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What is the difference btwn sex & gender? | ||
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Intro to Feminism | ||
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A Global Perspective on Gender | ||
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Causes of Sexism: | ||
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Gender Socialization by the Social Structures ( AOSs ) | ||
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Traditional Gender Roles | ||
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"The Rules" | ||
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Gender Socialization at Work | ||
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Effects of Sexism | ||
Theoretical Issues | |||
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Functionalism on Gender | ||
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Conflict Theory on Gender | ||
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Defeating sexism | ||
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Socio Historical Analysis of Gender Relations: | ||
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Gender in Hunter Gatherer Societies | ||
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Gender in Pre Empire Era: Morgan: Development of the Patriarchal Family | ||
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Industrial Age: 1st Wave Feminism | ||
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Industrial Age: Suffragettes | ||
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Post Industrial Society: "The New Woman & the New Man" |
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- Project: Feminists R' Us |
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- Project: Song: "I Am Woman" & Social Theory |
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- Song: "I Am Woman" by Helen Reddy 3:16 |
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FEMINISM IS A SOCIAL MOVEMENT & IDEOLOGY SUPPORTING EQUALITY BTWN MEN & WOMEN | |||
Feminism is the advocacy of social equality for men & women, in opposition to patriarchy & sexism | |||
A primary belief of feminists is that an equal share of resources/benefits should go to each according to abilities | |||
A small % of women ( less than 10 % ) will admit to being feminist, while a large % of women ( over 90 % ) actually subscribe to it's tenants |
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Nearly as many men as women are feminists | |||
FEMINIST THEORISTS ARE A CENTRAL PART OF FEMINISM, IT IS
CHARACTERISTIC OF IT'S MORE EXTREME BRANCH,
FEMINIST PRAGMATISTS MAKE UP THE OTHER MORE MAINSTREAM BRANCH |
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Feminist theory is the study of woman centered patterning of
human experience
Much of social theory, history, philosophy, etc., has excluded women & women's ideas Feminism reinterprets patriarchal theory & history Because of feminist theory, there is a growing literature on masculinity |
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Feminist doctrine suggests that women are systematically disadvantaged in modern society & in response to this, advocates equal opportunities for men & women | |||
Feminist sociologists have argued that conventional sociologists have neglected the significance of women in all areas of the subject | |||
For example, many studies of social stratification have defined a family's class position based on the wages of the male "head of household" & this ignores the fact that women make economic contributions to their families from work both inside & outside the home | |||
Typical studies of strat often assume that women have equal access to the wages their husbands earn | |||
Masculinist theory is the study of the development of non patriarchal
theory
Some social theorists hold that all theory, except for feminist theory, is masculinist Much social theory is patriarchal in that women & other groups are omitted |
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THE FEMINIST REINTERPRETATION IS WOMEN'S REEXAMINATION OF THE WORLD BASED ON GENDER |
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- Marx's reinterpretation reinterpreted the world based on class struggle |
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- The deconstructionists reinterpreted the world based on removing the bias of rationalism |
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- Deconstruction is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc. | |||
- Part of any reinterpretation is deconstruction which is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc. | |||
Feminists' reinterpretation of the world follows the Marxists' reinterpretation | |||
Marx said that one's world view (explanation of the world) is shaped by their position in that world | |||
Marxists & Weberians reinterpreted the world based on economics/status/power | |||
Women have reinterpreted the world based on gender | |||
This is to say that women & men see things differently & that women are reintegrating women's thoughts into theory & practice | |||
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Part of any reinterpretation is deconstruction, which is the examination or pulling apart of traditional views, showing its gaps, flaws, etc. | ||
Deconstruction uses a variety of post-modern methods utilizing literature, philosophy, history, etc. | |||
THE FEMINIST PRINCIPLES SEEK TO END THE OPPRESSION OF WOMEN & ESTB EQUALITY BTWN THE SEXES | |||
There are common principles of feminist theory: |
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1. Women & the experiences of women are a key starting point for social theory & understand the world |
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2. Adding feminist insights to traditional theory complements/competes it |
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3. Feminist theory must be innovative/radical because major changes are needed |
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4. Men oppress, either directly or structurally |
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- Violence against women both in the home & on the street is all too common | |||
- The commercialization of sexuality exploits women, & today, men | |||
- The gender wage gap & the glass ceiling are significant & tenacious | |||
5. Feminism seeks to end sexual violence | |||
6. Feminist theory has a goal which is equality btwn the sexes |
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- A primary belief of feminists is that an equal share of resources/benefits should go to each according to abilities | |||
7. Feminism seeks to eliminate gender stratification | |||
8. Feminist theory seeks to produce a better world for women, & thus for all |
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9. Feminist theory must be interdisciplinary |
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10. Feminism seeks to expand human choice for all | |||
11. Feminism promotes sexual freedom | |||
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FEMINISM SEEKS TO MODIFY TRADITIONAL WOMEN'S ROLES TO GIVE THEM EQUALITY & POWER | ||
Traditional gender roles: To a greater or lesser extent, we each exhibit, or can relate to traditional gender roles | |||
Gender socialization: Socialization is highly gender oriented & it is done primarily through the social structures | |||
The feminist sociology of knowledge accents the importance of recognizing silenced knowledge & ways of knowing | |||
The stratification of gender in status, power, & income was non-existent in hunter gatherer society, was the greatest in the patriarchal societies of feudalism & early industrialism, & now appears to be declining in industrial & post-industrial societies | |||
While in common usage, there is little distinction made btwn sex & gender, in the social sciences the former indicates the biological category of female or male while the latter indicates the social traits of female or male commonly attributed to a particular sex | |||
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The solutions to sexism lie in both individual & societal level initiatives | ||
PATRIARCHY IS A FORM OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IN WHICH MALES DOMINATE FEMALES | |||
Matriarchy is a form of social organization in which females dominate males | |||
The Matriarchy form OF society has never been documented in human history | |||
Patriarchy is not inevitable because modern technology has eliminated most of the historic justifications for it | |||
THE TYPES OF FEMINISM OF FEMINISN INCLUD LIBERAL, SOCIALIST, RADICAL, & OTHERS | |||
Although feminists agree on the importance of gender equality, they disagree on how to achieve it | |||
Liberal feminism is rooted in classic liberal thinking that individuals should be free to develop their own talents & pursue their own interests. | |||
Socialist feminism regards capitalism as increasing patriarchy by concentrating power in the hands of a small number of men | |||
Radical feminism finds liberal feminism inadequate, believing that gender equality will be achieved only through the elimination of gender itself. | |||
OPPOSITION TO FEMINISM WAS CREATED BY THE BACKLASH OF MEN & WOMEN OPPOSING STRONG, FREE WOMEN | |||
Opposition is primarily directed at the socialist & radical forms of feminism, while support for liberal feminism is widespread | |||
There is a trend toward greater gender equality |
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Supplement: Females in World Legislatures |
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THE ISRAELI KIBBUTZ |
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In Israel, collective Jewish settlements are called kibbutzim |
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Members of kibbutzim consider gender irrelevant to most of everyday life |
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MARGARET MEAD'S RESEARCH ON GENDER |
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Anthropologist Margaret Mead carried out groundbreaking research on gender, determining that gender varies across cultures |
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Among the Arapesh, both sexes would be described by Americans as feminine |
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Among the Mundugumor, both sexes would be described by Americans as masculine |
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Among the Tchambuli, by American standards, gender roles are reversed | |||||
Critics charge that Mead oversimplified the implications of gender | |||||
GERORGE MURDOCK'S RESEARCH | |||||
George Murdock surveyed over 200 societies & found substantial but not complete agreement concerning which tasks are feminine or masculine | |||||
The wide variation in task demonstrates that what is considered to be female or male is mostly a creation of society |
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- Project: Which Traditional Gender Roles Shall We Keep? |
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I
DO NOT approve of these roles!
The following roles are considered 'traditional' in that they existed, more or less, in the past However, as you should recognize, they still exist to a great extent today This analysis does not suggest that this is the way things should be Non-traditional androgynous roles are developing Non-traditional heterogeneous roles are developing The point is, even if one is not like these roles, & knows no one who is, we can still recognize them These roles are still very much a part of our culture & thus, a part of each person |
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There are SIX major types of traditional gender roles 1. Traditional Male Role 2. Traditional Female Role 3. Traditional Male Worker Role 4. Traditional Female Housewife Role 5. Men's Traditional Relations w/ Women 6. Women's Traditional Relations w/ men |
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1. THE TRADITIONAL MALE ROLE IS THAT OF A CONTROLLER |
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Men are
- unemotional: i.e., "emotional idiots" in that they don't talk about or understand feelings - leaders, take control, & make decisions - active, worldly, & aggressive - blunt, loud, & a bit sloppy |
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2. THE TRADITIONAL FEMALE ROLE IS THAT OF A COMPANION |
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Women are
- "emotional" i.e. out of control emotional, no quantitative thinking - dependent, followers, & cannot make decisions - neat, considerate, appearance is primary - pushy/ aggressive |
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Traditionally, women's status is product of what they are not what they do | |||
Boys are sometimes so negative toward the traditional female role that even girls look down upon it as a result | |||
In terms of income, wealth, status, power, & free time, all indications are that traditional sex roles work to the advantage of men | |||
3. THE TRADITIONAL MALE WORKER ROLE IS THAT OF THE LEADER OR WORKER | |||
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- provide for family, & put job above all else
- provide for a wife & family - put the job & success above all else - be strong & successful |
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A man's status is measured primarily by his income & occupational status |
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Men typically create an identity, their master status, via an occupation because a man w/o a job is no man, is not "marriage material" | |||
In early American history, both men & women engaged in the production of goods to be sold, but as the industrial revolution progressed, some women were relegated to the home | |||
There is no male equivalent word of "bitch," only words such as shark, go getter, etc. | |||
4. THE TRADITIONAL FEMALE WORKER ROLE IS THAT OF THE HELPER | |||
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- enjoy nurturing & serving
- enjoy housework, because it is not "real work" - revel in motherhood because a women w/o children is no woman & is not "marriage material" |
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The role of housewife, which typifies the dominant role of middle class American women in the early & mid 20th C, is a rather recent invention |
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The housewife role, as it developed historically, was largely the realm of white middle class women |
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The housewife role fit well w/ the Victorian morality that reigned through much of the Industrial Revolution |
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Women experience a double standard in that an aggressive woman, in the home or at work, may be called a "bitch" | |||
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Recently, social scientists have noted the shifting double standard where women become proud of their aggressiveness as seen in the bumper sticker: "I am bitch, hear me roar! adapted from the 1970s Helen Ready song: "I am woman, hear me roar!" | ||
Time budget studies indicate that full time working mothers interact w/ their children about as much as do full time housewives, although housewives may spend more time on care related tasks |
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The housewife role, so ingrained in American society, is far from universal, is not the norm in the Russia, or in many Asian countries |
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Despite all the recent changes in the roles of men & women, most boys & girls still plan on seeking jobs that have traditionally been held by persons of their sex |
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The housewife role is a product of Industrial Revolution which created the ideology of women as a frail consumers, replacing their co worker roles of prairie wife & merchant wife | |||
The housewife role fit w/ Victorian morality that women are fragile & more moral | |||
In early America & earlier, men & women were equal in what they produced & brought value to the home such as during the hunter gatherer society & the Little House on Prairie society of the pre industrial era | |||
The Industrial Revolution separated family members from each other | |||
Beginning w/ the Industrial Revolution, men went out of the home to work | |||
Beginning w/ the Industrial Revolution, women stayed in home to have kids & keep house, but not to "work" | |||
The Industrial Revolution created the role of the breadwinner & the family wage | |||
Henry Ford is credited w/ coining the concept of the family wage, & institutionalizing it in modern industrial society, although the concept was in widespread use before Ford | |||
Many industrial leaders in the US & Europe believed that it was their responsibility to develop the morals of their workers, & they generally advocated conservative, traditional family values | |||
Beginning w/ the Industrial Revolution, men became responsible for production & women became responsible for consumption | |||
“I'll bring home the bacon & she'll cook it up in the pan”
Paula Cole: “You'll pay all the bills, & I'll do the laundry” |
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5. MEN'S TRADITIONAL RELATIONS W/ WOMEN IS THAT OF THE INITIATOR |
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Men's traditional relations w/ women include that they:
- are worldly - initiate relations & sex - are unemotional - are expected to be sexual & enjoy sex - are the aggressor - are expected to be sexually experienced - are active - care little for intimacy |
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The double standard can be seen in that there is no male adjective of "slut" & being a gigolo is almost respectable, while being a prostitute is not | ||
Sattel, 1989, & other sociologists found that men withhold their true feelings from their partners because to admit their feelings would make them vulnerable | |||
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6. WOMEN'S TRADITIONAL RELATIONS W/ WOMEN IS THAT OF THE RECIPIENT |
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Women's traditional relations w/ men include that they
- are emotional - do not initiate; they try to entice - are dependent - are expected to be a virgin - are not expected to be sexual or enjoy sex - believe intimacy is most important part of a relationship - must live w/ the double standard where female sexual experience equates w/ "sluttiness" |
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The double standard can be seen in that men are expected to be sexually experienced, while women are not in that a sexually experienced woman is seen as a slut, while a sexually experienced man is just that, experienced |
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Historically there have only been culturally negative terms for a woman who was sexually active / aggressive, including such terms as whore, slut, tainted woman, fallen women, etc. | |||
In the mid 2000 possibly the first culturally positive label is coined for a woman who is sexual or sexually aggressive | |||
Cougar is the label given to older women who are sexually active / aggressive | |||
As a result of the positive label of cougar for older women, younger women who are sexually active / aggressive are being called kittens or cubs | |||
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"The Rules" by Fein & Schneider | ||
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The concept of cultural lag holds that dysfunctional roles will fade away, but will they? | ||
Non-traditional or new roles for men & women include the male househusband role, the female worker role, & nontraditional relations btwn women & men | |||
Women of the Early Industrial Era | |||
The Industrial Era | |||
1st Wave Feminism |
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- Project: Which Traditional Gender Roles Shall We Keep? |
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"The Rules" demonstrate that traditional gender roles are still in existence | |||||
"The Rules" & traditional gender roles demonstrate the principle of cultural lag | |||||
1. Be a Creature unlike any other |
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2. Show up to parties, dances & social events even if you do not feel like it |
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3. It's a fantasy relationship unless a man asks you out |
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4. In an office relationship do not email him back everytime he emails you unless it is business related |
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5. If you are in a long distance relationship, he must visit you at least three times before you visit him |
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6. When considering whether to use ads or other personal dating services, you should place the ad and let the men respond to you |
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7. If he does not call, he is not that interested. Period. |
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8. Close the deal-- women do not date men for more than two years |
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9. Buyer beware-- observe his behavior so you do not end up with Mr. Wrong |
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10. Keep doing The Rules even when things get tough |
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Sexism is the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other |
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Sexism underlies patriarchy & harms men, women, & the society as a whole |
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Sexism stunts the talents & limits the ambition of women, who represent half the population |
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Although men benefit in some respects from sexism, privilege comes at a high price, especially in terms of intimacy & trust |
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VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN |
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Family violence is still frequently directed at women |
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Gender violence is also an issue on college & university campuses |
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Off campus or on campus, most gender linked violence occurs in the home |
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Violence toward women also occurs in casual relationships |
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In global perspective, violence against women is built into other cultures in many different ways |
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VIOLENCE AGAINST MEN |
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If our way of life encourages violence against women, it may encourage even more violence against men |
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Our culture tends to define masculinity in terms of aggression & violence |
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While feminists & others track the violence of men against women to the best of their ability, male on male violence is not tracked unless it occurs such that it comes to the attn of the CJS | |||||
SEXUAL HARASSMENT |
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Sexual harassment refers to comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, & unwelcome | |||||
Women are more likely to be sexually harassed than are men | |||||
Some harassment is blatant, but much of it is subtle | |||||
Feminists define pornography as a form of sexual violence against women, arguing that it demeans women & promotes rape |
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A functional analysis of gender suggests that traditional sex roles emerged in hunting & gathering societies where they promoted the efficient functioning of the family |
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Each sex plays a role that complements the role played by the other, w/ men taking the instrumental part & women the expressive |
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DURKHEIM ON GENDER | |||||
With roots in anthropology, Durkheim was well aware that women take on very many different roles in different societies & that women's roles have changed over time | |||||
In relation to functionalism on gender, w/ roots in anthropology, Durkheim was well aware that women's roles have changed over time | |||||
Applying the concepts of modernization & the development of mechanical solidarity, Durkheim's theory supports feminist goals to the extent that fostering the interdependence of members & parts of society regardless of organic / traditional constraints mandates that women function to the full extent of their true capacities | |||||
PARSONS & GENDER COMPLEMENTARITY |
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Parsons argued that gender role complementarity helps to integrate society |
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girls & boys are socialized into expressive & instrumental roles respectively |
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social control reinforces gender linked behavior |
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CRITIQUE |
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The functionalist analysis of gender is criticized for ignoring the fact that many women have had to work outside the home out of necessity |
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The functionalist analysis of gender ignores the personal strains & social costs produced by rigid gender roles |
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Functionalism is often criticized for supporting the status quo, but this is more the result of the individuals such as Parsons who applied the theory w/ their own predilections, & not necessarily inherent in the theory itself |
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Conflict analysis explains contemporary sex roles in terms of dominance, subordination, & sexism |
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CONFLICT THEORY ON GENDER & OTHER CONTEMPORARY ISSUES | |||||
While conflict analysis has it's roots in Marxism & thus class conflict based on economic exploitation, it has been usefully applied by many social theorists to gender, race & many other social problems |
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Thus conflict theory has been generalized so that it may be usefully applied to any social conflict |
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Some social scientists question which conflict is the conflict, i.e. is at base the most fundamental conflict: economic, race, gender, religion, etc. |
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While the debate over the most fundamental conflict is important in some decisions, for most people & social change orgs, more important questions lie w/in the social problem / change they are dealing w/ |
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MORGAN, ENGELS & MARX ON GENDER |
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See Also: The Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State by Friederich Engels & Karl Marx, 1884 | |||||
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See Also: Morgan on the Development of the Patriarchal Family | ||||
Morgan, Engels & Marx believed that capitalism intensified male domination because it allowed the concentration of wealth in the hands of males, esp upper class males |
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Patriarchy & the monogamous family began when civilization began, which began when agriculture was well established |
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Patriarchy & the monogamous family created the first surplus of goods which could be bequeathed |
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Men established monogamy & patriarchy so that they could control their wealth, who their heirs were, & what they would receive |
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Before the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed female lines (matriarchy) while after the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed male lines (patriarchy) |
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Men gained power over women by controlling agriculture, war, husbandry, & bequeathal |
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These new relationships of patriarchy & strict monogamy created what Marx & Engels called "The historic defeat of women" |
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CRITIQUE OF CONFLICT THEORY ON GENDER |
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The conflict view of gender has been criticized for casting conventional families as morally evil & for minimizing the extent to which people live happily in families | |||||
The conflict view of gender has been criticized for arguing, perhaps falsely, that capitalism stands at the root of gender stratification | |||||
However, there is little doubt among social scientists that family structure does play an important role in patriarchy as well as other forms of social exploitation |
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INTRODUCTION: Note in this historic overview that sexism & patriarchy do not develop until "civilization" begins, circa 13,000 to 4,000 BC. Thus humans have spent 99+% of existence in non-sexist society. Thus, those who say that male domination is "natural" are mistaken | |||||
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1. GEOLOGIC ERA
5 bb - 5 mm |
Socio Biology | Earth formation
- early primates |
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2. PRE HUMAN ERA
5 mm - 1.5 mm |
"The sex contract" | Early primates | ||
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3. HUNTER
GATHERER SOCIETY 1.5 mm - 10 K BC |
During the Hunter Gatherer Era, there was gender equality in
that there was little or no patriarchy or sexism
Gender & Racial Equality has existed for over 99 % of human existence |
Early humans: 99 % of
human existence has occurred in hunter gatherer society |
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4. PRE EMPIRE ERA
10 K BC - 3 K BC |
Patriarchy & sexism began | "The historic defeat of women." | ||
Morgan: The Origin of Patriarchy | |||||
Marx & Engels: The
Origin of the Family, Private Property
& the State |
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5. EARLY EMPIRES
3 K BC - 200 BC |
Women in the Ancient World | Women & others as chattel
Some Women have power |
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6. ROMAN ERA
200 BC - 500 AD |
Women in the Roman Era | Some Women attain power | ||
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7. MIDDLE AGES
500 - 1300 |
Women in the Middle Ages
( Modern form of Racism begin ) |
Romantic love develops | ||
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8. EARLY
INDUSTRIAL AGE 1300 - 1700 |
Mutual & reward:
- marriage develops - romance develops - sexuality becomes more widespread - companionship develops ... as patriarchy recedes |
- Pre Enlightenment era
- Frontier Women - Women work in factories - Housewife role of develops |
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9. INDUSTRIAL AGE
1700- present |
First Wave Feminism develops | Enlightenment thinkers
Beginning of end of patriarchy Wollstonecraft, Martineau, Taylor |
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Suffragette movement develops | In 1920, US Women win the vote w/ the 19th Amendment | ||||
Depression & WW II Era Women | Women return to work outside the home | ||||
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10. GLOBAL
CAPITALISM 1910 - present |
Second Wave Feminism develops | Some Women experience true equality | ||
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11. POST
INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY 1970 - |
The New Woman:
3rd Wave Feminism develops |
Many Women experience equality in the West |
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- Project: Patriarchy, Matriarchy, & Equality in H-G Society & Today |
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THERE WAS A VERY HIGH LEVEL OF GENDER DIFFERENTIATION, BUT LITTLE GENDER DISCRIMINATION / PATRIARCHY | |||
During the Hunter Gatherer Era, humanity lived in 100's of thousands of mostly isolated tribes | |||
Hunter Gatherer Societies, aka primitive communalism, have the major feature of | |||
Living by hunting & gathering
Only minimal agriculture, which developed at the end of this era Semi nomadism No accumulation of wealth Status achievement in "traditional" roles |
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Most roles in Hunter Gatherer Society are ascribed, though increased status often served as a reward for achievement | |||
There was gender based division of labor in Hunter Gatherer Society | |||
In H-G society women & men had different, but essentially equal roles | |||
The major female roles in H-G Society include gatherer, herder, mother, sometimes leader (matrilineal), homemaker, medicine woman / religious leader (shaman, etc.), home defense | |||
WOMEN RAISED BABIES TO GIRLS & BOYS, & GIRLS TO WOMEN, BUT MEN RAISED BOYS TO MEN | |||
Many tribes used a matrilineal methods of tracing descent | |||
The major male roles in H-G society include hunter, sometimes leader, explorer, warrior, medicine man / religious leader (shaman, etc.), home defense | |||
Men raised boys to men | |||
Women brought in 70 % of the food, but the 30 % that men brought in by hunting was critical | |||
Men & women had equal status, power & privileges in Hunter Gatherer Society & because 99 % of human existence has occurred in Hunter Gatherer Society, therefore patriarchy, sexism, men controlling women IS NOT "natural" | |||
The roles of leader, doctor, shaman, defender are all male roles today, but they were definitely filled by both genders in Hunter Gatherer Society |
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FIRST WAVE FEMINISTS WERE ACTIVE BEFORE & DURING THE ENLIGHTENMENT ERA ESTBING SOME OF THE FIRST RATIONALE FOR WOMEN'S RIGHTS |
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First wave feminism began during the Enlightenment | |||
The women of the Enlightenment created a theoretical & practical basis for equal rights for women | |||
First wave feminists repudiated sexist notions about women | |||
First wave feminists advocated equal education & laid the foundation for the women's movement for the next few centuries | |||
The Enlightenment, circa 1689 - 1789, was the awakening of modern ideas on freedom, science, religion, and early feminist thought, etc., aka the Age of Reason, & was one factor in the Fr Revolution of 1789 | |||
See Also: The Enlightenment: | |||
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LEADING FIRST WAVE FEMINISTS, E.G. WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARTINEAU, ET AL, ESTBED A STRONG SOC MVMT & RATIONAL FOR SUFFRAGE & EQUAL ED |
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Leading thinkers of first wave feminism include Wollstonecraft, Macauley, Martineau, Taylor, Tubman, Rousseau, et al | |||
Mary Wollstonecraft, 1759 - 1797, in The Vindication of the Rights of Women, which was a response to Edmund Burke, held that women should have equal education | |||
The Vindication of the Rights of Women an important book in the Enlightenment & for US Constitution | |||
Catherine Macauley | |||
Harriet Martineau, 1802 - 1876, fought for women's education | |||
Harriet Taylor Mill, 1807 - 1858, was forced to live behind her husband, John Stuart Mill, but was the intellectual leader | |||
John Stuart Mill, 1807 - 1873, was an important utilitarian philosopher | |||
Harriet Tubman, 1820 - 1913, was a fugitive slave, underground railroad conductor, Union scout, & an Entrepreneur who founded two hospitals | |||
Other Enlightenment ideas on women: | |||
Rousseau wrote Emile & Sophy, in which he advocated sexist ideas though he is considered to be a progressive political philosopher |
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The End
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