Rev IS 8: Gender & Patriarchy

When social scientists talk of sex differences btwn females & males, they usually refer to biological characteristics, such as hormonal, anatomical, & physiological differences that define them

Less than 1 % of the population has major physical characteristics of both male & female

Much of the population has minor physical characteristics of both males & females such as seen in the TV show "He's a Lady"

GENDER

Gender is the social category of male, female, other

Gender socially learned traits associated w/, & expected of men or women

Gender refers to the personal traits & social positions that members of a society attach to being female & male

Gender refers to a sense of being male or female or having the recognizable traits of one's sex

Gender differences refer to the socially & culturally constructed definitions of what it means to be female & male

The social construction of gender in a particular society or subculture shapes norms & expectations for appropriate behaviors, roles, & appearance for males & females

Biologically, men & women differ in limited ways, but culture can define the two sexes in dramatically different ways

Social indicators of gender have changed over time:
   Long/short hair
   Skirts/pants
   What are some other social indicators?

Biological indicators of sex have changed as, for example, women are now over 1 inch taller than 30 yrs. ago

It is important not to think of social differences btwn the sexes exclusively in biological terms

The appropriate roles, behaviors, & expectations for males & females have modified considerably over time

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, GENDER, & SEX

Sociology of gender is the study of socially constructed female & male roles, relations, & identities

Feminist theory is the study of woman centered patterning of human experience

Today there is a growing sociology of gender on masculinity

Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a male are called masculine

Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a female are called feminine

The development of sexuality is influenced by two major forces related to gender: gender identity & gender role

Gender identity is a personal sense that "I am a male" or "I am a female"

Gender identity develops partly from biological influences, such as body shape & genitals, & partly from cultural influences, including clothing & hairstyle

Gender role refers to a society's expectations for males & females, including values, attitudes, & behavior

Individuals develop these expectations w/ the influence of parents, friends, & teachers, as well as television, motion pictures, & other sources

Men are stereotypically considered to be more aggressive & action oriented while women are thought ot be more capable of nurturing & caring behavior that makes them better able to take care of family & household needs

In a now classic study Margaret mead noted that among the Arapesh, the Mindugumor, & the Tchambuli tribes in the So Pacific, masculinity & femininity were socially constructed differently in each

Among the Arapesh, women as well as men displayed inaggressive, cooperative, & caring behaviors

Among the Mundugumor, both sexes exhibited aggressive behavior

Among the Tchambuli, the men displayed more passive & dependent behavior than women

Among the Aka, a hunting & gathering tribe in central Africa, Hewlett notes the close bond btwn infants & fathers, & the open display of affection & nurturing behavior by men is in sharp contrast to the 'rough & tumble' play characteristic of interaction btwn American fathers & infants

Recent studies show varied definitions of masculinity & femininity in the US, & variations in behavior among women & men

When men take on the primary parenting role & share in household responsibilities, they display close emotional & nurturing ties to their children & are capable of developing 'maternal thinking'

WOmen & men are now taking on roles & responsibilities that were considered quite inappropriate one or tow generations ago

SEX & THE BODY

Primary sex characteristics refer to the organs used for reproduction, namely the genitals

Secondary sex characteristics are bodily differences, apart from the genitals, that distinguish biologically mature females & males

The term inter sexual people refers to people whose bodies (including genitals) have both female & male characteristics

An older term for inter sexual people is hermaphrodite

Transsexuals are people who feel they are one sex even though biologically they are the other

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Outline on an Intro to Feminism

External
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- Project: Feminists R' Us

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- Project: Song: "I Am Woman" & Social Theory

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- Song: "I Am Woman" by Helen Reddy 3:16

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FEMINISM IS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT & IDEOLOGY SUPPORTING EQUALITY BTWN MEN & WOMEN

Feminism is the advocacy of social equality for men & women, in opposition to patriarchy & sexism

A primary belief of feminists is that an equal share of resources/benefits should go to each according to abilities

A small % of women ( less than 10 % ) will admit to being feminist, while a large % of women ( over 90 % ) actually subscribe to it's tenants

Nearly as many men as women are feminists

FEMINIST THEORISTS ARE A CENTRAL PART OF FEMINISM, IT IS CHARACTERISTIC OF IT'S MORE EXTREME BRANCH,
FEMINIST PRAGMATISTS MAKE UP THE OTHER MORE MAINSTREAM BRANCH

Feminist theory is the study of woman centered patterning of human experience
Much of social theory, history, philosophy, etc., has excluded women & women's ideas
Feminism reinterprets patriarchal theory & history
Because of feminist theory, there is a growing literature on masculinity

Feminist doctrine suggests that women are systematically disadvantaged in modern society & in response to this, advocates equal opportunities for men & women

Feminist sociologists have argued that conventional sociologists have neglected the significance of women in all areas of the subject

For example, many studies of social stratification have defined a family's class position based on the wages of the male "head of household" & this ignores the fact that women make economic contributions to their families from work both inside & outside the home

Typical studies of strat often assume that women have equal access to the wages their husbands earn

Masculinist theory is the study of the development of non patriarchal theory
Some social theorists hold that all theory, except for feminist theory, is masculinist
Much social theory is patriarchal in that women & other groups are omitted

THE FEMINIST REINTERPRETATION IS WOMEN'S REEXAMINATION OF THE WORLD BASED ON GENDER

- Marx's reinterpretation reinterpreted the world based on class struggle

- The deconstructionists reinterpreted the world based on removing the bias of rationalism

- Deconstruction is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc.

- Part of any reinterpretation is deconstruction which is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc.

Feminists' reinterpretation of the world follows the Marxists' reinterpretation

Marx said that one's world view (explanation of the world) is shaped by their position in that world

Marxists & Weberians reinterpreted the world based on economics/status/power

Women have reinterpreted the world based on gender

This is to say that women & men see things differently & that women are reintegrating women's thoughts into theory & practice

Part of any reinterpretation is deconstruction, which is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc.

Deconstruction uses a variety of post-modern methods utilizing literature, philosophy, history, etc.

THE FEMINIST PRINCIPLES SEEK TO END THE OPPRESSION OF WOMEN & ESTB EQUALITY BTWN THE SEXES

There are common principles of feminist theory:

1. Women & the experiences of women are a key starting point for social theory & understand the world

2. Adding feminist insights to traditional theory complements/competes it

3. Feminist theory must be innovative/radical because major changes are needed

4. Men oppress, either directly or structurally

- Violence against women both in the home & on the street is all too common

- The commercialization of sexuality exploits women, & today, men

- The gender wage gap & the glass ceiling are significant & tenacious

5. Feminism seeks to end sexual violence

6. Feminist theory has a goal which is equality btwn the sexes

- A primary belief of feminists is that an equal share of resources/benefits should go to each according to abilities

7. Feminism seeks to eliminate gender stratification

8. Feminist theory seeks to produce a better world for women, & thus for all

9. Feminist theory must be interdisciplinary

10. Feminism seeks to expand human choice for all

11. Feminism promotes sexual freedom

FEMINISM SEEKS TO MODIFY TRADITIONAL WOMEN'S ROLES TO GIVE THEM EQUALITY & POWER

Traditional gender roles: To a greater or lesser extent, we each exhibit, or can relate to traditional gender roles

Gender socialization: Socialization is highly gender oriented & it is done primarily through the social structures

The feminist sociology of knowledge accents the importance of recognizing silenced knowledge & ways of knowing

The stratification of gender in status, power, & income was non-existent in hunter gatherer society, was the greatest in the patriarchal societies of feudalism & early industrialism, & now appears to be declining in industrial & post-industrial societies

While in common usage, there is little distinction made btwn sex & gender, in the social sciences the former indicates the biological category of female or male while the latter indicates the social traits of female or male commonly attributed to a particular sex

The solutions to sexism lie in both individual & societal level initiatives

PATRIARCHY IS A FORM OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IN WHICH MALES DOMINATE FEMALES

Matriarchy is a form of social organization in which females dominate males

The Matriarchy form OF society has never been documented in human history

Patriarchy is not inevitable because modern technology has eliminated most of the historic justifications for it

THE TYPES OF FEMINISM OF FEMINISN INCLUD LIBERAL, SOCIALIST, RADICAL, & OTHERS

Although feminists agree on the importance of gender equality, they disagree on how to achieve it

Liberal feminism is rooted in classic liberal thinking that individuals should be free to develop their own talents & pursue their own interests.

Socialist feminism regards capitalism as increasing patriarchy by concentrating power in the hands of a small number of men

Radical feminism finds liberal feminism inadequate, believing that gender equality will be achieved only through the elimination of gender itself.

OPPOSITION TO FEMINISM WAS CREATED BY THE BACKLASH OF MEN & WOMEN OPPOSING STRONG, FREE WOMEN

Opposition is primarily directed at the socialist & radical forms of feminism, while support for liberal feminism is widespread

There is a trend toward greater gender equality

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Outline on a Global Perspective on Gender

External
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Supplement: Females in World Legislatures

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THE ISRAELI KIBBUTZ

In Israel, collective Jewish settlements are called kibbutzim

Members of kibbutzim consider gender irrelevant to most of everyday life

MARGARET MEAD'S RESEARCH ON GENDER

Anthropologist Margaret Mead carried out groundbreaking research on gender, determining that gender varies across cultures

Among the Arapesh, both sexes would be described by Americans as feminine

Among the Mundugumor, both sexes would be described by Americans as masculine

Among the Tchambuli, by American standards, gender roles are reversed

Critics charge that Mead oversimplified the implications of gender

GERORGE MURDOCK'S RESEARCH

George Murdock surveyed over 200 societies & found substantial but not complete agreement concerning which tasks are feminine or masculine

The wide variation in task demonstrates that what is considered to be female or male is mostly a creation of society

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Outline on the Causes of Sexism

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SUMMARY: There are FIVE fundamental causes of sexism, including:
a. All men benefit from sexism
b. Sexism benefits elite men
c. Sexism is entrenched in our culture
d. Sexism is entrenched in the social structures
e. Gender socialization

People commonly think of several things as the cause of sexism, such as women's lack of the vote, education, perceived sexism in 'holy books,' men, etc., but these are only examples of the fundamental causes

There are FIVE fundamental causes of sexism, which is a form of social differentiation

A. ALL MEN BENEFIT FROM SEXIM IN SOME WAYS; MEN & WOMEN ARE HURT BY SEXISM

Although all men benefit from sexism in terms of income, wealth, and power, sexism exacts some high costs in other areas of their lives

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Examples of how all men benefit from sexism

B. SEXISM KEEPS PEOPLE IN CONFLICT & SO BENEFITS ELITE MEN AT THE TOP OF THE SYSTEM

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Examples of how sexism elevates conflict

C. GENDER SOCIALIZATION IS FIRMLY ENTRENCHED IN OUR CULTURE K V B N

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Examples of the depth of sexism in culture

See Gender & Culture

D. SEXISM IS ENTRENCHED IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Sexism & patriarchy are deeply integrated into the operation of the ten social structures including PF REG M CEML

See Also: Traditional gender roles

In the family, selective exposure is powerful in that parents have nearly total control over what the child experiences

In the family, SO role modeling is powerful in that the children will model the division of labor in the home

When husbands & wives work full time, women still put in much more time on household tasks such as cleaning & grocery shopping

In the family, identification is powerful in that the children's world is that of the parent(s)

Nurturance, positive reinforcement, & negative reinforcement are very powerful processes of socialization in the family

In 2003, one quarter of children under two years old have a TV in their bedroom

Families smile & talk to girls more, are rough & tumble w/ boys, are quick to attend to fussy girls, & generally treat boys & girls the differently

3. GENDER SOCIALIZATION BY RELIGION SHOWS THAT "GOD" IS MALE FOR MUSLIMS, CHRISTIANS, BUDDHISTS,' JEWS, ETC.

During the Hunter Gatherer Era & early in history, i.e. the Pre Empires Era, religions had been non anthropomorphic, matriarchal, patriarchal, or some combination of all

Beginning in the histl era, i.e. w/in the Pre Empires Era most religions became patriarchal w/ male figureheads

4. GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE WORKPLACE IS OF PRIMARY IMPORTANCE BECAUSE THIS IS WHERE PEOPLE 'REALIZE THEIR HUMANITY / LIFE GOALS' & WHERE THEY GAIN MONEY / POWER

Because the econ sector is so important as the foundation of society & individuals' lives, gender soc in the wkplace is esp important

Gender relations in the wkplace have equalized to a certain extent, but women are experiencing the glass ceiling effect, though this too is slowly eroding

5. GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN POLITICS & GOVT IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE WHILE ECON LEADERS ACTUALLY LEAD SOCIETY, POLITICAL LEADERS APPEAR TO LEAD

Gender is politics & govt is characterized by the glass ceiling

Female involvement in politics is increasing, although very slowly at the highest levels

Like the wkplace, women in politics experience the glass ceiling, but it appears to be receding faster than in the econ sector

Women hold little political power for FIVE reasons, including that

A. women have less access to money

B. Women do not run for office as often as men

C. Women lose elections more often

D. Incumbency perpetuates male dominance because men are more likely to be incumbents

E. there is a reluctance to vote for women because:

a. of the perception that women are not natural leaders

b. powerful women are threatening to some males

c. many believe that "women's traditional place is in the house"

d. of the "double bind” where women are seen as either over-aggressive or weak

Examples: in the 1990s, fifty percent of Americans said that they would not vote for any woman for president

Despite the fact that 1992 was "The Year of the Woman," less than 10 percent of the members of the US Congress are now women

- Supplement: Females in World Legislatures

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6. GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE MILITARY IS EQUALIZING & THUS MUST DEAL W/ SEXUAL HARASSMENT & THE GLASS CEILING

As technology blurs the distinction btwn combat & non combat personnel, women are taking on more military assignments, although equality has not yet been achieved

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Examples of Gender Socialization in the Military

- Supplement: Time Magazine: Conduct Unbecoming: One female cadet's tale in the Air Force Academy's growing rape scandal

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	7. GENDER SOCIALIZATION BY CHARITY DEALS W/ THE PERCEPTION THAT CHARITY IS WOMEN'S WORK
	Gender socialization by charity is seen in that charity is viewed as "women's work" or as a "leisure activity carried out by the well to do"
Link	Examples of Gender Socialization by Charity
	8. GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN EDUCATION HAS EQUALIZED MORE RAPIDLY THAN SOCIETY, & THUS MUST OFTEN DEFEND IT'S POLICIES
	Gender role socialization that started w/ family & peers, continues when children reach school
	Curricula in schools further reinforce a culture's gender roles
	a. Books & teaching materials: - Dick & Jane Reader portrayed Jill as succeeding because of luck - males depicted as main character - females displaying traditional behavior: emotional, etc. - males have good things because of own actions - females have good things because of luck, looks, others
	b. Subject channeling occurs as gender socialization in education in that boys are steered to particular subjects which girls are steered to others, training them to take their place in a system of occupational gender segregation, i.e. a world of men's jobs & women's jobs
	Stereotypically, or narrowly speaking, we expect boys to do better in math, science, logic & we expect girls to do better in reading, art, music
	Diversely, or broadly speaking, career/college tracks differ for boys & girls; & should be chosen fairly
	c. Gender modeling can be seen in the fact that at higher education levels there are more male teachers
	d. Many social theorists believe that learning & knowing is different for women & men
	See also Feminist Sociology of Knowledge
Link	Examples of Gender Socialization in Education
	Male female differences in literacy, mathematical, & scientific aptitude are not consistent across all cultures
	e. College doors have opened for women & by 1980, women earned a majority of all associate's & bachelor's degrees
	On the other hand, our society still defines the high paying professions as masculine
	An equal number of women & men begin most professional graduate programs, but women are less likely to complete their degrees, possibly because they come to recognize / experience, at some level, the gender barriers
	- Supplement: Bachelor's Degrees Awarded to Women by Discipline	Link
	9. GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE MEDIA PORTRAYS BOTH TRADL PATRIARCHY & MODERN EQUALITY, & HAS MUCH HIGHER LEVELS OF SEX & VIOLENCE THAN IN SOCIETY
	Gender socialization in the media objectifies women, & now men
	The mass media, especially TV, serves to reinforce a culture's gender roles
	Media influence begins in early childhood & continues throughout life
	Gender socialization in the media is dependent on how parents/self regulate access, but we live in a media intensive age w/o precedent
	What images does media give & how have they changed over time?
	Evidence suggests that television entertainment & advertising presents highly stereotyped message about the roles of men & women
	Females have historically been more objectified & exploited as a media tool, however, males are now being increasingly objectified & exploited
	Media influence is rationalized, pervasive throughout life, creating the practice of super marketing
	a. The contemporary ideal body / gender images are both a product to be sold & a tool to sell products
	b. The idealized body type is unhealthy & has developed historically
	c. Sexuality sells in the form of what we want to be & what we want to have
	Everything from sex images to pornography create violence against women, directly & indirectly
	d. Both traditional & non traditional gender roles are utilized by the media to sell products
	Media images of males & females give highly stereotyped messages about the roles of men & women
Link	Examples of Gender Socialization in the Media
	Women are much more likely than men to be portrayed as being excited about household cleaning implements in TV commercials
	10. GENDER SOCIALIZATION BY LEISURE / RECREATION PROMOTES EQUALITY BECAUSE WOMEN & MEN ARE WILLING TO EXPERIMENT IN NON TRADL LEISURE ACTIVITIES
	Gender socialization by the leisure / recreation structure is very similar to the socialization in the media
	Organizations often provide "separate but unequal" recreation or family recreation, sports facilities, etc.
Link	Examples of Gender Socialization in Recreation
	The perceptions of parents, teachers & counselors lead them to behave in ways that make their expectations about boys & girls come true is called self fulfilling prophecy
	- Supplement: Time Magazine: Title IX helped more women get into sports, but opponents complain it's pushing men out	Link
	- Supplement: Time Mag: Women Football Players	Link

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Examples of Gender Socialization by Peers

Most children have same sex friendships; Being a sissy is worse than being a tom-boy
Same sex friendships are nearly exclusive for children, tweens, & teens
Opposite sex friendships may develop for adults
Being a "sissy" is worse than being a "Tom-boy"
Peers are extremely controlling
(friends may or may not be more tolerant)
Mating Behavior begins:
Message: “You'll never get a boy/girl like that.”
Modeling:
- play act adult gender roles
- learn about sex & gender roles
- clothing, hair, language, attitude

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Examples of Gender socialization by Religion

Modeling: god is male in many religions
Modeling: Only recently have religions in western nations allowed female religious leader

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Examples of Gender Socialization by Government

Modeling: Most political leaders are male

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Examples of Gender Socialization by the Military

Women are not allowed in combat
Many believe that the military man is the epitome of maleness

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Examples of Gender Socialization by Charity

Head of the Red Cross has been a women for many decades
Charity is more women's work

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Examples of Gender Socialization in Education

In elementary school, teachers are female, principles are male
As the status of teachers rise from elementary schools, to middle schools, to high schools, to college, the number of male teachers increases

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Examples of Gender Socialization by the Media

More lead characters are male
Took Cheryl Crow 10 years to land a record contract: Purpose of Lilith Festival in 97 was to provide access to recording industry for females

In past, more emphasis on character
(though it was traditional character)

Today, more emphasis on body
--and how the body may be improved through market place

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Examples of Gender Socialization by Leisure / Recreation
Men expected to do more active sports
New Women's football league

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Outline on Traditional Gender Roles

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- Project: Which Traditional Gender Roles Shall We Keep?

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DISCLAIMER: I DO NOT approve of these roles!
The following roles are considered 'traditional' in that they existed, more or less, in the past
However, as you should recognize, they still exist to a great extent today
This analysis does not suggest that this is the way things should be
Non-traditional androgynous roles are developing
Non-traditional heterogeneous roles are developing
The point is, even if one is not like these roles, & knows no one who is, we can still recognize them
These roles are still very much a part of our culture & thus, a part of each person

There are SIX major types of traditional gender roles 1. Traditional Male Role 2. Traditional Female Role 3. Traditional Male Worker Role 4. Traditional Female Housewife Role 5. Men's Traditional Relations w/ Women 6. Women's Traditional Relations w/ men

1. THE TRADITIONAL MALE ROLE IS THAT OF A CONTROLLER

Men are
- unemotional: i.e., "emotional idiots" in that they don't talk about or understand feelings
- leaders, take control, & make decisions
- active, worldly, & aggressive
- blunt, loud, & a bit sloppy

2. THE TRADITIONAL FEMALE ROLE IS THAT OF A COMPANION

Women are
- "emotional" i.e. out of control emotional, no quantitative thinking
- dependent, followers, & cannot make decisions
- neat, considerate, appearance is primary
- pushy/ aggressive

Traditionally, women's status is product of what they are not what they do

Boys are sometimes so negative toward the traditional female role that even girls look down upon it as a result

In terms of income, wealth, status, power, & free time, all indications are that traditional sex roles work to the advantage of men

3. THE TRADITIONAL MALE WORKER ROLE IS THAT OF THE LEADER OR WORKER

- provide for family, & put job above all else
- provide for a wife & family
- put the job & success above all else
- be strong & successful

A man's status is measured primarily by his income & occupational status

Men typically create an identity, their master status, via an occupation because a man w/o a job is no man, is not "marriage material"

In early American history, both men & women engaged in the production of goods to be sold, but as the industrial revolution progressed, some women were relegated to the home

There is no male equivalent word of "bitch," only words such as shark, go getter, etc.

4. THE TRADITIONAL FEMALE WORKER ROLE IS THAT OF THE HELPER

- enjoy nurturing & serving
- enjoy housework, because it is not "real work"
- revel in motherhood because a women w/o children is no woman & is not "marriage material"

The role of housewife, which typifies the dominant role of middle class American women in the early & mid 20th C, is a rather recent invention

The housewife role, as it developed historically, was largely the realm of white middle class women

The housewife role fit well w/ the Victorian morality that reigned through much of the Industrial Revolution

Women experience a double standard in that an aggressive woman, in the home or at work, may be called a "bitch"

Recently, social scientists have noted the shifting double standard where women become proud of their aggressiveness as seen in the bumper sticker: "I am bitch, hear me roar! adapted from the 1970s Helen Ready song: "I am woman, hear me roar!"

Time budget studies indicate that full time working mothers interact w/ their children about as much as do full time housewives, although housewives may spend more time on care related tasks

The housewife role, so ingrained in American society, is far from universal, is not the norm in the Russia, or in many Asian countries

Despite all the recent changes in the roles of men & women, most boys & girls still plan on seeking jobs that have traditionally been held by persons of their sex

The housewife role is a product of Industrial Revolution which created the ideology of women as a frail consumers, replacing their co worker roles of prairie wife & merchant wife

The housewife role fit w/ Victorian morality that women are fragile & more moral

In early America & earlier, men & women were equal in what they produced & brought value to the home such as during the hunter gatherer society & the Little House on Prairie society of the pre industrial era

The Industrial Revolution separated family members from each other

Beginning w/ the Industrial Revolution, men went out of the home to work

Beginning w/ the Industrial Revolution, women stayed in home to have kids & keep house, but not to "work"

The Industrial Revolution created the role of the breadwinner & the family wage

Henry Ford is credited w/ coining the concept of the family wage, & institutionalizing it in modern industrial society, although the concept was in widespread use before Ford

Many industrial leaders in the US & Europe believed that it was their responsibility to develop the morals of their workers, & they generally advocated conservative, traditional family values

Beginning w/ the Industrial Revolution, men became responsible for production & women became responsible for consumption

“I'll bring home the bacon & she'll cook it up in the pan”
Paula Cole: “You'll pay all the bills, & I'll do the laundry”

5. MEN'S TRADITIONAL RELATIONS W/ WOMEN IS THAT OF THE INITIATOR

Men's traditional relations w/ women include that they:
- are worldly                 - initiate relations & sex
- are unemotional          - are expected to be sexual & enjoy sex
- are the aggressor         - are expected to be sexually experienced
- are active                    - care little for intimacy

The double standard can be seen in that there is no male adjective of "slut" & being a gigolo is almost respectable, while being a prostitute is not

Sattel, 1989, & other sociologists found that men withhold their true feelings from their partners because to admit their feelings would make them vulnerable

6. WOMEN'S TRADITIONAL RELATIONS W/ WOMEN IS THAT OF THE RECIPIENT

Women's traditional relations w/ men include that they
- are emotional - do not initiate; they try to entice
- are dependent - are expected to be a virgin
- are not expected to be sexual or enjoy sex
- believe intimacy is most important part of a relationship
- must live w/ the double standard where female sexual experience equates w/ "sluttiness"

The double standard can be seen in that men are expected to be sexually experienced, while women are not in that a sexually experienced woman is seen as a slut, while a sexually experienced man is just that, experienced

Historically there have only been culturally negative terms for a woman who was sexually active / aggressive, including such terms as whore, slut, tainted woman, fallen women, etc.

In the mid 2000 possibly the first culturally positive label is coined for a woman who is sexual or sexually aggressive

Cougar is the label given to older women who are sexually active / aggressive

As a result of the positive label of cougar for older women, younger women who are sexually active / aggressive are being called kittens or cubs

"The Rules" by Fein & Schneider

The concept of cultural lag holds that dysfunctional roles will fade away, but will they?

Non-traditional or new roles for men & women include the male househusband role, the female worker role, & nontraditional relations btwn women & men

Women of the Early Industrial Era

The Industrial Era

1st Wave Feminism

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A Summary of "The Rules" by Fein & Schneider

External
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- Project: Which Traditional Gender Roles Shall We Keep?

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"The Rules" demonstrate that traditional gender roles are still in existence

"The Rules" & traditional gender roles demonstrate the principle of cultural lag

1. Be a Creature unlike any other

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2. Show up to parties, dances & social events even if you do not feel like it

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3. It's a fantasy relationship unless a man asks you out

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4. In an office relationship do not email him back everytime he emails you unless it is business related

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5. If you are in a long distance relationship, he must visit you at least three times before you visit him

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6. When considering whether to use ads or other personal dating services, you should place the ad and let the men respond to you

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7. If he does not call, he is not that interested. Period.

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8. Close the deal-- women do not date men for more than two years

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9. Buyer beware-- observe his behavior so you do not end up with Mr. Wrong

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10. Keep doing The Rules even when things get tough

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Outline on Gender & the Workplace

External
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- Project: Gender & Race Socialization & / or Discrimination in the Workplace

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- Project: Video: North Country, Work, Gender

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- Video: North Country, Work, Gender

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- Supplement: Nontraditional Occupations for Women

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- Supplement: Male Scientist Writes of His Life as a Female

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- Supplement: Women Celebrate 20 Years of Smokejumping

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- Supplement: As Leaders, Women Rule 2000. Business Week Online

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- Supplement: NYT: 'Comparable Worth' Makes a Comeback

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INTRO: THERE ARE NOW MORE WOMEN IN THE WKFORCE THAN MEN, BUT THEY STILL HAVE LOWER PAYING JOBS BECAUSE SEX ROLE SOCIALIZATION CREATES 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS'

In the US & other industrial societies, women working for income is now the rule rather than the exception 59% of Am women are in the labor force

Women continue to enter a narrow range of occupations, w/ almost half in clerical or service work

The greater a job's income & prestige, the more likely it is that the position will be held by a male

Sex role socialization makes women less likely to complain about job discrimination

Professional jobs in previously male dominated fields pose special problems of access to women

The role performance expected in previously male dominated jobs includes behavioral styles characteristically associated w/ men

Women in many professions face a dilemma in that they can either conform to the expected role behavior of the job & appear unfeminine or they can follow the expected role behavior of their gender in which case they may be acting out of character for their occupational role

The dilemma of "the opposite sex" in a gender typed occupation creates a "Catch 22" situation in which "the opposite sex" has limited options for achieving acceptance & recognition (Kanter, 1977)

A survey of male lawyers found that half believed women lawyers were "tough & masculine" while the other half believed women lawyers were "weak & feminine" & said that women go to law school to "catch a man" (Deckard, 1979, p. 128)

THE FEMALE LEADERSHIP ADVANTAGE IS THAT THEY ARE MORE FLEXIBLE, DEMOCRATIC, INTUITIVE, MULTITASKING, ETC. IS THAT THEY ARE MORE FLEXIBLE, DEMOCRATIC, INTUITIVE, MULTITASKING, ETC.

Women bring a "female advantage" to companies striving to be more flexible & democratic

While women are still underrepresented as mgrs of businesses, some social commentators, such as Sally Helgesen, see women as the business leaders of the future

Women's style of mgt is more democratic & flexible, & therefore able to adjust more easily to the fast changing, dynamic business env, or thrive in a firm where educated young professionals expect to be treated as individuals

In a recent article summing up their book, Megatrends for Women, Aburdene & Naisbitt describe women leaders as sharing the qualities of:
a. encouraging participation
b. sharing power & info
c. enhancing other people's self worth
d. getting others excited about their work

While the qualities of effective women leaders, according to Aburdene & Naisbitt all sound "nice," the authors warn that this would be an oversimplification because these leader balance them w/ objectivity

Judith Hall, a psychology professor at Northeastern University, notes that women traditionally are better at interpreting body language & other non verbal cues

Women have a high tolerance for ambiguity & are able to juggle many things at once

People who see job performance as a series of transactions w/ rewards for services rendered or punishment for inadequate performance might misinterpret women's mgt style

People, both men & women often confuse a leader who is encouraging or sharing w/ a weak leader whom they do not take seriously only to find that they suffer the consequences

A female mgr's willingness to empower employees by asking them for help might, for example, look like ignorance, & as though she truly doesn't know what she is doing

Compared to male wkrs/ supervisors / mgrs, other employees, male or female, often feel freer to criticize a female wkr / supervisor / mgr, or to challenge her authority

GENDER SOCIALIZATION IN THE WORKPLACE IS INFLUENCED BY FIVE FACTORS, INCLUDING:

a. OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION
b. COMPARABLE WORTH
c. SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION

d. SEXUAL HARASSMENT
e. GLASS CEILING

a. OCCUPATIONAL GENDER SOCIALIZATION ( OGS ) IS THE PROCESS WHERE WE ARE SOCIALIZED TO BELIEVE THERE ARE 'MEN'S JOBS' & 'WOMEN'S JOBS'

OGS is socialized through the socialization processes of modeling & identification

Occupational gender socialization is a concept denoting that there are men's jobs, & there are women's jobs
Doctor Nurse Manager Worker
Janitor Secretary Lineman Operator
Firefighters, police, soldiers are more likely to be men
Teachers, daycare workers, elder care workers are more likely to be women

Occupational segregation is a pattern whereby two groups, most often men & women, hold different kinds of jobs

Occupational segregation is the stratification ( system of division & differing rewards ) of the occupational system

Occupational gender segregation denotes that our culture recognizes that there are male jobs & there are female jobs

Occupational gender segregation is the concentration of men & women into different occupations, even when they have similar levels of skill & training

For example, we "know" that janitoring is male & nursing is female

Over one half of all working women are employed in clerical & service jobs

In fact, nearly half of all working women have been concentrated in just three occupations: secretary, nurse, & teacher

Women who entered the world of work found that their experience was different from men, including occupational segregation, pay, promotions, training, etc.

Link

What message does occupational gender socialization give?

b. COMPARABLE WORTH DENOTES THAT WOMEN & MEN DOING THE SAME LEVEL OF WORK, SHOULD GET PAID THE SAME

Today women earn about 60 - 75 % of what men earn, & there has been little change in the last decade

The biggest actual change in status of women, so far, has been the large pay increases that have brought the salaries of women closer to men's

See Also: Sexual Harassment

There are FIVE general strategies to confront sexual harassment in the workplace which include

a. LADIES USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF RESPECT FOR WOMEN TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Ladies confront sexists as gentlemen w/, for example, “Why sir, what would your mother say?”

Yount found that Ladies cast their co-workers as gentlemen & socially w/drew

b. FLIRTS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SEXUALITY TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Flirts confront sexists w/ sexuality w/, for example, “I save that for my favorite men, & you haven't qualified... yet.”

Yount found that flirtatiousness encouraged come ons from men & sometimes resulted in more severe harassment if the men perceived that the women were using this strategy to gain preferential treatment

c. TOMBOYS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF FEMALE TOKENISM TO DISARM SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Tomboys confronting sexists w/ balance w/, for example, “I would, but you're better suited for Joe!”

Tomboys emphasized their occupational role & engaged in joking relationships w/ their male co-workers

d. GIRLS USE TRADL GENDER RELATIONS OF SUBMISSION TO TRY TO AVOID OR IGNORE SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Girls do not confront sexists but ignore it, or w/draw

Girls' role of non confrontation & w/drawl may work if the harassment is not too severe; however, it risks the possibility that passivity may evoke more severe harassment

e. TODAY'S WOMEN USE THE NON TRADL METHOD OF LEGAL REDRESS, IN THE ORG OR IN THE COURT SYSTEM, TO DEFEAT SEXUAL HARASSMENT

e. Today's Woman confronts sexists w/ legal or formal action w/, for example, the statement that, “That's harassment. I'm filing a complaint.”

Today's women's, strength & resolve of the direct confrontation of illegal & boorish behavior will cause most harassers to back down

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What message does OGS give?

Men are more capable, worth more, etc.

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The courts & gender discrimination

1970   ATT   $ 52 mm to 3,600 females
1973   US Steel   $ 31 mm to 61,000 females & minorities
1978   GE   $ 29 mm to females
1980   Ford   $ 23 mm to minorities
1996   Texaco agrees to pay $ 1.5 bb for discrimination

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a. Examples of Competing Expectations of Working Women

Women miss more work to care for family
Women have babies: interrupted career track
Women take principle responsibility for home duties (see Gender & the Family Link )
But these are societal assumptions:
Despite competing expectation, the reality is that Women devote more time to work than men

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Outline on the Effects of Sexism

External
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Sexism is the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other

Sexism underlies patriarchy & harms men, women, & the society as a whole

Sexism stunts the talents & limits the ambition of women, who represent half the population

Although men benefit in some respects from sexism, privilege comes at a high price, especially in terms of intimacy & trust

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

Family violence is still frequently directed at women

Gender violence is also an issue on college & university campuses

Off campus or on campus, most gender linked violence occurs in the home

Violence toward women also occurs in casual relationships

In global perspective, violence against women is built into other cultures in many different ways

VIOLENCE AGAINST MEN

If our way of life encourages violence against women, it may encourage even more violence against men

Our culture tends to define masculinity in terms of aggression & violence

While feminists & others track the violence of men against women to the best of their ability, male on male violence is not tracked unless it occurs such that it comes to the attn of the CJS

SEXUAL HARASSMENT

Sexual harassment refers to comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, & unwelcome

Women are more likely to be sexually harassed than are men

Some harassment is blatant, but much of it is subtle

Feminists define pornography as a form of sexual violence against women, arguing that it demeans women & promotes rape

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Outline on Functionalism on Gender

External
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A functional analysis of gender suggests that traditional sex roles emerged in hunting & gathering societies where they promoted the efficient functioning of the family

Each sex plays a role that complements the role played by the other, w/ men taking the instrumental part & women the expressive

DURKHEIM ON GENDER

With roots in anthropology, Durkheim was well aware that women take on very many different roles in different societies & that women's roles have changed over time

In relation to functionalism on gender, w/ roots in anthropology, Durkheim was well aware that women's roles have changed over time

Applying the concepts of modernization & the development of mechanical solidarity, Durkheim's theory supports feminist goals to the extent that fostering the interdependence of members & parts of society regardless of organic / traditional constraints mandates that women function to the full extent of their true capacities

PARSONS & GENDER COMPLEMENTARITY

Parsons argued that gender role complementarity helps to integrate society

girls & boys are socialized into expressive & instrumental roles respectively

social control reinforces gender linked behavior

CRITIQUE

The functionalist analysis of gender is criticized for ignoring the fact that many women have had to work outside the home out of necessity

The functionalist analysis of gender ignores the personal strains & social costs produced by rigid gender roles

Functionalism is often criticized for supporting the status quo, but this is more the result of the individuals such as Parsons who applied the theory w/ their own predilections, & not necessarily inherent in the theory itself

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Outline on Conflict Theory on Gender

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Conflict analysis explains contemporary sex roles in terms of dominance, subordination, & sexism

CONFLICT THEORY ON GENDER & OTHER CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

While conflict analysis has it's roots in Marxism & thus class conflict based on economic exploitation, it has been usefully applied by many social theorists to gender, race & many other social problems

Thus conflict theory has been generalized so that it may be usefully applied to any social conflict

Some social scientists question which conflict is the conflict, i.e. is at base the most fundamental conflict: economic, race, gender, religion, etc.

While the debate over the most fundamental conflict is important in some decisions, for most people & social change orgs, more important questions lie w/in the social problem / change they are dealing w/

MORGAN, ENGELS & MARX ON GENDER

See Also: The Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State by Friederich Engels & Karl Marx, 1884

Link

See Also: Morgan on the Development of the Patriarchal Family

Morgan, Engels & Marx believed that capitalism intensified male domination because it allowed the concentration of wealth in the hands of males, esp upper class males

Patriarchy & the monogamous family began when civilization began, which began when agriculture was well established

Patriarchy & the monogamous family created the first surplus of goods which could be bequeathed

Men established monogamy & patriarchy so that they could control their wealth, who their heirs were, & what they would receive

Before the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed female lines (matriarchy) while after the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed male lines (patriarchy)

Men gained power over women by controlling agriculture, war, husbandry, & bequeathal

These new relationships of patriarchy & strict monogamy created what Marx & Engels called "The historic defeat of women"

CRITIQUE OF CONFLICT THEORY ON GENDER

The conflict view of gender has been criticized for casting conventional families as morally evil & for minimizing the extent to which people live happily in families

The conflict view of gender has been criticized for arguing, perhaps falsely, that capitalism stands at the root of gender stratification

However, there is little doubt among social scientists that family structure does play an important role in patriarchy as well as other forms of social exploitation

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Outline on Defeating Sexism

External
Links

- Project: Ending racism & sexism

Link

- Supplement: Time Magazine: Title IX helped more women get into sports, but opponents complain it's pushing men out

Link

WE HAVE 'COME A LONG WAY' BUT THE LAST VESTIGES OF PATRIARCHY, INSTITL DISCRIM, & DISCRIM AGAINST LC WOMEN WILL BE THE MOST DIFFICULT TO ERADICATE

Changes in gender relations have been remarkable in the last 200 yrs

We are seeing mvmt toward a society in which women & men enjoy equal rights & opportunities

Today's economy depends a great deal on the earnings of women

Despite real change, gender continues to involve controversy from the personal to the orgl, to the political levels, & everywhere in btwn

Gender discrimination is in decline, but one wonders, will it plateau or disappear?

Gender relations are approximately three generations ahead of race relations

SOCIETY HAS ESTBED MANY LEGAL LIMITS TO SEXISM & PATRIARCHY

Some laws have been passed to end sexism & equalize gender relationships

In 1920, US women win the vote w/ the 19th Amendment

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 forbade the deliberate discrimination against women in hiring & wages

Title IX was passed in 1972

The Pregnancy Leave Act of 1993 was passed by the Clinton Administration allowing females six weeks unpaid leave following pregnancy, while allowing men none

The Equal Rights Amendment ( ERA ) was never passed

POLICIES TO DEFEAT SEXISM SHOULD ADDRESS:
1. BOLSTERING SOC MVMTS
2. WAGE DISCRIMINATION
3. BREAKING THE GLASS CEILING
4. ENDING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
5. OUR UNDERSTANDING OF GENDER
6. THE OBJECTIFICATION OF GENDER

The steps to end racism work equally well to end sexism, ( social movements in support of gender equality must cooperate, gender tolerance education, there must be zero tolerance for sexism in govt, there must be zero tolerance for sexism in the private sector, & there must be equal economic opportunity ) however there are some unique facets of sexism that must be dealt w/ through changes in policies

There are SIX policy methods to defeat sexism

1. Groups or social movements such as NOW & AAUP which support women's rights, work to end sexism, etc. must organize, cooperate & work together

2. Stronger laws around wage discrimination

3. Stronger laws around occupational discrimination & the glass ceiling

4. Stronger laws around crimes against women such as rape, abuse, harassment, lack of support, etc.

- Mandatory sentences & counseling for crimes against women

- The state, not the victim, becomes prosecutor in crimes against women

5. Expand education & research on the nature of maleness & femaleness

6. Expand education & research on the effects of gender socialization & objectification of women & sexuality

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Gender relations for the next generation

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Gender Relations for the next generation (being born now)

- Equal opportunity will become the norm
- Women in places of power will become the norm
- Women's wages will continue to equalize
- Families will continue to change
- Sexual relations will continue to equalize
- Lessening of abuse, rape, violence against Women

All of this assumes that "progress" continues
There have been periods of regression

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History of Gender Relations A Socio Historical Overview

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INTRODUCTION: Note in this historic overview that sexism & patriarchy do not develop until "civilization" begins, circa 13,000 to 4,000 BC. Thus humans have spent 99+% of existence in non-sexist society. Thus, those who say that male domination is "natural" are mistaken

1. GEOLOGIC ERA
5 bb - 5 mm

Socio Biology

Earth formation
- early primates

2. PRE HUMAN ERA
5 mm - 1.5 mm

"The sex contract"

Early primates

3. HUNTER
    GATHERER
    SOCIETY
     1.5 mm - 10 K BC

During the Hunter Gatherer Era, there was gender equality in that there was little or no patriarchy or sexism
Gender & Racial Equality has existed for over 99 % of human existence

Early humans: 99 % of
human existence has occurred
in hunter gatherer society

4. PRE EMPIRE ERA
10 K BC - 3 K BC

Patriarchy & sexism began

"The historic defeat of women."

Morgan: The Origin of Patriarchy

Marx & Engels: The Origin of the Family, Private Property
& the State

5. EARLY EMPIRES
3 K BC - 200 BC

Women in the Ancient World

Women & others as chattel
Some Women have power

6. ROMAN ERA
200 BC - 500 AD

Women in the Roman Era

Some Women attain power

7. MIDDLE AGES
500 - 1300

Women in the Middle Ages
( Modern form of Racism begin )

Romantic love develops

8. EARLY
INDUSTRIAL AGE
1300 - 1700

Mutual & reward:
- marriage develops
- romance develops
- sexuality becomes more widespread
- companionship develops
... as patriarchy recedes

- Pre Enlightenment era
- Frontier Women
- Women work in factories
- Housewife role of develops

9. INDUSTRIAL AGE
1700- present

First Wave Feminism develops

Enlightenment thinkers
Beginning of end of patriarchy
Wollstonecraft, Martineau,
Taylor

Suffragette movement develops

In 1920, US Women win the vote w/ the 19th Amendment

Depression & WW II Era Women

Women return to work outside the home

10. GLOBAL
CAPITALISM
1910 - present

Second Wave Feminism develops

Some Women experience true equality

11. POST
       INDUSTRIAL
       SOCIETY
        1970 -

The New Woman:
3rd Wave Feminism develops

Many Women experience equality in the West

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Outline on Gender in Hunter Gatherer Society circa 1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC

External
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- Project: Patriarchy, Matriarchy, & Equality in H-G Society & Today

Link

THERE WAS A VERY HIGH LEVEL OF GENDER DIFFERENTIATION, BUT LITTLE GENDER DISCRIMINATION / PATRIARCHY

During the Hunter Gatherer Era, humanity lived in 100's of thousands of mostly isolated tribes

Hunter Gatherer Societies, aka primitive communalism, have the major feature of

Living by hunting & gathering
Only minimal agriculture, which developed at the end of this era
Semi nomadism
No accumulation of wealth
Status achievement in "traditional" roles

Most roles in Hunter Gatherer Society are ascribed, though increased status often served as a reward for achievement

There was gender based division of labor in Hunter Gatherer Society

In H-G society women & men had different, but essentially equal roles

The major female roles in H-G Society include gatherer, herder, mother, sometimes leader (matrilineal), homemaker, medicine woman / religious leader (shaman, etc.), home defense

WOMEN RAISED BABIES TO GIRLS & BOYS, & GIRLS TO WOMEN, BUT MEN RAISED BOYS TO MEN

Many tribes used a matrilineal methods of tracing descent

The major male roles in H-G society include hunter, sometimes leader, explorer, warrior, medicine man / religious leader (shaman, etc.), home defense

Men raised boys to men

Women brought in 70 % of the food, but the 30 % that men brought in by hunting was critical

Men & women had equal status, power & privileges in Hunter Gatherer Society & because 99 % of human existence has occurred in Hunter Gatherer Society, therefore patriarchy, sexism, men controlling women IS NOT "natural"

The roles of leader, doctor, shaman, defender are all male roles today, but they were definitely filled by both genders in Hunter Gatherer Society

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Outline on the Development of the Patriarchal Family by Lewis Henry Morgan

External
Links

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- Biography & Important Works

- Project: Analysis of the Continuing Development of the Family

Link

- Project: Development of the Family & Patriarchy

Link

SUMMARY: Patriarchy & the monogamous family began when civilization began, which began when agriculture was well established

Patriarchy & the monogamous family created the first surplus of goods which could be bequeathed

Men established monogamy & patriarchy so that they could control their wealth, who their heirs were, & what they would receive

Before the production of a surplus, bequeathal follow female lines (matriarchy) while after the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed male lines (patriarchy)

Men gained power over women by controlling agriculture, war, husbandry, & bequeathal

These new relationships of patriarchy & strict monogamy created what Marx & Engels called "The historic defeat of women"

INTRO: MORGAN WAS AN EARLY ANTHROPOLOGIST WHO USED SCIENCE TO CREATE AN ACCURATE PICTURE OF HUNTER GATHERER SOCIETY & EARLY CIVILIZATION

Morgan was one of a group of early anthropologists who developed the field & our first understanding of anthropological stages

Morgan believed that patriarchy was established when agriculture created a surplus

THE STAGES OF CIVILIZATION INCLUDE: SAVAGERY (HUNTER GATHERER SOCIETY), BARBARISM (THE PRE EMPIRES ERA), & CIVILIZATION (THE EARLY EMPIRES ERA)

Morgan developed a three stage view of pre history which followed the stages proposed earlier by social scientists, philosophers, et al

The first schema of pre historical stages remains valid today

1. THE SAVAGERY ERA IS SIMILAR TO WHAT ANTHRO TODAY CALLS THE HUNTER GATHER ERA WHICH IS PRE AGRICULTURAL, PRE HISTL

Savagery: Contemporary Paleolithic Age: aka Old Stone Age: 5 mm BP - 8,000 BC hunting gathering

FOUR social conditions / innovations were developed during the Paleolithic Age including
a. tree & cave dwelling
b. fishing & the use of fire, allowing people to become independent of one locale
c. the bow & arrow
d. the earliest villages

2. THE BARBARISM ERA IS SIMILAR TO WHAT ANTHRO TODAY CALLS THE PRE EMPIRES ERA WHICH IS EARLY AGRICULTURAL, & HISTL, I.E. THE WRITTEN RECORD BEGINS

Barbarism: Neolithic Age: aka New Stone Age: 8,000 BC to 3,000 BC early agriculture The Pre Empires Era

FOUR social conditions / innovations were developed during the Neolithic Age
a.   pottery & other vessels
b.   domestication and breeding of animals
c.   smelting iron
d.   alphabetic writing

Morgan's Barbarian Age overlaps the Bronze Age: 3,000 BC to approx. 500 BC ( The Iron Age: 500 BC to present )

Morgan believed that patriarchy, sexism, etc. began during the Pre Empires Era, which spanned the years, approximately, 10 K BC to 3 K BC

Contemporary anthropologists largely agree

3. THE CIVILIZATION ERA IS SIMILAR TO WHAT ANTHRO TODAY CALLS THE EARLY EMPIRES ERA WHICH IS BASED ON IRRIGATION & OTHER AG ADVANCES, & THE HISTL RECORD CONTINUES

Civilization: 3000 BC - The Early Empires Era

Morgan's civilization era is when the early empires of Egypt, Sumeria, Mesopotamia, India, & China first emerged

The early empires were heavily based in both agriculture & war / pillaging

THE EARLY FAMILY FORMS INCLUDE THE PARENT CHILD PAIR, PAIRING, MARRIAGE, MONOGAMY

Morgan analyzed FOUR family forms which were fully developed by the beginning of civilization ( all forms existed in a tribal setting, but some persist today )

a. In the consanguine family, the parent child pair was the primary human bond, & there was no marriage, & no incest taboo

b. In the punaluan family, there is still no marriage as we know it, but family incest taboo develops, but cousin marriage is acceptable

c. In the pairing family, there is matriarchy & pairing marriage that is similar to what we might call serial monogamy today

d. In the monogamous family, strict monogamy was instituted by men to insure undisputed paternity

Marx believed that w/ the fall of capitalism, society would see the end of patriarchy

Marx believed that true love can only blossom among the proletariat, i.e., among those who love but are not entangled w/ property & wealth

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Henry Lewis Morgan

1818 - 1881

Pioneering American anthropologist in the 1800s
His work provided anthropological background for Marx & Engels
Founded comparative scientific study of kinship systems
Studied family relationships of Am Indians & other peoples
to determine similarities & differences
Unlike most anthropologists of his time
Morgan learned through 1st hand experience: living w/ natives

Born near Aurora, NY, became a lawyer
Never held an academic post

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Important Works
Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family ( 1871 )
Ancient Society ( 1877 )

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Outline on First Wave Feminism
The Industrial Age circa 1700 - 1920

External
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FIRST WAVE FEMINISTS WERE ACTIVE BEFORE & DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT ERA ESTBING SOME OF THE FIRST RATIONALE FOR WOMEN'S RIGHTS

First wave feminism began during the Enlightenment

The women of the Enlightenment created a theoretical & practical basis for equal rights for women

First wave feminists repudiated sexist notions about women

First wave feminists advocated equal education & laid the foundation for the women's movement for the next few centuries

The Enlightenment, circa 1689 - 1789, was the awakening of modern ideas on freedom, science, religion, and early feminist thought, etc., aka the Age of Reason, & was one factor in the Fr Revolution of 1789