Rev: The Env, Science, & Knowledge

c. How do we construct a Social Impact Assessment (SIA) which imparts an understanding how society impacts the env & how the env impacts soc in an impartial, yet thorough manner?

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SCIENCE

The symbolic interactionist paradigm which embodies the concept of the social construction of reality holds that the creation of the env debate is a product of science, media, politics, culture, etc.

Social problems come & go based on the factors which impact the social construction of reality

Those dealing w/ env problems, policies, grps, etc., all must comprehend all the levels of analysis including the global --> national --> regional --> local --> personal

Many times people will compare or attempt to debate using analyses that were constructed at different levels of analysis

POLITICIZATION OF SCIENCE

Science is politicized in the envl debate

Science alone does not offer all the solutions because solutions must be rooted in societal change, i.e. the application of policy to science

The envl mvmt does not understand the 3rd World, the interests of wking class, & many other soc relationships

ROLE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE IN ENVL STUDY

The role of social science in envl study:

1. has been subordinate to science, or even totally absent

2. takes natural science predictions & then works out the social & economic consequences through an SIA or some similar process

3. has deconstructed science: shown that science does not always possess the answers & sometimes is used in a misleading way (mystification)

4. aids in the education of the public

The lack of public uptake of envl ed or envl issues is based on ignorance, misunderstanding, cultural conflict, & alienation

5. aids in working out conflicts btwn social groups

THE CULTURE OF CLASSIC RESEARCH

A sociological analysis of the methodology & culture of science, i.e., epistemology, notes that "classic research:"
a. is reductionist
b. necessitates a high level control of the research site
c. is high precision science
d. is often done in a lab
e. attempts to control all variables

However, as the physical sciences tackle ever more complex problems, they move away from the classic research model in favor of one that more closely resembles the social sciences

The study of weather utilizes computer models that are based on simulations using various assumptions about many variables parallels a study of juvenile delinquency or the social impact of env' change which would also utilize assumptions about many interdependent variables

The social & physical sciences which examines envl issues are unique because saving the env is a public good in that it is in everyone's interest, though many people, because of what soc scientists call false consciousness, inauthenticity, or ideology, do not recognize that interest, & even deny it & fight against it

The universal importance of the env makes envlism too involved in too many forums

Being involved in many envs allows the envl mvmt to make moral & ethical claims that it is imperative for all groups to cooperate in overriding the politics as usual multiple level discord

	ISSUES OF THE ENVL DEBATE & SOCIAL SCIENCE METHODOLOGY
	The problems for the social sciences in the envl debate & the methodology of envl social science include:
	1. that the 3rd World is opposed to much of the North's agenda on the env, whether it be from an enlist or indlist pt of view
	2. a view that the env & the econ are in opposition, though not all social scientists agree
	3. the domination of the envl debate by the physical sciences & little true integration of the social sciences
	4. a lack of a unified social theory
	5. the complexity of the social & physical envl debate
	6. the fact that the debate is not just about social or physical science issues in that it is about pwr in the pol & econ realms & the very structure of society
	SEVEN TRENDS IN THE ENVL DEBATE
	There are SEVEN important trends in the envl debate including the:
	1. greening of the New Soc Mvmts (NSMs)
	See Also: NSM's
	2. greening of the corp world
	See Also: Greenwashing
	3. corporatizing of the env mvmt
	4. globalization of env problems around such issues as intl pollution, global warming, intl debt, & more
	5. use of the physical sciences to solve envl probs
	See Also: Env sci
	6. use of the soc sci to solve envl probs
	See Also: Soc sci & policy analysis
	7. mystification of science
	See Also: Env Science
	In relation to the mystification of science, the social examination of the process of science, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Thomas Kuhn found that there is normal research & new paradigm research
	For Kuhn, when an old paradigm becomes transparently inadequate, a new paradigm comes to gain credibility
	Kuhn's analysis implies that the social sciences examining the env should explore a new paradigm that covers relationships btwn soc theory & nat & phys sciences
	In The Green Case by Steven Yearley, all envl problems have a soc dimension
	For Yearley, there are good class arguments for who supports envl issues, that is primarily the well educated, middle class
	For Yearley, the soc & nat sciences are talking past each other & paying too little attn to the imp constituency of the well educated middle class
	For Yearley, the way forward, the way to advance the envl debate & the way to estb a paradigm which takes account of both the physical & the social sciences is to dev what he calls critical realism
	CR recognizes that
	a. There are relatively enduring structures & processes in both the soc & nat worlds
	b. The relations among all organisms, including humans, & w/ structures & processes may constrain & / or enable action
	CR recognizes the need to move beyond a mere interdisciplinary approach to true integration & see people as a part of nature
	The best way is to abandon distinction btwn people & nature, but even such env authors as Dickens maintains this distinction in his title: Society & Nature

	BIOLOGICAL THEORY & THE ENV
	Ecology is the study of the relationships btwn organisms & the ecological systems on which they are dependent
	The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in the 1800s
	See Also: A Socio Hist Analysis of the Indl Age
	Ecology is heavily influenced by Darwinian theory which holds that only those beings sufficiently fit will produce off-spring
	For ecologists, beings find a niche & niches have a limited carrying capacity
	People have niches & indeed have made the whole world their niche
	But in applying evolution to people, ecologists are not generally looking at social, econ, pol, gender, racial or other factors
	Ecologists have no discussion of cap, communism or other social forms & therefore, there is no consideration as to how these soc relations interact w/ envl & ecol sys
	The lack of integration of the social & physical sciences comes in part from the fear of earlier attempts to integrate all science in, for example, social Darwinism, which essentially became a pseudo science that was a thinly disguised rationalization for racism in the early 1900s
	SOCIAL THEORY & THE ENV
	From prehistoric times & until recently in modern times, the env was simply out there as an infinite resource at the disposal of industrialization & social progress
	From prehistoric times & until recently in modern times, the limits of soc progress lay in social relations, not the env
	And as soc scientists view envl issues, they come to view the issues as wholly soc or cultural
	METHODOLOGY FROM THE LEFT
	The view from the Left on society & the env is holistic, justice oriented, & group based
	From the left political view, green politics cannot be purely ecological in that they must bring in economics & other soc sci
	Envl issues are viewed as part of a fundamentally exploitative, unjust & undemocratic form of society
	There are powerfully organized producer interests forcing people to become individualistic
	The Left is radical to the extent that if the problem w/ the env is capitalism, then they are willing to "overthrow" it
	Rudolph Bahro is a noted socialist thinker in Eastern Europe whose alternative view is that the problem of the env' is a greater problem than mere rapid industrialization
	For Bahro the solution in part for the envl debate is to deindustrialize the North relative to what it is now
	While Bahro is a socialist who bases much of his work on class analysis, class relations will not serve as a basis for social change while envl issues may
	Bahro's position is the flip side of where many Left thinkers begin
	For the Left wing thinkers, just as Green Parties cannot be wholly concerned w/ ecology, so parties of change cannot be totally concerned w/ social relations, ignoring ecology
	Bahro agrees that the social sciences tend to ignore natural & physical sciences, i.e. the env
	Most critical theorists ignore the fact that people are part of nature
	Nature is ignored by Leftist thinkers because the concept of the “natural human” both avoids & creates so many questions so as to make analysis difficult
	To ignore the split btwn people & nature is to accept the split btwn people & nature
	Feminism deals more explicitly w/ the "natural" differences btwn the sexes & so has advanced more toward understanding both nature & “natural people” or natural social relations

	METHODOLOGY FROM THE RIGHT
	The view from the Right on society & the env is methodologically individualistic, embraces fundamental ideas of human nature, & is more comfortable w/ a human & nature split
	The right seems more wedded to methodological individualism & is even more non interdisciplinary than the Left
	Hayek notes in The Fatal Conceit that humans have biological & human natures
	From the Right wing perspective, people still have attributes from pre historical life which include the ability to interact w/ a limited number of trusted others
	From the right, evolution has not changed people or society very much in the last few thousand years
	An example of the right's belief that people have not evolved is Desmond Morris' The Naked Ape: which examines basic human traits of survival, control, conquest, etc.
	Hayek goes beyond a Morris type of analysis & admits that there is an "extended order" in the last few thousand years, in which biological evolution has been extended by cultural evolution
	For Hayek & other people on the right, we have rules, or norms, which are passed from generation to generation which are tacit understandings which have allowed us to thrive
	For Hayek & others on the right, the norms which allow society to thrive include: - honesty - morality - privacy - property rights (animal instincts??)
	Hayek's key point is that cultural relations act as a constraint on our genetic inheritance
	An individual or even a society cannot have sufficient knowledge to know why the extended order, i.e. culture, has evolved in the way it has
	Those on the right hold that our present, dominating culture is closely linked to the mkt econ since that was an early form of trade
	Critics of the right counter that early trade was done through a barter system w/ only very little money
	Early on there were not even any traditional small businesses, only family centered bartering
	For the right, society is now too complex for us to be able to plan on a national scale & thus the best planning is done by individuals & families
	For the right, the planners in the command economies were the major beneficiaries
	Even on the right, Hayek is being to break down the distinction btwn the social & the natural
	And Hayek's ideas are being applied to the study of the env though he does not examine it directly
	Right leaning thinkers who study the env recognize that knowledge of the env is scanty & complex & just as is the case w/ the economy, society may not be able to plan for it
	Thus the solution to the envl debate from the right is similar to the solution they have for the econ: since envl issues are too complex for societal level planning, the planning is best done by individuals & families
	In sum, Hayek et al see capitalism as the solution, where as left wing theorists see it as the problem
	For the right, mkt econs can be used to solve ecological problems such as done w/ the mkt. for pollution where each mfr owns pollution rights
	For the right, mkt forces & human ingenuity will always take care of shortage by providing solutions
	The right is suspicious of catastrophe laden predictions in that the population bomb has not exploded yet
	For the right, people have an innate need for an external threatening authority
	For the right, govt bureaucrats are rent seekers, i.e. they are looking for someone else to pay the rent

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Outline on Epistemology & the Sociology of Knowledge

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INTRODUCTION: Social sciences, humanities & even the physical & life sciences struggle to understand how & what we understand:
What is knowledge?
What is the value of knowledge?
Is there a difference btwn truth & knowledge?
How do know something is knowledge? correct? "the truth?" etc.

EPISTEMOLOGY DEFINED

Epistemology: The theory or science of the
- origin
- nature
- limits
of knowledge

CULTURE OF SCIENCE: OBJECTIVITY & SUBJECTIVITY

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In the West, the culture of science is such that science has become "all powerful" in our society, making its anomalies difficult to acknowledge

In our culture of science, we are socialized to believe that truth / knowledge is absolute

But the study of epistemology makes it is apparent that science / knowledge is not absolute or certain

People often confuse objectivity & subjectivity assuming they mean, respectively, certain & uncertain, just & unjust, true & false

Objectivity & subjectivity are distinguished simply by the way of understanding that creates it

Objective knowledge is almost always created via science

Subjective knowledge is usually created through common sense, emotional understanding, etc.

SUBJECTIVITY

But science itself has a significant subjective component

For most social sciences, knowledge is objective & subjective

Knowledge is not just facts, it is theories, & conjectures too

We often do not keep the "levels" of facts, theories, conjectures straight, we often confuse them

Facts are never as independent of theory as we would like them to be especially in the social sciences

Because even scientific knowledge has both an objective & subjective component, there are no absolute facts

Example: THE "Standard Kilogram" is made up of a brick of platinum & iridium, but it was found in the summer of 2003 that the Standard Kilogram seemed to be losing weight & this weight loss could not be explained

Example: Unemployment is 5.4%
The definition of "unemployed" frequently changes because it is a politically & socially sensitive measure. You cannot be unemployed if you are a student, out of work for more than 6 mos., a housewife, etc.

Subjectivity remains in science because knowledge is framed by the FOUR conditions of:
a. ideas
b. the senses
c. paradigms
d. social / political conditions

a. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON IDEAS

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One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on ideas

While facts are considered to be objective, theories, paradigms & conjectures are subjective, & yet the line btwn them is never clear

The line btwn the objective & subjective aspects of knowledge are not clear because facts are dependent for definition on theory

b. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON THE SENSES

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One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on the senses

Because of illusions & misperceptions, a researcher cannot trust the senses, & instruments affect what they measure

c. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON PARADIGMS

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One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on paradigms

We saw earlier that after a paradigm shift, many fundamentals of knowledge change

d. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON SOCIAL & POLTICAL CONDITIONS

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One of the conditions of subjectivity of knowledge is that social & political conditions affect the composition of knowledge

The subjectivity of knowledge can be seen in that the definitions of unemployment, marriage, race, etc. are always influenced by the soci historical politico context of that time, & thus change

The soci historical politico context of science does not necessarily affect sciences' validity, but it may be used as a cover for bias

Bias affects subjectivity & objectivity through THREE processes of preexisting culture, the stratification of knowledge, & the control of knowledge

THREE ANTIDOTES TO BIAS

a. QUESTION ALL KNOWLEDGE

A particular socio historical political context impacts what people in a society will & will not accept as knowledge or truth because of pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms, i.e. culture

Do you believe in multiple dimensions? ghosts? UFOs? the Earth goes around the sun?

The antidote to socio histoical political bias is to question knowledge itself, have no blind faith in science; Keep on Questioning "Question Authority"

b. WHO BENEFITS FROM KNOWLEDGE?

A particular soci historical politico context stratifies the value of knowledge

The knowledge about a stock may be of value to Martha Steward
The knowledge of how to make a gun full auto may be of value to the Crips
The knowledge of particular birth control methods is of value to women

Knowledge is controlled based on its value to conflicting groups in society

The antidote to the stratification of knowledge is to ask, "Who benefits from a given bit of knowledge?"

c. WHO CONTROLS A PARTICULAR SET OF KNOWLEDGE?

A particular soci historical politico context puts particular people, groups, societies in the position to create, destroy, control knowledge

The antidote to particular groups controlling knowledge is to ask: "Who controls or creates that knowledge?"

As a result of his extensive travels, Montesquieu recognized that knowledge was 'contextual'

The precautionary rule is a caveat to the scientific methods which holds that because evidence of harm is uncertain, & error costs are very high, it is acceptable to take precautionary action

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Examples: Knowledge is based on ideas
Facts are "objective"    256,000 mi to the moon:   planet orbiting black hole: space is bent
        Economics: unemployment   5.4% as defined by who?
Theories, paradigms & conjectures are subjective       Life begins at conception, 3 mos., viability, birth, 1 week
     Religion v. science / evolution

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Examples: Knowledge is based on the senses
Hume: Cannot trust senses: Stick looks bent in water
Cannot trust instrument readings: Measuring life on Mars: chemical reaction
Instruments may not measure what we think they measure
Instruments affect / impact / change what they measure: measuring cellular life, atomic events changes them
Observing people changes their behavior: from heart rate & BP to dating behavior

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Examples: Knowledge is based on paradigms:
Allegiance to a paradigm tends to blind one to anomalies: facts that don't fit the paradigm
    Theories of flat Earth actively suppressed any info that challenged it
    Conflict theorists see mostly conflict & little cooperation       Conflict can advance a group's interests
    Functionalists see mostly cooperation & little conflict          Conflict is dysfunctional

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Examples: Knowledge is based on social & political conditions:
The health of the economy is constantly redefined by parties, politicians, business leaders, etc.
The value of wolves in the wilderness is seen differently by different groups of interest: environmentalists, hunters, wilderness, etc.
Our knowledge of maleness & femaleness & our roles in society

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Outline on the Sociology of Science

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MERTON & THE SOC OF SCIENCE

Merton is a functionalist theorist who noted that science is a distinctive institution w/ a particular normative structure, i.e. a unique culture w/ its own informal rules & regs

For Merton,

a. science operates almost exclusively according to Weber's theoretical or intellectual rationality, also known as the rational cognitive processes, which is the ability to utilize people's rational problem solving capacities in the rational realm of analysis or way of knowing

b. science operates outside of Weber's substantive rationality which is the dominance of norms & values in the rational choice of means to ends

c. science tries to operate according to Weber's dictum that science should be value free & universal

Examining science as a tool of competing political & econ interests who control the funding, the type of research done, & thus in a manner, the outcome of research is the demystification of the political economy of science

RISK ASSESSMENT

A sociological examination of the field of science notes that risk assessment makes large assumptions on many issues when science can only give a probability of an event occurring

Science can function properly in each of the political economic systems & as a risk assessor, but it is important to understand what is occurring

MORAL & ETHICAL CLAIMS

Neither the physical sciences nor the social sciences make moral or ethical claims, & yet many of the issues that each deal w/ have many moral & ethical dimensions interwoven in them

An example of the interweaving of moral & ethical dimensions into physical & social science arenas can be seen in the examination of the env where it is recognized that saving the env is a public good because it is in everyone's interest

INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE

But often the physical or social examination of any public issue, e.g. the env, health care, the econ, makes a single discipline of science involved in too many forums

The application of science to a public issue generally requires that several modes of science operate in an interdisciplinary mode which is much more all encompassing than they are currently configured to operate in

Operating in an ultra interdisciplinary mode frequently makes it appear as if the science are making moral & ethical claims, but in fact, they should not though some analysts do make such claims

Science can be used to support a position on a public issue, while it can also be used to degrade a position on a public issue

Thus science can be used to support envlist claims, but has also been used to destroy envlist claims

Thomas Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions, i.e. paradigm changes, explains that we undergo sci rev's which totally invalidate old perspectives such as seen in the change in the worldwide belief from a flat to round Earth, from geocentrism to heliocentrisism, from religious explanations of the origin of humanity to evolution from
Newtonian to Einsteinian physics, as well as the development of the sociological paradigms of functionalism, conflict theory & symbolic interactionism

SCIENCE & SOCIAL PROBLEMS & POLICY

Science is seen as the discourse / perspective which is best suited to the study of soc problems & social policy

Science has a high level of social authority

There are two concerns w/ science in relation to it's expression in policy & as reported by the media, including:

a. that it takes a scientific review to establish a ‘sound scientific basis’ for a given issue like global warming, reducing welfare, stimulating the econ, etc.

b. that it is difficult to integrate the social sciences into the framework of the physical sciences & policy

The social sciences are generally seen as subordinate to the physical sciences

In most policy debates, soc sci has been subordinate to science, or totally absent

Social impact assessment ( SIA ) takes natural science predictions & then works out the social & economic consequences

Soc sci has deconstructed science by showing that science does not always possess the answers & sometimes is used in a misleading way in a process called mystification

Science, like any issue, can become politicized when uncertainties are emphasized / overlooked, when only one pt of view is presented, etc.

What are the criteria of good science for policy making?

Example: Global Warming
The debate on global warming reflects the rich world's agendas & interests
The debate on global warming goes back & fourth from alarmism to pacifism

THE CLASSIC RESEARCH MODEL

Classic research is reductionist in that it exhibits:
a. a high level of control
b. high precision in the scientific process
c. lab conditions
d. the control of all variables

Weather prediction, computer models, etc. are based on simulations using various assumptions about many variables

The classic research model cannot estb it's conditions of control, lab study, the control of all variables, etc. when examining such complicated phenomenon such as the weather or the env

PEER PRESSURE & PEER REVIEW IN SCIENCE

In public domain: judgments of research community create closure & natural validation around particular constructions of an analysis: e.g. global warming

But a weakness in peer review is that one incompletely warranted scientific judgment may be ‘confirmed’ by another incomplete study

Cronyism or favoritism science is a kind of scientific network interdependency & mutual ‘bootstrapping’

Scientists look at different data w/ different theoretical perspectives long before the policy analysts receive the ‘dumbed down’ version

Peer pressure also occurs btwn scientists & policy makers

When peer review works correctly, objective scientists who are experts in a field review the work & give an unbiased opinion of any work submitted to them

See Also: The Scientific Method

THE BRANCHES OF ACADEME / ALL KNOWLEDGE IS ORGANIZED INTO THE HUMANITIES, THE PHYS SCIENCES, & THE SOC SCIENCES

I. Humanities

II. Physical Sciences

III. The Social Sciences

The Sociological Imagination

COMMON SENSE & SCIENCE ARE SIMILAR IN THAT TO SOME EXTENT THEY ARE BASED ON PRAGMATISM / TRIAL & ERROR

Common sense & science are very similar. Science is simply more well reviewed than common sense

Common sense is "personal science"

Everyday we make our own hypothesis, tests, generalizations, etc.

Example: Should I bring an umbrella today?
Scientific opinion: yes: 90% chance of rain
--front coming in this afternoon
Common sense: no: it's clear; hasn't rained in 3 days

Sociology uses the scientific method to develop understanding

Sociology is often viewed as common sense, but as we saw on ways of understanding, common sense is untested, & unverified

Sociology is tested & verified

UNDERSTANDING IS OFTEN DONE THROUGH THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES, THE HUMANITIES, & THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, OFFERING INSTRUMENTAL, INTERPRETIVE, & CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE

To understand culture in everyday life, we usually use all of the methods of understanding above, except science

We utilize all the ways of understanding, our culture of understanding, which is composed of knowledge, Beliefs, Values, & Norms (KBVN) , but usually not science, to understand everyday life

People try to understand the new neighbors on issues from A to Z utilizing all of the types of understanding, usually, except science

Our way of understanding' determines our actions or behavior

The ways of understanding our culture, which is composed of our shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN ) & the immediate situation creates our basis for our action: our behavioral/ mental states of our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI )

Marx, Weber, Durkheim & most recently Habermas & other theorists have developed schemas of understanding, knowledge, science, rationality, etc.

Habermas notes that for most of history, the physical sciences have been concerned w/ instrumental ways of knowing while the humanities have been concerned w/ interpretive ways of understanding

Habermas posits that w/ the rise of the social sciences in recent history, critical or emancipatory ways of understanding have been, & are being developed

Instrumental knowledge is concerned w/ tech control, ie the calculating of means to ends: work: applied to environment, other societies, & people

Instrumental knowledge is often important in the econ / the workplace

Interpretive knowledge is the rational exploration of the past: & the human condition & is usually nonjudgmental & mostly factual

For interpretive knowledge, understanding past generations helps understand the present

Critical knowledge uncovers in whose interest instrumental & humanistic knowledge lies

Critical knowledge fosters emancipation in the form of the realization of fundamental human needs such as creativity & social interaction

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An Overview of Culture

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- Video: Culture

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- Project: Identifying a Culture

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- Project: The Intersections of KBVN

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- Project: Real & Ideal Culture

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- Project: Video: What Is Culture?

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- Project: Video: The Social Orgs of Culture

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- Video: Romeo & Juliet

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CULTURE IS THE SHARED KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES, NORMS ( K B V N ) & THE PHYSICAL & ABSTRACT MANIFESTATIONS OF THAT CONTENT

All societies have a culture

Culture may be defined as the shared content of society

The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ( K B V N )

The four components of culture are physically manifested through symbols & language

Symbols are defined as anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture

The meaning of the same symbols varies from society to society, w/in a single society, and over time

Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life

Do not confuse the common usage of the word "culture" w/ the sociological use

People commonly use culture to mean society &/ subculture & this usage would include both culture ( KBVN ) & social structure ( PF REG M CEML )

THE EXPRESSION OF CULTURE IS ACCOMPLISHED IN MANY WAYS INCLUDING LANGUAGE, ART, RELIGION, CUSTOMS, & MORE

When examining culture, KBVN are often expressed in SEVEN configurations
Roles                      Language                        Technology
Customs                 Material Objects
Religion                 Groups of People

Culture shock refers to personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life

Only humans depend on culture rather than instincts to ensure the survival of their kind

Culture is a long time in the making

Culture can be a constraint in that humans cannot live w/o culture, but the capacity for culture has some drawbacks

Culture can be a source of freedom in that culture forces us to choose as we make & remake a world for ourselves

The social sciences carry out 'cultural mapping,' i.e. a cataloging of the various aspects of culture throughout societies

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES EXAMINE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF CULTURE

1. Sociologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in modern society & how culture impacts social structures & personality

2. Anthropologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in ancient &/ indigenous societies

3. Geographers examine how place & space shape culture & vice versa & how culture is organized spatially

4. Psychologists examine how the subconscious is manifested in culture

5. Political scientists examine how culture affects govt & the political process

Sociologists generally accept TWO human manifestations of culture: material & non material culture which occur in the TWO settings of the physical environment & the human environment

All the levels meld into one seamless culture:
1. Material culture
     a. Material culture & the physical environment
     b. Material culture & the human environment
2. Non material culture
     a. Non material culture & the physical environment
     b. Non material culture & the human environment

1. MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED IN OBJECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF KBVN

a. MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED THROUGH THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The physical environment includes the "natural" environment as well as human made rural landscapes, city-scapes, etc.

Even the physical environment in which we live comes to be identified as a representative of our material culture & the environment does shape our KBVN

Usually different regions have a cultural attachment to their environment

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Examples of material culture & the physical environment

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b. MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED THROUGH THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT

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1) World symbols: An example of a world symbol is the UN Building or the Earth picture

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2) National symbols: a nation's flag

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3) Regional symbols: race car

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4) Homes/ businesses styles: ranch home, mobile home

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5) Cars, boats etc. styles: SUV, mini van, sports car, etc.

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6) Clothing styles: woman in a black dress, men in black

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7) Body shape / style: body art

2. NON MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFEST IN SUBJECTIVE, ABSTRACT, IDEOLOGICAL, ETC. REPRESENTATIONS OF CULTURE

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Non material culture is manifested in abstract representations of KBVN

a. KNOWLEDGE IS MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE

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Knowledge is shared truth based on science

Examples of cultural manifestations of knowledge are Darwin fish symbols, Stanford T-shirts, math symbol jewelry, tech gear & the very ideas these symbols represent

b. BELIEFS ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE

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Beliefs are shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense

Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content

Examples of cultural manifestations of beliefs are Christian fish symbols, Jesus T-shirts, Crescent Moon jewelry, religious dress, & the very ideas these symbols represent

c. VALUES ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE

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Values are shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life

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Core American values have an ideal & a real Aspect; See the Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values

Ideal values are those that actors hold "patriotically," or rhetorically, that actors believe that they hold

Real values are those that actors actually practice; when faced w/ a "situation," actors show their real values

The concept of real values can be seen in the fact that Americans have the core cultural value of democracy, but fail to vote

d. NORMS ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE THROUGH FOLKWAYS, MORES, LAWS, ETC.

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Norms are shared expectations about behavior, i.e. socially defined rules

i. Folkways are informal, minor norms that usually carry only minor & informal sanctions, or punishments, when they are violated

Example: Manners

ii. Mores are informal norms, that are very important to people & may be written into law

Example: People should not talk loudly in religious buildings

iii. Laws are formal, codified norms which everyone is expected to be aware & which carry specific, legal sanctions

Example: driving regulations

Western cultural practices are exported by the media to remote corners of globe
Paul Harvey: Yet this is not “one world”

INTERSECTIONS OF KBVN OCCUR AS A RESULT OF SOCIALIZATION & LIFE EXPERIENCES, & VARY WIDELY RESULTING IN INFINITE MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURE

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Culture's components of K + B + V + N, have limited intersections

Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content

WI Thomas on truth.... & culture: 'What we believe to be true, becomes true in its consequences'

Examples: men are buffoons
Cuban Missile Crisis: the Russians are offering a way out / the Russians are holding a hard line
A clique believing someone is cool

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We each have conflicting views on KBVN AOI which often create anxiety, cognitive dissonance, etc. on an individual level and conflict, strife, war, etc. on a societal level

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Non material culture & the physical environment can be seen is the aesthetic question: "What is the meaning of wind whispering in trees to your culture?"

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Non material culture & the human environment can be seen is the aesthetic question: "What is the meaning of a veiled face? of green hair?"

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Material culture & the physical environment

Examples: mountains, ocean, corn fields
Midwest: rich farm land, lazy rivers, flat land, cold winters
West coast: beaches, sunshine, warm winters, best climate
Appalachia: mountains, forests, strip mines

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Material culture & the human environment
Physical objects representing non material or abstract culture
      World Symbols
      National Symbols
      Regional Symbols
      Homes
      Cars, boats, planes, etc.
      Clothes
      Body

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World symbols
Not many of these

UN Building

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National symbols

US Flag
Confederate Battle Flag

Some smaller items
Food: chocolate

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Regional symbols
Silo
Mississippi River
Empire State Building
Cheese
Potatoes
Tobacco

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Homes
Shacks to Mansions to Castles

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Car, boats, etc.
Mini van to SUV to Harley to junker

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Clothing
Clothing, like language, is so personal that it identifies your culture
We use clothing to indicate respect ( in a ritual such as marriage, or funeral ) or disrespect

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Body
Body image & decoration is becoming more & more malleable:
We now idolize the thin, athletic body
But less thin that the "Twiggy" days of the late 1970's
Heavier men & women were preferred in earlier times
Women have been subject to greater pressures to achieve the ideal body image than have men.... but is this changing?

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Non material culture
Abstract: the knowledge, beliefs, values & norms ( KBVN ) of a society

a. Non Material culture & the physical environment
b. Non Material culture & the human environment

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1. Knowledge: shared truth based on science We believe it to be true

Physical Sciences
Natural
Life
Social Sciences
Humanities
Arts

Knowledge is not absolute in that it changes from society to society from year to year
Generally we can speak of scientific knowledge

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2. Beliefs: shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense
General recognition of less truth validity
There is no clear line btwn Knowledge & Beliefs

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3. Values: Shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life

We are generally unaware of what our values are unless we have gone through training/coaching/therapy to "know thyself"

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Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values

Core American values: general consensus
( may conflict )

Ideal culture:
accepted in principle

Real culture:
actually practiced

1. Freedom

Freedom for all; Freedom is our Number 1 Value!

We allow more freedom for a middle majority & the upper class, less for the others. Many groups have limited freedom

2. Democracy

3. Individualism

4. Responsibility

5. Religion/morality

6. Science/tech

7. Opportunity

8. Competition

9. Work ethic

10. Humanitarianism

11. Practicality

12. Nationalism

13. Romance

14. Sexuality

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4. Norms
Folkways:    manners, grammar, dressing appropriately
Mores:        littering to flag burning
Laws:          littering, flag burning, to robbery & murder

We are not generally conscious of norms
Their impact is automatic: internalized

We often can ponder the norm of a particular situation

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Knowledge, beliefs, values, norms are like four intersecting circles
K & B can be tested, but are not
V & N are not recognized as vague

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Culture = K + B + V + N
The sum of our culture
(knowledge, beliefs, values, rules [norms])
creates truth for each of us
What people agree on is “the truth”

WI Thomas: If people believe something is true, it becomes real in its consequences.
Knowledge & beliefs define action
Earth: flat or round
Love: eros, filial, romantic
Beauty:

We are not generally aware of what our culture is
We do not know what is in our own mind w/ regards to K B V N

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KBVN AOI
We are generally not explicitly conscious of our KBVN
We hold conflicting positions in relation to KBVN AOI
But some people are more introspective about
     Attitudes
     Opinions
     Interests

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Non Material culture & the physical environment
Humans definitely attribute abstract meanings to the physical environment
As scientists, we cannot judge this, only try to understand it
Durkheim delved deeply into this question:
Some critics today decry our loss of connection w/ the environment & the mystical

What is the meaning of an untouched forest?
What is the meaning of a Clinch River freshwater mussel?
What is the meaning of Antarctica?
The moon?
The stars?
The planets?

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Non Material culture & the human environment
As human influence & material creations grow, so does the amount of meaning we attribute to human made creations

What is the meaning of a Ford Excursion? ( the largest SUV )
What is the meaning of green hair?
What is the meaning of a 5 caret diamond ring? estimated value $1/4 million

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Outline on KBVN AOII

External
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- Project: Your KBVN AOII & the Env

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CULTURE & OUR AWARENESS OF CULTURE

Culture is the shared content of society

Culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ( K B V N ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content

Attitudes, opinions, interests, & ideology ( AOII ) are an individual's culture

Our consciousness or awareness of culture is manifested through our AOII

The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( K B V N )

Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life

UNAWARENESS OF CULTURE

We are generally unaware of our own culture, of the KBVN that we hold in common w/ most other members of society

The fact that we are unaware of our culture is not to say that we are unconscious of our culture

We can gain awareness of some of KBVN
- through living "the examined life"
- through therapy, counseling, etc.

"Know thyself"

INTERSECTION OF K & B

Individuals usually believe that their K & B are the same

What we K may not jive w/ what we believe such as is seen w/ general society beliefs on female & male drivers, & the knowledge that, for example, the insurance industry has about female & male drivers

To the extent that K & B are in sync in a person, that person has a consistent, healthy mental state

To the extent that K & B are in sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it has a consistent, healthy mental state & would tend to be a functional social entity

To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a person, that person has a conflict, possibly unhealthy mental state that may be characterized by anomie or alienation

To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it is in conflict, & may be characterized by anomie or alienation

The impact of culture on actions comes through our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI )

ATTITUDE

An attitude is a mental state that one consciously feels (emotes) that affects beh & generally cannot be articulated

An attitude is the amalgam of our culture, our KBVN, that we can sense but are not consciously enough aware of so that we can explain or voice it to ourselves or others

But since we do often act on the basis of emotion or feeling, attitudes are important in shaping behavior

We are generally unaware of our attitude in a rational sense, i.e. we find it difficult to explain or even understand it

When we have a strong attitude, we may be aware of it's general direction

Those significant others who know us well may know our attitude better than we do because they have a better chance to be an outside, objective observer

OPINION

An opinion is an attitude that one can articulate, at least to a minimum extent

We can voice our opinion

It is a reflection of our K & B of which we are aware

An opinion is a reflection of our Vs & Ns which are general below our level of awareness

But in most cases our understanding of our opinion is a poor reflection of our actual or real attitudes

Because we often cannot totally explain opinions, or because it is obvious to us that they are based on beliefs or values, & not on knowledge, an opinion is a particular judgment or belief resting on grounds insufficient to produce certainty

Most people recognize that opinions are not rationales for doing or believing something

We generally accept that opinion can be easily swayed

PUBLIC OPINION

Public opinion is the opinions of people throughout a soc about 1 or more controversial issues

Generally a group or society can voice its public opinion if they have a relatively free & open society & they have the resources in the form of media or social scientists to uncover that public opinion & make it known

Public opinion is a reflection of our below awareness V & N but in most cases it is a poor reflection

In modern societies today there is often the sense that public opinion is true

There are two reasons that public opinion is judged to be true

One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because it is judge to be an accurate, scientific reflection of many people & thus the truth is based on the idea that the opinion has been reliably measured

One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because we have a fundamental, democratic value "the people" are always right

We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe it is accurate & if we have the same belief

We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe that many people hold that belief

Many earlier social scientists examined what they called the spirit of society (SpS) which is the generally unconscious attitude of a society

The SpS is mostly below most people's awareness level & thus it is an emotional experience

Durkheim wrote about the collective unconsciousness which is similar to the SpS

Tocqueville wrote about the which is similar to the SpS

In his exposition of the sociological imagination, Mills writes that to understand our relationship in the world, it is necessary to understand the general character of the men & women who are coming to prevail in that society & thus the general character is similar to the SpS

In his exposition of class & false consciousness, Marx writes that a class of people must have a historical view of the social relationships that are the best for them, i.e. their interests, in that society, & thus class consciousness is similar to the SpS

INTERESTS

An interest is what social relationships an individual or group judge to promote their general welfare

Interests are usually economic

For Marx, an interests is determined by person's relationship to the means of prod

Interests are mostly below the level of awareness for an individual or a group & thus are an emotional experience

Marx & others pt out that we need to make interests more apparent to selves & others if we expect society to function properly

Example: What is my interest in a new road going by my house? What is my interest in the war in Iraq? What is my interest in the development of the space shuttle?

TYPOLOGY OF INTERESTS

People often act against there self interest & against the interest of soc

Type of Interest
Real	one's "objective" interest
Perceived	what one believes to be their interest
False	not in one's "objective" interest
Class	the interest of a class
Community	the interest of a community
Social	the interest of a society
Human	the interest of the world/all humanity

IDEOLOGY

An ideology is a particular system of ideas a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group or a person especially on social & political topics

Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality

An ideology may be understood as a "worldview"

KBVN AOII AFFECTED BEHAVIOR

It is only logical to assume that one's attitude, opinion, etc. would affect or determine one's behavior

In most cases, we assume that our actions, therefore, are congruent w/ out KBVN AOII, but in practice that may not always be so

Because much of KBVN AOII falls below the level of explicit consciousness, & because we may have one or several conflicts, contradictions, or inconsistencies in our mental system of KBVN AOII, we may act in a way that does not represent what one would expect from our KBVN AOII

We may not act consistently because we may emphasis one part of our mental system in one context & another part in another context

A person may believe that K is motivating her/him, when in fact an inconsistent V is actually motivating them

To the extent that we know ourselves & to the extent that our mental system is consistent, we will act more predictably

The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent

The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization

Internal Links Top	Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior	External Links
Knowledge	He wore a coat because he knew it would rain; he saw the weather radar report
Belief	She wore a coat because she believed in would not rain because it was nice in the morning
Value	He work a coat because he valued being warm & dry, as opposed to the value of looking good w/o one
Norm	She wore a coat because Mom always made her wear one when it looked like rain
Attitude	His negative attitude about wearing his coat was apparent to everyone but him; he didn't believe he needed it.
Opinion	In her opinion, she didn't need to wear the coat.
Real Int	It was in his (real) interest to wear the coat because there was a high chance of rain.
Perceived	She saw that it was in her interest to wear the coat because she knew her mother watched the weather.
False	He didn't think it was in his interest to wear the coat because he thought it looked bad.
Class	It is in the interest of the lower class to have coats. It is not in the interest of the rich for the lower class to have coats because it makes them comfortable & more likely to demand other things.
Community	It is in the interest of the community for the lower class to have coats.
Natl	It is in the interest of the nation for all classes to have coats.
World	It is in the interest of the world for everyone to have coats.
Ideology	Belief in an ideology of human rights including the basic necessity of life for all means that all people should have food, water, clothing, shelter, ed....
	The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent

Internal Links Top	Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding		External Links
	Way of Understanding	Cultural /mental state
	Common sense	BN O
	Religion	BN O
	Science	K
	Emotion	VN AI
	All of the above	Ideology
	Ways of Understanding
	The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization

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Outline on Paradigms: Shifting & Competing

Internal
Links

- Project: Paradigms

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- Video: Sociological Perspectives

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INTRODUCTION

The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies

The values / beliefs of science include the ideas that:
a. there is progress
b. science is cumulative, "brick by brick" we construct science base upon agreed on facts

Theories are the infrastructure, But people are working on different buildings, i.e. paradigms

And all the bricks (facts) must be used

Facts that do not fit a theory are called anomalies

All theories have anomalies: i.e. they cannot explain everything

The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies

PARADIGM DEFINED

Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape & underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories

A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations of why society is the way it is

A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects:

a. a set of questions to be asked about the subject

b. a general theoretical approach explaining the nature of the subject

c. a set of values relating to the subject

d. a set of theories concerning a common theme

There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of understanding

COMPETING PARADIGMS

Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition of ideas within or between societies

Astronomy: collapsing universe vs. expanding universe
Paleontology: great comet vs. predation cold blooded vs warm blooded dinosaurs
Biology: Darwinians vs. evolutionary shock
Sociology: Functionalism vs. Conflict Theory vs. Symbolic Interactionism

PARADIGM SHIFTS

Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies, or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period

Examples:
- world views changed from geo centric to helio centric
- polytheism to monotheism
- flat to round world
- earth centric to helio centric
- magic to science
- demons to mental illness
- creationism to evolution
- Newtonian physics to Einsteinian physics

Paradigms are also known as perspectives, schools, school of thought, etc.

Science does not embrace "one truth" because human truth is always contested & relative, rather, what is true is constantly changing, but we act as if science is one truth

Because there is no absolute truth, & because people have competing ideas on what is closest to truth, we have paradigms

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Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, & Disciplines

Sociology is a multiple paradigm science: functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism

Theories & paradigms provide a conceptual formulation that provides a logical explanation or framework for all the facts, i.e. the objective info gained through observation & experiment

Theories must be validated in the same way that a hypothesis is validated

PARADIGMS & LAWS

Paradigms & laws are not validated in the way that theories & hypotheses are validated

Paradigms & laws are validated when the consensus of the scientific community, when the preponderance of theoretical evidence supports them

While a single experiment or piece of evidence may serve to validate a theory of hypothesis, it takes evidence, theoretical validation, & the consensus of the scientific community to validate a paradigm or law

NATURAL LAWS

Basic principles or natural laws are theories that stand out as precisely predictable with no known exceptions: gravity, laws of thermodynamics, etc.

There seems to be only tenuous/contentious theories in the social sciences, but also in some physical sciences such as env science

Principles or laws are limited to those of chemistry, physics, etc.

THOMAS KUHN: THE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS, 1962

Thomas Kuhn wrote about paradigm shifts wherein a veritable scientific rev occurs that essentially deposes an old paradigm, such as Newtonian physics, & replaces it w/ a new one, i.e. Einsteinian physics

A paradigm shift is a new set of theories that comes along & explains all facts to a superior degree, displacing the old paradigm

An example of a paradigm shift is seen in where Einsteinian physics replaced Newtonian Physics because it could explained nuclear fission better & other anomalies better

As of the present there have been no paradigm shifts in the social sciences nor in some newer physical sciences such as ecology, though each has multiple, competing paradigms

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Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, Disciplines

Paradigm

Set of theoretical assumptions that shape & underlie explanations of why society/the world is the way it is
Examples:
The Expanding Universe
Functionalism

Theory

Explanation of cause & effects that encompasses relationships btwn 2 or more facts
Examples:
Suicide is caused by isolation/lack of integration
Racism is taught/learned
Crime is caused by frustrated expectations
Poverty is caused by the concentration of wealth

Law

Theory or part of a theory that is well established & therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community
There are no laws in the social sciences
Examples:
Nothing can move faster than light
To every action, there is an equal & opposite reaction

Discipline

A recognized area of academic exploration
Examples:
sociology
biology
literature

Internal
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An Introduction to Methods: How the Social Sciences are Done

External
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- Project: Surveying

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For Macionis, there are 3 types of methods in the social sciences including scientific methods, critical methods, & interpretative methods; however in practice most social scientist employ many of these types simultaneously

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO GENERATE EXPLANATIONS & MAKE PREDICTIONS

Science is a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation

Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, meaning facts we verify with our senses

Scientific methods of the social sciences are the most widely used & are what we are using when we speak of hypothesis, theories, statistics, validity, etc.

THE INTERPRETATIVE METHOD IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO UNDERSTAND THE MEANINGS PEOPLE EXPERIENCE

For many social scientists, science as it is practiced today to study the natural world, misses a vital part of the social world: meaning

Human beings do not simply act; we engage in meaningful action

Weber, who pioneered this framework, argued that the focus of sociology is interpretation

See Also: Weber

Interpretative sociology is the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world

The interpretative sociologist's job is not just to observe what people do but to share in their world of meaning & come to appreciate why they act as they do

CRITICAL SOCIOLOGY FOCUSES ON WHAT IS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND & EXERCISE SOCIAL CHANGE

The importance of social change in & of itself became noteworthy by Marx who rejected the idea that society exists as a "natural" system w/ a fixed order

Critical sociology is the study of society that focuses on the need for social change

As Marx believed the point of the social sciences are not merely to study the world as it is but to change it

W/in the practice of critical methods, the general public often confuses social science findings w/ politics & so scientific social scientists object to taking sides, charging that critical social science is political & gives up any claim to objectivity

Critical methodologists would refute the objections of the so called scientific social scientists by noting that not only is critical social science political, but ALL science, whether it be natural or social, is political

METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ARE TOOLS FOR SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION

The deductive method of analysis begins w/ theory & builds a question ( hypothesis ) based on that theory

The hypothesis is usually tested using some form of the experimental method to test some part of the theory

The inductive method of analysis begins w/ gathering generalizations from data, & theory is then created to explain the generalizations

Research can be used to test a theory or generate a theory, but research cannot "find out the truth"

A theory is a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more cause effect relationships

Theories are made up of verifiable statements about reality that, with the right information, can be tested

Theory refers to a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more major cause effect relationships

Ideally, a theory can be tested through research

A law is a theory or part of a theory that is well established and therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community

A hypothesis is a research question, that always takes the form of a statement that must be able to be disproved

A hypothesis is a testable statement

When social scientists use research for theory testing, they usually make use of a hypothesis

A hypothesis always takes the form of a statement

A hypothesis usually involves some kind of cause effect relationship between two or more variables

A hypothesis is used because a theory is usually too large and complex to test at one time

A correlation is a relationship by which two or more variables change together

A concept is an abstract idea that represents some element of the world

Lnk

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A variable is a concept that can take on different values or that has two or more categories from case to case

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Independent variables influence or cause the dependent variable & are sometimes called the predictor variable

The independent variable is the variable that the researcher thinks is the cause

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Dependent variables should be the effect in the cause effect relationship

The value of the dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable

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A positive correlation occurs when both variables change in the same direction

A negative correlation occurs when the variables change in opposite directions

A control variable is a variable that is held constant in order to observe the effect on two or more other variable

A spurious correlation is an apparent, although false, relationship btwn two or more variables caused by some other variable(s)

The control variable is introduced to determine whether the relationship btwn the independent & dependent variables is spurious

MEASUREMENT IS THE PROCESS OF ASCERTAINING THE EXTENT, DIMENSIONS,
QUANTITY, ETC. OF SOMETHING ESP BY COMPARISON TO A STANDARD

1. An operational definition is a precise statement of the measuring of a variable or of the categories of a variable for purpose of measurement

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2. Reliability is established when the researcher is using a method that demonstrates consistency of the measurement; the method produces the same results if it is used repeatedly or if a different investigator uses it

Professor Hairball has repeated his study on hair magazines every year for ten years. He has always gotten the same results. Therefore, Hairball believes his study is very reliable

Reliability is the consistency of the measurement

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3. Validity indicates that the researcher is measuring the concept they intended to measure; that the methods utilized yield accurate info about the phenomenon being studied

Validity is established by measuring the concept you intend to measure

The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & journalistic accounts in newspapers, magazines, on the TV news, the internet, etc.

The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & humanistic accounts of social phenomenon such as novels, an expose', videos, docudrama, etc.

Social scientists such as post modernists, et al, believe that if social science is to be effective, it must connect w/ the subject, i.e., the phenomenon being studied, & the object, i.e. the person or people examining the research

An emotion laden research project is not necessarily unreliable or invalid, but special care must be taken

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4. Constructs are concepts that are abstract and at least to some extent must be formulated by the researcher

Constructs are created by researchers when they are attempting to measure abstract concepts such as intelligence

Examples of constructs include intelligence, happiness, power, satisfaction, quality of life, etc.

PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH STEM FROM THE FACT THAT PEOPLE REACT TO BEING STUDIED

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Reactivity is the tendency of people being studied to react to the researcher or to the fact that they are being studied

Link

The Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity where people being studied attempt to please the researcher

The Placebo effect is a form of reactivity where people, as a result of being studied, behave differently, i.e. as the test subjects do, when in fact nothing has changed

Objectivity is a state of complete personal neutrality in conducting research

Bias is non objectivity in research; personal involvement in conducting research whether intentional or unintentional

	THE USE OF EXISTING DATA SOURCES IS THE METHOD OF USING INFO THAT HAS BEEN COLLECTED BY OTHERS TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
	Sometimes a social scientist need not collect original data to study an issue or a problem b/c the necessary data have already been collected
	There are various public & private data archives such as the US Census, the National Opinion Research Ctr (NORC), Gallup, the Inter University Consortium for Political & Social Research (ICPSR), & thousands more
	Professional orgs often conduct surveys of participants in their professions & sometimes make such data available to researchers w/ related interests
	An example of the use of an existing source would be continuing a survey that was started 50 yrs ago, & using the data from the old survey as a comparison or bench mark from which to judge data info from the new survey
	General library research, using books & journals to write a research paper or construct the research background for the present research is also a form of using existing sources
	THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF PRIMARY RESEARCH METHOD IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IS THE SURVEY: ASKING A POPULATION SET A SERIES OF QUESTIONS BY A RESEARCHER WHO THEN ANALYZES THE ANSWERS
	A survey is the method of selecting a particular subject & compiling a series of questions that will best resolve any research objectives, ie questions or postulates, that will satisfy the query
	An example of a survey is one that the military uses to evaluate the command climate of a unit of soldiers
	The survey is the most widely used method in sociology
	The kinds of surveys are the: - closed end questionnaire - open end questionnaire - telephone interview - personal interview

	DIFFERENT QUESTION TYPES MEASURE DIFFERENT SOCIAL MATERIAL
	Fixed response questions in a survey are like multiple choice exam questions
	The Likert scale form of surveying gives a clear range of choices on a 5 or 7 point scale Strongly Agree Agree Neutral / No Opinion Disagree Strongly Disagree ______ _____ _____ _____ ______
	In open ended questions the respondent states or writes an answer to the question in their own words. (Similar to an interview)
	There are FOUR types of questions typically used in surveys & interviews, including: - Background (demographics) - Activities - Knowledge - Sentiments (opinions, values, attitudes, feelings, etc.)
	When writing survey questions, - use short statements - begin w/ 'easy' questions - use 'hard' questions near the end of the survey - end w/ open ended questions
Link	Sampling is the random selection from a general population to establish a sample group, which should represent the entire population
	AN EXPERIMENT IS A SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION IN A CONTROLLED / LIMITED SITUATION
	Experiments are carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom
	An example of an experiment is testing the integrity of a group of men against a group of women by placing money on a sidewalk & observing what % would pick the money up & keep it compared to who would turn it in, or ask who dropped the money in the first place
	The steps in the experimental process include: Sampling to determine the Control & experimental groups Pre-test Experimental manipulation Post-test Debriefing Analysis
	The experimental group goes through an experience or manipulation
	The control group does not experience a manipulation of an independent variable & receives the pre-test & post-test
	Lab experiments are done in setting w/ almost total control by researcher
	The TWO types of field experiments are natural experiments & social experiments
	In natural experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a natural event, or the tabulation data before & after a natural event
	In social experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a social policy
	INTERVIEWS ARE ORAL SURVEYS
	The strength of an interview over a survey is that researcher can follow leads to unplanned questions
	In structured interviews, the questions are pre planned
	In unstructured interviews, the unplanned questions follow the flow of the conversation
	FIELD OBSERVATION IS ATTENTIVENESS TO SOCIAL MATERIAL TO MEASURE IT IN SOME MANNER
	The FOUR qualities of field observation include obtrusiveness, unobtrusiveness, participant & non participant
	In obtrusive field observation, the researcher is seen, recognized as a researcher; open or overt
	In unobtrusive observation, the researcher is hidden or not recognized as a researcher; secret or covert
	In participant observation, the researcher is, during the research, participating in the activities of the subjects
	Participant observation allows the researchers to observe a person or a group of people in their everyday activities
	An example of this would be going to a Baptist church on Sunday to see how people in that area worship
	In non participatory observation, the researcher is not participating; remains separated, aloof
Link	Content analysis is an analysis of narrative data from open ended surveys, interviews, books, press, media, etc.) that looks for regularity
	Statistical analysis is an analysis of existing data (census, govt records, etc.) or data you have collected (surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.) to determine correlations
Link	Multivariate analysis is the sorting out many factors to determine most important factors

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Examples of Variables

age                    religion                     education level            env concern
gender              political party             race                           satisfaction in the workplace
income             marital status             occupation                  effective decisions

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Examples of Independent & Dependent Variables

Abuse & stress
Lack of social integration & suicide
Number of autos & global warming
Education & environmental concern
Income & environmental concern
Openness & satisfaction in the workplace
Number of guidelines to follow & effective critical decision making

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Examples of Positive & Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation: both variables change in same direction
Ed level is positively correlated w/ income
Negative Correlation: a situation where one variable increases & the other decreases
Ed level is negatively correlated w/ poverty rates

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Example of Constructs

ideal type of bureaucrat
Weber: rational, power in the office, tenure, salary, entrance exams & appointment from within

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Table on Variable Measurement Types

Difference

Rank Order

Equal Space

Zeroed

Examples

Nominal

Yes

Deviance Committed

Ordinal

Yes

Hi Lo SES

Interval

Yes

Temperature

Ratio

Yes

Income

Scale

Yes

Race
Gender

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Example of Validity

IQ Many people question the validity of IQ tests.

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Example of Reactivity

Hawthorne effect: form of reactivity: people being studied attempt to please the researcher:
From H Motor Wiring Room: young women & young male researchers

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Sampling: the random selection from a general population to establish a Sample Group, which represents the entire population

Sample Group: a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire population.

The basic way to obtain a representative sample is by a random draw from everyone in the population in question.

No matter how small your population, you almost always need 50 people in order to have a scientifically valid sample.

1,100 is enough for most major survey firms to survey the US

Thus if you divide your sample into different groups, you need even more people.
If you want to compare men & women: 50 of each
If you want to compare lower income, middle income & upper income men and women, how many do you need?
6 groups:
50 lo income men
50 lo income women
50 mid income men
50 mid income women
50 hi income men
50 hi income women
300 total

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Example of Content Analysis

Violence & TV: perform content analysis on top 10 novels & top 10 TV shows of each decade to determine amount of violence. Is there a correlation?

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Example of Multivariate Analysis

Divorce: age at marriage; class, ed, race of spouses; income of each; expectations; children; urban/rural; love; sex; length of marriage; etc.

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Outline on the Scientific Method

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SUMMARY: THERE ARE SEVEN STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, INCLUDING: 1. OBSERVE 2. CLASSIFY 3. APPLY LOGIC 4. HYPOTHESIZE 5. RESEARCH 6. RECORD & ANALYZE FINDINGS 7. REPORT FINDINGS

The scientific method is put into operation through the steps of the research design process

1. OBSERVATION

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Observation (a.k.a. empiricism) employs the five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, & tasting

Hume found that the senses are subject to illusions, errors, or prejudices

Because of problems w/ the senses, the scientific method makes further demands on the researcher

Observations must be subject to confirmation and verification

Confirmed & verified observations lead to "factual information" where the facts are socially created

2. CLASSIFICATION

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Classification establishes relationships among facts:

Facts & classifications alone are sometimes viewed as "knowledge"

But this knowledge, classifications, must be seen as culturally based (i.e. biased)

In the mid 1800s, there was an explosion of modern classification

3. LOGIC

Applying logic infers a relationship among facts or objects of classification

The relationship inferred by application of logic becomes a hypothesis, if it is to be tested

But there are other ways of knowing than by deductive logic, including emotion, tradition, religion, feminist, post-modern

And logic tells us nothing of values; but other ways of knowing do deal w/ values

Science & logic tacitly support existing social relations, cultural & moral identities

We live in a culture where tradition, religion, emotions, etc. have less influence than science, logic, etc.

Scientism is the habit of thought or procedure of scientists that embodies a particular set of values, norms, structures & institutions

Choosing the types of analyses to be utilized in the research project reflects the application of logic

4. HYPOTHESIZE

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If the hypothesis is true, then such & such should follow

A hypothesis is an "if, then statement"

A hypothesis takes the form that: 'If "C" or the Cause occurs, then "E" or the Effect should follow'

The hypothesis is a concise statement of the problem to be researched

In research, the answers you get depend on the questions you ask
Some questions are never asked.
Who controls the questions asked?
See Interest Based Knowledge

5. RESEARCH

In actually conducting the research, some variation of the research instruments are used

Research instruments include surveys, interviews, statistical analysis, analyze existing data, observation, experiments, etc.

6. RECORD & ANALYZE FINDINGS

Recording & analyzing findings is the process by which the researcher documents observations, numerical data, etc.

7. REPORTING FINDINGS

Reporting findings is the process where scientific findings are usually reported in journals, books, govt publications, conferences, etc.

- Qualities of the Scientific Method

- The History of the Development of the Scientific Method

- Criticism of science: Weber on values & science

- Hoaxes:

- Montesquieu on the Scientific Method

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1. Observe
Examples: Egyptians studied motions of heavenly bodies to predict seasons, flooding of Nile & when to plant & harvest
1830: Darwin observed species & developed theory of evolution

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2. Classification
e.g. Periodic Table, Phylums; types of society (ancient, agriculture, industry, service)

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4. Hypothesize
If a build-up of CO2 causes warming in greenhouses, then a build-up of CO2 in the Earth's atm should cause warming
Social isolation causes suicide

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Outline on Experimental Research

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INTRODUCTION

An experiment is carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom

In an experiment the research changes or manipulates the independent variable

The classic experimental method is a research method in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable while keeping everything else constant in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

The experimental group goes through an experience or manipulation

The experimental group is the group where there is a manipulation of the independent variable

CONTROL GROUP

The control group is the group where there is no manipulation of the independent variable

The control group does not experience a manipulation of an indep var & receives the pre-test & post-test

Both the con grp & the exp grp must be exposed to a controlled env; i.e. exact same conditions

Both the con grp & the exp grp are given a pre-test or pre-experiment observation / measure

THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS

Then the exp grp is subjected to the "experimental treatment" aka the manipulation, procedure, stimulus, event, etc.

After the exp manipulation, the researcher observes or measures the difference btwn the exp grp & the con grp

For the classic exp method to be effective, the researcher must be able to control the entire env, control all the variables, & compare the con & exp grps

Finally the researcher gives both the con & exp grps a post-test or post-experimental observation / measurement

Sampling is important in the classic exp method & thus both the con & exp grps must be large enough to observe random, "natural" variation w/in the group

The experiment must be able to be replicated by other scientists

4 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS

a. Lab experiments are done in a setting w/ almost total control by researcher & they generally include control & exp grps, a pre-test, an experimental manipulation, a post-test, & a debriefing

b. Field experiments are done in a setting w/ little or control by researcher & they generally do include control & exp grps, a pre-test, a post-test, & nor a debriefing, but they often do include an experimental manipulation that may either spontaneously, or "naturally," or by a researcher

There are two types of field experiments, including:
i. Natural Experiments
ii. Social Experiments

c. A natural experiment may give either or both, or neither a pre & post tests around a natural event

In a nat exp, it is also possible to tabulate data from before &/or after a natural event

d. In a social experiment, the researcher gives pre & post tests around a social policy or tabulates data around a social policy

THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD & POLICY QUESTIONS

In most policy issues, or large issues such as the env, the exp method is difficult to apply

In most policy issues or large issues:

1. there is no con grp & there is no isolation of the exp grp

2. it is unclear as to the basis for the pre-test? 1 yr ago, 10? 100?

3. there is no isolation of the exp treatment

4. there is no comparison of the exp & con grps

5. sampling is overwhelmed by global nature of problems

6. it is impossible to estb control group or variable because outside variables affect a situation even it is unknown

7. research on policy or large issues is rarely replicated

Thus science is not plagued only by imprecision, but “fundamental indeterminancies” How do we define a ‘dead or dying’ tree? How warm is global warm?

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Outline on Social Laws

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THERE IS A HIERARCHY OF THE VALIDITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE FINDINGS

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There is somewhat of an agreed upon hierarchy in methods indicating the authority & acceptability of ideas / knowledge including the range of:
- social laws
- paradigms
- theories
- concepts
- hypothesis

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Social laws are the most widely accepted knowledge

Social laws are felt to be absolute & irreversible

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Today, there are no social "laws"

But for each of us, behavior, beliefs, & ideology becomes so fixed, that we act as if there are social laws

The concept of the spirit as used by early social thinkers, embodies Monte’s understanding of the distinctive character of a system of social laws

MONTESQUIEU PROPOSED THE IDEA OF SOCIAL LAWS & HELD THAT THEY HAVE PARTICULAR QUALITIES

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Montesquieu proposed that one of the qualities of social laws is that:

1. they are the necessary relations arising from nature of things

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2. they apply to nature & to people

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3. they underlie all things, human, natural, & divine

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4. philosophy's task was to discover these laws

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5. laws about human nature were extremely complex, hence the need for the scientific method & ideal types

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6. knowledge of the laws would ease ills of society

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Monte believed customs emerge spontaneously while social laws are estb in a formal & explicit fashion

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Monte believed that social laws are spontaneous & natural, but formal

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Monte’s conception of social laws is itself ambiguous because laws can be at variance w/ what a society needs because of the limits of human knowledge, errors, & chance events

TODAY, THERE ARE NO UNIVERSAL SOCIAL LAWS

But while law's are universal, there are there are no truly universal laws in society

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We can reconcile the apparent lack of universal social laws by recalling that there can be laws, and/or ideal types which are generally true

But it is difficult to generalize, so each must be tailored to fit the particular situation

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Monte believes that intellectual freedom is intact despite the apparent determinism implied by social laws

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People are not passive creatures, evolving or developing automatically, rather we are active players who attempt to understand & influence our env & ourselves

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Reflexive social theorists, post modernists & others do not accept the existence of social laws

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Monte’s ideas on intellectual freedom are similar to many contemporary social theorists in that they see no conflict btwn social laws & freedom

SOCIAL SCIENTISTS ATTEMPT TO BRIDGE THE GAP BTWN DETERMINISM & INDIVIDUALISM

Monte & contemporary social theorists try to bridge the gap btwn social determinism & individualism, including:

a. Anthony Giddens' concept of reflexive sociology

b. in econ, the Rational Man Theory

c. in psych: the 100th Monkey Syndrome

d. Karl Weick's organizational theories

e. Post Modernists who practically deny any structural forces

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All theories do not try to bridge the gap btwn social determinism & individualism, but some, such as Giddens, Weick, & post modernists focus on the social forces / free will interaction

THERE ARE COMMONALTIES BTWN THEORIES OF DETERMINISM & THEORIES OF INDIVIDUALISM

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What all of the theories that bridge the gap btwn determinism & individualism have in common is that:

a. some people discover a new relationship, principle, or law in a particular field

b. people learn this knowledge at different rates due to exposure, intelligence, access to power & resources...

c. people act in accordance w/ this new knowledge

d. people's reaction based on the new knowledge about an 'old' law or relationship often tends to negate the original law

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Thus social laws are laws so long as people follow them
- out of ignorance
- out of agreement
- from being forced

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Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962 in which he contrasts normal research & the new paradigm research when the old paradigm becomes transparently inadequate

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Example of Monte’s ambiguity of Social Laws

Monte felt that democratic republican societies had made mistakes in developing slavery

Domination of one race by another was believed to be a "nat law" based on Darwin, but Monte did not accept it

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Outline on the Role of the Physical Sciences in Policy Analysis

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The study of the env has focused on the production side of the econ such as pollution, toxic waste, over harvest, etc.

The focus on the prod side of the env issue limits the solutions to the prod side such as to to fix or clean up dirty production via coal scrubbers or catalytic converters, or move rom one type of prod to another such as from trees to help, or gas cars to elec cars

CONSUMPTION SIDE

On env issues, there has been a lack of a consumption side focus

We need to focus on the consumption side but it is often politically & personally less desirable

For many social scientists, consumption side solutions need to be considered because ultimately the world cannot support the indl world's level of consumption

The ultimate envl problem is over population

The southern hemisphere demands the northern hemisphere's level of consumption w/ the attitude that there is no need to reduce consumption levels

A focus on the consumption side means that people would use less & use it more efficiently by recycling, insulate, develop mass transit, build smaller homes & autos

RICH WORLD'S AGENDA

For many social scientists, the debate on global warming reflects the rich world's agendas & interests

The debate on global warming goes back & fourth from alarmism to pacifism because science, like any issue, can become politicized & because uncertainties are emphasized at one point & overlooked at another & eventually, one pt of view becomes central to the argument

PHYSICAL SCIENCES DOMINATE THE DISCOURSE

Historically, the physical sciences have dominated modern discourse

Sci is seen as the discourse or perspective that is the best suited to study of the env

Science has a high level of soc authority

Most policy is based on hard science, though the role of science is never clear

WEAKNESSES OF SCIENCE IN POLICY MAKING

Social scientists who critique science note that modern culture idolizes science & complexity overwhelms the scientific method

The physical sciences are weakened in any policy debate because, like any science, they cannot offer certainty, only probability

Because science offers no certainty, in the political realm the skeptics can always raise doubts, even when the bulk of the evidence is on the other side

In the global warming debate, a super majority of scientist agree it is a major problem; however, they don't agree on the transient & ultimate effects

The small debate w/in the global warming scientific community has become a large debate w/in the political / media arena because opponent & the media both emphasize a minority opinion to 'balance' the debate

Another weakness of science in policy making is that science follows it's own, deliberate pace, while the pace of policy making is nil, then may speed up, then may happen almost instaneously

THE SOCIAL SCIENCES STRENGTHEN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN POLICY MAKING

Redclift & Benton have two concerns w/ regards to the practice of science & envl issues which include:
a. How can soc sci be integrated into framework of sci & policy?
b. What does it mean to dev a ‘sound scientific basis?’

To understand the env problem, we need to understand the soc construction of science

Sci can mask the real dilemmas

Developing policy from science is problematic

Soc sci have a unique role in the creation of policy analysis in helping all participants understand the:
a. problem, whether it is an envl , medical, defense, welfare, etc., problem
b. the process of change
c. the solutions

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Outline on the Role of the Social Sciences in Policy Analysis

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INTRODUCTION

Policy analysis & policy solutions are only one part of soc change

Pol an is considered to be "top down" change unless it is a reflection of true ground swell of dem support

PROBLEMS BTWN SOC & PHYS SCIENCES

There are several problems of cooperation & the integration of types of knowledge btwn the soc & phys sci

Problems that resulted from social sciences involvement with phys sciences include the problem:

a. of teleology. A teleological analysis sees soc as moving to a long term perfected state

But for most social scientists, progress is not inevitable while evolution is inevitable

For most social scientists, from the anti teleological pt of view, scientists should not put "good" & "bad" values on most social changes such as the extinction of dinosaurs, or the evolution or development of the family

While it is possible to put values on human changes, that also is not the task of the social sciences; it is the task of politicians, religious leaders, etc.

For most social scientists, society should put values on the effects of pollution, but can we judge changes that seem natural?

b. that the relations btwn soc & nat are neglected because, for one reason, the soc & phys sci's do not coop enough

c. that people are not seen as beings w/ nat histories

WEAKNESSES OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN POLICY ANALYSIS

There are FOUR unique problems or weaknesses for the soc sci in pol an

Problems that resulted from social sciences involvement w/ pol an include the problem of

a. determining the role of soc sci in pol an

b. determining the role of the soc sci in framing the issues

c. focusing on the phys sci & ignoring the pol & soc implications

d. the use of existing categories as unit of analysis

CONFLICT PT OF VIEW OF POLICY ANALYSIS

The participants in any policy issue will struggle over the sci results as first step in the policy debate

The participants in any policy issue will struggle over the:
a. translation of sci into policy
b. application of pol
c. evaluation of pol
d. reformulation of pol

	There are NINE Fundamental Roles of the Soc Sci in Pol An including the
1.	ed of public	6.	explication of the human relationship to env
2.	ed of professionals (scientists, etc.)	7.	analysis & understand of the role of sci, ed, pol, etc.
3.	ed of politicians	8.	process of social impact analysis (SIA)
4.	ed of other participants in envl debate	9.	process of conflict resolution
5.	assist those opposing the powerful

1. EDUCATION OF THE PUBLIC

One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of the public

The lack of public uptake of policy issues is based on ignorance, misunderstanding, cultural conflict, & alienation

Public ed through schools, the media, etc. can reduce some of the problems os ignorance, but it generally cannot overcome resistance people have to knowledge because of their beliefs, values, or norms unless it is specifically designed to do so, & even then the power of ed is uncertain

2. EDUCATION OF PROFESSIONALS

One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of professionals

Scientists, lawyers, politician, doctors, educators do not always understand their role in pol debate

Professionals are opinion leaders in that more people will accept their pt of view or their knowledge than they will from other sources

3. EDUCATION OF POLITICIANS

One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of politicians

Politicians have frequently used the soc & phys sciences to create / bolster their public policy

While politicians create politicization of issues, they are also often caught up in the politicization of policy analysis

To dev a policy that is not purely politicized a politician much have knowledge of the issues if they are to formulate & advocate a new position

4. EDUCATION OF PARTICIPANTS IN POLICY DEBATES

One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of participants in policy debate

Part in pol debates are either partisan, neutral, or ignorant of a particular pol issue

Each participant in a pol debate must be approached uniquely in terms of ed or soc change because each wants & has own its sources of KBVN, & they are often not aware of other sources & pts of view