conformity   
 
 THE STANLEY MILGRAM EXPERIMENT DEMONSTRATES THAT PEOPLE CONFORM TO SCIENTIFIC AUTHORITY
 
Link
 In the Stanley Milgram Experiment, researchers used scientific authority to convince students to conform
 
  In the Stanley Milgram Experiment, subjects were pressured into electrocuting others in order to further a research project!  
 
 The Stanley Milgram Experiment demonstrates conformity in that subjects conformed to authority
 
  Milgram's research into obedience suggests that people are likely to follow directions from "legitimate authority figures" even when it means inflicting harm on another person  
 
 GROUP THINK IS THE TENDENCY OF THE GROUP TO ADOPT A NARROW CONFORMING VIEW 
 
  Janis' research involved what he called groupthink, the tendency of group members to conform by adopting a narrow view of some issue   
  Groupthink is a form of conformity where people adopt the view of a powerful member in the group because they believe they agree w/ them   
  See Also:  Groupthink   
 
 CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE & COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP 
 
  Conformity is not cohesion   
  Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion   
        Conformity is adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )   
        Cohesion is to be of the same group   

 
Top  
Conformity defined
( Voluntary ) Adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )
Of the same form or character
Similar
In agreement or harmony
Consistent
To become the same in form

 
Top  
Stanley Milgram experiment
Researcher
Student Assistant  ( experimental subject )
Student subject      ( confederate )

Researcher tells two students one is to be the Assist & one the Subject
Assist is to administer shocks to the Subject
No real shocks
Some Assistants shocked the Subject into unconsciousness


 
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Outline on   Group Cohesion 
External
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  -  Project:  Conflict & Cohesiveness 
Link
  COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP  
Link
 Cohesion is people willingly forming a unit 
 
  People consistently holding together & willingly forming a unit experience cohesion   
  COHESION ENHANCES CONFORMITY  
  Cohesive groups have a high level of conformity 
 
  Thus factors which cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity   
  Factors that cause conformity alone, may or may not lead to cohesiveness   
  AN IN GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE BELONGS TO, & AN OUT GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE DOES NOT BELONG TO   
  A social group that a person belongs to or identifies with is called an in group   
  A social group that a person does not belong to or identify with is called an out group   
  In situations where conflicts of values, personality, or interest can lead to division within a group, sociologist refer to the group to which a person belongs as the in group and to other groups as the out group   
  Because of ethnocentrism, an out group that does things differently, or looks different, will often be seen as inferior   
  In groups are seen as having high cohesion   
  COHESION INCREASES AS GROUP MEMBERS SPEND TIME TOGETHER, & / OR WORK TOGETHER   
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 Spending time together increases cohesion   
  Working together increases cohesion 
 
  Working at any task, forced or by free will, will increase cohesion   
  Working together voluntarily increases cohesion the most 
 
  OUTSIDE THREATS INCREASE COHESION   
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 An outside threat can be so powerful on group dynamics that even groups or members that are hostile to each other may join / become cohesive to fight a common enemy 
 
  An outside threat, such as natural disaster or war, can serve as a unifying force in societies   
  CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE & COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP  
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 Conformity is not cohesion   
  Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion   
  Conformity is adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )   
  Cohesion is to be of the same group   
  All cohesive groups have conformity, but a conforming group is not necessarily cohesive   

 
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Cohesion defined
To be united
To hold fast, as parts of the same mass
To be naturally or logically connected
People willingly forming a unit
Being consistent
Holding together

 
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Time together increases cohesion 

Simply spending time w/ another,  /\ likelihood you will stand by them
True for guard/prisoner relations, etc.


 
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Outside threats /\ cohesion
Outside threats pull people & groups together
Conflict of interests, values, personality, etc. can lead to a division within a group. 
Divisions can be minimized through outside threats
Grade school teacher:  brown eyes   blue eyes
Weathering a storm

 
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Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion 

Groups that are cohesive, conform
But groups that conform, are not necessarily cohesive

Factors that cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity
However, the coercive factors demonstrated above generally do not cause cohesion


 
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Outline on the   Emergent Norm Perspective's Roots in
Symbolic-Interactionism & Small Group Dynamics
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 The Emergent Norm Perspective (EMP) is grounded in Symbolic-Interactionism (S-I)
 
  Turner & Killian trace their roots to Emile Durkheim as well as Gabriel Tarde who studied people's imitation of other humans   
  Collectivities are a special category of small group behavior & therefore Turner & Killian apply this to a wide spectrum of collective behavior  
  Collective behavior is a combination of the effects of the group on the individual attitudes & behavior & the effects of individual on group attitudes & behavior  
  Defining the Situation:  
  For the EMP & S-I, the definition of the situation is important to us & dictates our behavior  
 
 For S-I, we all interpret our surroundings & base our behavior on whatever meaning we attribute to those surroundings
 
 
 For the EMP & S-I, when we are around other people, we all work together to socially define what is going on
 
  Our basic human tendency is to look around to see what other people are doing  
  We use other people as a source of information, & their works & behavior guide our own thoughts & actions  
  We are quiet at funerals,  We are noisy at concerts   
  We judge our own behavior by comparing it to those around us   
  Other people aren't just sharing space w/ us, they are constantly shaping our social environment  
  We use other people as Reference Groups to determine correct behavior  
  Our behavior in any group setting is heavily influenced by what seems to be appropriate in that particular situation  
  Collective behavior is influenced by both emergent norms & participants' motives  
 
 Individuals will not engage in every behavior that is suggested
 
  We can be guided only in directions that match our attitudes or already-chosen course  
 
 It is participants' collective definition of the situation that most heavily influence their chosen course of collective behavior
 
  The definition of the situation is heavily influenced by any individual behavior that seems to confirm what crowd members already suspect or believe to be true  
 
 Emergent Norms:
 
 
 Individuals normally have little or no influence over group norms
 
  One person cannot redefine appropriate behavior  
  See Also:  Charisma  
  However under emergent norm circumstances, an entire group may define the situation based on the behavior of one individual  
  Crowds may develop new norms that may be totally at odds w/ the norms of the dominant culture  
  Individualism & the "Collective Mind:"  
  Individual roles are "assigned" as the group forms  
  Members never act exactly the same as every other member, but most of them do behave similarly  
  Behavior in a group is not only caused by attitudes toward the object of group attention, they are also caused by attitudes toward one's self, the group & other social objects  
  People are not certain that they can count on others to do what they are supposed to do  
  Throughout the process of perception, definition, action, members do not act "as one," they act as members of a group  
  The group does not have a mind, a conscience, self-control, or a sense of self-esteem  
  Each member possesses these qualities that affect their group behavior to the extent they are held in common  
  Turner & Killian argue that Circular Reinforcement [ see Park's Contagion Theory ] is the process that makes the emergence of new group norms possible & explains why it happens so quickly  

 
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 Outline on the  Emergent Norm Process
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  -  Project:  Examples of the Emergent Norm Process
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  -  Project:  The Emergent Norm Process & Participants
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 Turner & Killian spell out SIX Necessary Processes for the Development of a Crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior
 
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 1.  Uncertainty of potential participants as to appropriate behavior within the situation is the first necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior
 
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 2.  Urgency, the feeling that something must be done soon, is the second necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior
 
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 3.  Communication of mood & imagery w/in a crowd is the third necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior
 
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 4.  Constraint, the sense that one should conform to the norms of the crowd, is the fourth necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior
 
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 5.  Suggestibility, the selective individual suggestibility & individual acceptance of mood & imagery consistent w/ the crowd is the fifth necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior
 
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 6. Permissiveness, attitudes & behaviors that are normally inhibited in society may be expressed w/in the crowd is the second necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior
 
  In-Class Project:  Examples of the Emergent Norm Process  

 
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Outline on     1. Uncertainty in the Emergent Norm Process:
There is uncertainty of potential participants as to appropriate behavior w/in the situation
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  1.  Uncertainty of potential participants as to appropriate behavior within the situation is the first necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior  
  Uncertainty of potential participants as to appropriate behavior within the situation creates a situation that is ripe for collective behavior  
  People dislike confusion & would rather believe something negative or dangerous than face doubt  
  Many people want to be told what to do because it gives them guidelines & alleviates confusion, doubt & anxiety  
  Turner & Killian discuss famous conformity studies by Sherif in 1936 which demonstrated that people, faced w/ a question which they cannot know the answer, adjust their answers to match those around them
 
  Informational Influence ( Sherif, 1936 ) is a concept that explains what happens when people find themselves in new or confusing situations  
  More uncertainty leads to more suggestibility from others
 
  When the situation is unclear, people seek certainty, & rely on the judgment of others
 
  An exmple of the effect of uncernty & judgment can be seen in a drowning where we use the actions of other witnesses to help us decide if the person i.e. really in trouble or is simply playing a joke
 
  Different group members may develop different understandings as to what is expected of them & lose confidence in their expectations of others' behavior  
  The result of confusion in a small or large group setting  may be a new set of normative expectations  
  The effects of Confidence & Leadership interact in group behavior  
  People assume that the group answer is better than their own  
  Acting confident, even if wrong, places one quickly into a position of leadership  
  The fact that a person seems to know more encourages others to follow their lead  
  Responding to the uncertainty by following such a leader allows people to walk away from the situation believing they have engaged in the correct behavior  

 
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Outline on    2. Urgency in the Emergent Norm Process
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  2.  Urgency, the feeling that something must be done soon, is the second necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior  
  Urgency is a feeling that something must be done, soon  
  The process of rumor construction is possible because groups do not cease to act when confusion sets in  
  Instead, we try to figure out what to do next  
  The longer we do nothing, the more anxiety we feel:  we must take action  
  Milling must take place for new norms to emerge  
  It is not the physical act of milling that is important, but rather the psychological state of confusion, agitation & yearning for direction  
  Whenever we are influenced by the behavior of others, milling can take place  
  Milling is an attempt to act in the face of uncertainty  
  Examples of milling include: 
-  quietly looking around in church 
-  running around in a frenzy 
-  calling on the phone; surfing the net or TV to see what others are doing 		  
  The seemingly aimless activities of Milling, Rumors, & Looking Around are responses to the urgent desire for information & result in the rapid spread of behavioral norms  
  The rapid spread of rumors is simply the rapid spread of info in the milling activity  
  The urgent desire for info explains the rapid spread of rumors   
  The reinforcement & reaction in groups occurs more quickly in a crowd situation than in everyday life because circumstances call for quick decisions  
  In collective behavior situations, decisions about what to do must be made quickly  

 
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Outline on    3. Communication in the Emergent Norm Process
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  3.  Communication of mood & imagery w/in a crowd is the third necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior  
  Communication in collective behavior functions to communicate mood, imagery, & information
 
  Communication is a key factor in understanding any group behavior  
  If communication breaks down, the normal coordination of social roles collapses  
  Information, definitions, & directives for action cannot be validated through normal channels of communication  
  Part of this process frequently involves accepting rumors that make the behavior seem acceptable  
  Communication indicates what is happening, what is likely to happen next, & what actions & attitudes are appropriate
 
  Members communicate through rumors & milling & are thus able to reach consensus
 
  Rumors & milling indicate what attitudes & behaviors are likely to be accepted or rejected
 
  Ambiguity leads to the spread of rumors because individuals are all trying to define the situation at hand  
  Crowd members perceive every other member of the groups as a potential sources of information
 
  Awareness & attention of others is why members are so quick to imitate the behavior of others
 
  Many aspects of small group dynamics also influence communication w/in a crowd: 
 
  Early & enthusiastic speakers & actors becoming defacto leaders  

 
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Outline on    4. Constraint in the Emergent Norm Process
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  4.  Constraint, the sense that one should conform to the norms of the crowd, is the fourth necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior  
  People are likely to engage in any behavior they believe will be accepted & unlikely to engage in any behavior they believe will be rejected  
  Participants ideas about acceptable or unacceptable behavior may be mistaken  
  Group pressure to conform is a powerful force, which is even more powerful in the heightened state of group-awareness that occurs in the uncertain conditions of collective behavior  
  Only those behavioral patterns that are w/in range of other previous behaviors are acceptable:  there is a development of behavior from less to more extreme behavior  
  Once a crowd has begun to define the situation, only behaviors that fit that definitions will be acceptable  
  Asch (1951) demonstrated that people will tend to give answers that conform to the group, even when they know they are wrong  
  It is Killian & Turner's application of the ideas of group constraint that are the most important development in their Emergent Norm Perspective from its roots in Contagion Theory  

 
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Outline on   5. Suggestibility in the Emergent Norm Process:
Selective Individual Suggestibility & Acceptance of Mood & Imagery Consistent w/ the Crowd
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  5.  Suggestibility, the selective individual suggestibility & individual acceptance of mood & imagery consistent w/ the crowd is the fifth necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior  
  Selective Individual Suggestibility is the tendency to accept any information, belief, or behavioral cue that fits the apparent mood of the crowd & the tendency to reject any new information or behavior that does not fit the member's image of the crowd  
  More uncertainty leads to more suggestibility from others  
  Members therefore become ever more attuned to increasingly specific suggestions & behavioral cues  
  If the crowd becomes angry, members are likely to accept suggestions for violent or destructive behavior  
  If the crowed becomes frenzied, members are likely to accept related behavior  
  Crowds eventually convince themselves that only one course of action is appropriate to such an extent that doing nothing seems like a failure  

 
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Outline on   6. Permissiveness in the Emergent Norm Process:
Permissiveness of Attitudes & Behaviors 
Normally Inhibited in Society Expressed w/in the Crowd
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  6. Permissiveness, attitudes & behaviors that are normally inhibited in society may be expressed w/in the crowd is the second necessary processes for the development of a crowd & therefore for the occurrence of collective behavior  
  Crowds are permissive in the sense that they allow the expression of attitudes & behaviors that are not accepted in any other setting  
  Crowds remain constraining in that these "permissive" attitudes & behaviors must be in-sync w/ those of the group  
  A type of permissiveness similar to crowd induced permissiveness can be seen in any small group setting
 
  A small group may positively sanction behaviors & attitudes that are not acceptable to larger society while at the same time, negatively sanction behaviors & attitudes outside of the groups norms  
  An example of the permissiveness of crowds can be seen at social parties where it becomes perfectly acceptable to shout, yell, get drunk, & it is not acceptable to remain in control   
  Groups give us permission to engage in behaviors we would normally be reluctant to engage in because we are usually more acceptable to direct, small group norms than to societal norms when those norms reflect a pent-up attitude
 
  Many forms of collective behavior allow participants to engage in behavior that they "desire," but that is unacceptable in most social circumstances  
  We may not like a group, but are reluctant to voice that opinion & thus in a small group or a crowd, we are more likely to scream insults in public   
  Riots allow for the expression of destructive, violent, & anti-social or antiestablishment feelings  
  Spontaneous celebrations allow behaving a manner that is totally out of line w/ one's public image  
  Religious revivals allow for exuberant behavior that would seem unbecoming in everyday life  
  It is this tendency of the crowd to give permission for deviant behavior that defines collective behavior as a unique form of group behavior  
  The permission given in collective behavior, & the deviance allowed in collective behavior is often not a direct representation of repressed or denied attitudes, but only a close approximation  
  An example of permission for deviance may be seen when a crowd appears to be rioting in relation to an incident of police brutality, but it is also an expression of the frustration of a life of poverty  
  Some theorist have argued that any riot, frenzy, exuberance, etc. are fundamentally an expression of the human longing for communal release & expression:    We are social animals  

 
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 Outline on the Five Types of Participants in the Emergent Norm Process
External
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  -  Project:  Collective Action Partipcants
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  There are FIVE different reasons for taking part in collective behavior
 
  Not all participants take part in collective action for the same reasons & therefore do not engage in identical behaviors
 
  Thus there are FIVE Types of Participants at any Collection Action:
 
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 1.  The Committed/Ego-Involved Participant
 
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 2.  The Concerned Participant
 
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 3.  The Insecure Participant
 
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 4.  The Spectators
 
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 5.  The Exploiter/Ego-Detached Participant
 
  There are  TWO Factors that Differentiate Among the Types of Participants in Collective Action
 
   1.  The Motivation of the individual for joining the collective event
 
  2.  The Behavior of the individual throughout the collective event
 

 
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  Outline on
1. Committed/Ego-Involved Participants in the Emergent Norm Process
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  Committed Participants are deeply & personally involved w/ the event  
  The committed participant is motivated by a sense that some action is demanded  
  Committed participants may experience intense emotions such as fright, elation, anger, etc.   
  Pre-existing orientations guide ego-involved participants to the collective action  
  Committed Participants are emotionally involved & may take a position of leadership if required  
  Committed Participants are most likely to be initiators of action   
  Because of their pre-existing interest in the action, committed/ego-involved participants are less likely to experience confusion or uncertainty about what to do  
  Because of their pre-existing interest in the action, Committed Participants are less likely view action as deviant & are more likely to see the action as necessary & good  
  If you wish to see a collective action take place, or a social movement form, the committed are the types of members you want  
  If you wish to stop a collective action, or prevent a social movement from forming, the committed are the types of members you want to stop or eliminate  
  The motivation of the Committed Participant is their pre-existing commitment  
  The behavior of the Committed Participant is definite, goal directed & is highly likely to be an initiator of action  

 
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  Outline on   2. Concerned Participants in the Emergent Norm Process
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  Concerned Participants are similar to the Committed Participants, except that their attitudes are less firmly held, or not as clearly defined  
  Concerned participants believe that something should be done, but they are not involved enough to believe that it falls to them to decide what, when, & how action should be carried out  
  More importantly, the Concerned Participants are not committed enough to initiate action, but they are often strong second level followers  
  Examples of Concerned Participants:   
  A person whose house is burning is a Committed Participant while their neighbors are Concerned Participants   
  During riots, committed participants are likely to be the angriest & initiate action by, for example, throwing rocks  
  During riots, concerned participants may yell or throw things, but are likely to do so only after others have defined it as the appropriate course of action   
  Concerned participants are likely to participate on the side of the conflict w/ whom they identify
 
  Group Loyalty is a major factor for the Concerned Participant: "We had to do something, they were hitting our people."  
  The Concerned Participant may have similar pre-existing commitment as the Committed Participant, but be a "laissez faire" or less authoritarian or decisive than the Committed Participant  
  The motivation of the concerned participant is their pre-existing commitment  
  The behavior of the Concerned Participant is
-  less definite 
-  less goal directed 
-  & they more likely to be an early follower than the committed participant		  

 
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Outline on   3. Insecure Participants in the Emergent Norm Process
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  The Insecure Participant derives direct satisfaction from participation in a crowd, regardless of the circumstances; 
however, they may not know the issues, or if they do, they don't care		  
  They are interested in the belongingness & power that the crowd brings because they are "generally insecure"   
  TWO Factors Draw the Insecure to a crowd:  
  1.  The sense of power & unanimity that comes w/ joining a large crowd   
  Some people want power & belongingness so much that unanimity is not necessary while other people need it but require the unanimity  
  2.  The "righteousness of the crowd"  
  The emergent norms created by a crowd create a sense of righteousness/certainty   
  We all need a feeling of righteousness to act, but the insecure crave it more & thus seek it out  
  Thus the Insecure Participant may be the Power Hungry Participant  
  The Insecure Participant who is also the power hungry participant is involved because they can lead the group  
  The insecure participant may be the Socializer Participant who is involved because they meet other people  
  The motivation of the Insecure Participant is based on  
  a.  Gaining power & a sense of belonging  
  b.  The "Righteousness of the Crowd" gives the Insecure a Cause to belong to  
  The insecure participant has no true commitment because the Insecure can never truly commit
 
  The behavior of the Insecure Participants is
-  less definite, but more definite as unanimity increases 
-  less goal directed since they often pursue the goal only to maintain belongingness 
-  more likely to be an early follower, not an initiator
than committed participants
 

 
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Outline on    4. Spectators in the Emergent Norm Process
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  Spectators are curious about the crowd, what will happen, why the crowd is there  
  Spectators often do not even know what is going on  
  Spectators are important at Collective Actions for FIVE reasons  
  1.  Official counts often lump spectators in  
  2.  People are often drawn to a site by the presence of a large crowd  
  3.  Spectators provide the crowd w/ an audience  
  People behave differently when they are being observed in that behavior often becomes more extreme  
  4.  Spectators create the illusion that they support the actions of the crowd  
  5.  Spectators are potential participants  
  The motivation of Spectators: is unique in that they have no pre-existing commitment, & thus it is curiosity that draws Spectators  
  The behavior of Spectators is relatively inactive, but may become active if drawn into participation  

 
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  Outline on    5.  The Exploiter/Ego-Detached in the Emergent Norm Process
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  Exploiters participate only in pursuit of personal interests so that they can achieve their own goals  
  Exploiters are those people in society who generally want to engage in various forms of socially unacceptable behavior  
  Collective actions provides them w/ a setting for doing so because crowd behavior always represents some sort of deviation from ordinary social norms  
  While Committed Participants lead a crowd to purse the larger goal of the crowd, the Exploiter may lead the crowd in order to manipulate it for their own ends  
  Committed Participants often lead by example while Exploiters lead by words alone  
  Examples of Exploiters include drunks, psychopaths, petty criminals, as well as older men at a riot actively encouraging younger men to fight, looters, merchants or vendors who want businesses burned out, thrill seekers, etc.   
  The behavior of the exploiter is such that they manipulate the event as much as possible in order to achieve personal goals  

The End
 
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