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Review Notes on  the Env, Science, & Knowledge
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The Environment & the Social Sciences  
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Epistemology:  Sociology of Knowledge  
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       The Sociology of Science  
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       A Critique of Science  
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       The Politicization of Science  
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       The Ways of Understanding  
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       Culture  
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       KBVN AOII  
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       Paradigms  
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       Intro to Methods  
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       Scientific Method  
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       Experimental Method  
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       Social Laws, Theories, etc.  
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The Role of the Physical Sciences in Policy Analysis   
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The Role of the Social Sciences in Policy Analysis   
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       Social Movements   
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       New Social Movements   
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       Envl Social Movements   
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       Greenwashing & Greening   
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       Economic Development   
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       World Regulatory Agencies & the Environment  

 
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 Outline on the Environment & the Social Sciences
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  -  Project:  Epistemology, the Env, & the Social Sciences
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  METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS FOR THE SOC SCIENCES 
 
 
There are several unique methodological problems for the soc sciences in examining our relationship to the env including:
 
  a.  What is social sciences role?   
  b.  How does social science relate to science & the framing of env issues?   
  c.  How do we construct a Social Impact Assessment (SIA) which imparts an understanding how society impacts the env & how the env impacts soc in an impartial, yet thorough manner?  
  THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SCIENCE   
 
The symbolic interactionist paradigm which embodies the concept of the social construction of reality holds that the creation of the env debate is a product of science, media, politics, culture, etc. 
 
  Social problems come & go based on the factors which impact the social construction of reality   
  Those dealing w/ env problems, policies, grps, etc., all must comprehend all the levels of analysis including the global --> national --> regional --> local --> personal  
  Many times people will compare or attempt to debate using analyses that were constructed at different levels of analysis  
 
POLITICIZATION OF SCIENCE   
  Science is politicized in the envl debate  
  Science alone does not offer all the solutions because solutions must be rooted in societal change, i.e. the application of policy to science   
  The envl mvmt does not understand the 3rd World, the interests of wking class, & many other soc relationships  
  ROLE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE IN ENVL STUDY  
 
The role of social science in envl study: 
 
  1.  has been subordinate to science, or even totally absent   
  2.  takes natural science predictions & then works out the social & economic consequences through an SIA or some similar process   
  3.  has deconstructed science:  shown that science does not always possess the answers & sometimes is used in a misleading way (mystification)   
  4.  aids in the education of the public   
  The lack of public uptake of envl ed or envl issues is based on ignorance, misunderstanding, cultural conflict, & alienation   
  5.  aids in working out conflicts btwn social groups  
  THE CULTURE OF CLASSIC RESEARCH   
  A sociological analysis of the methodology & culture of science, i.e., epistemology, notes that "classic research:"
a.  is reductionist 
b.  necessitates a high level control of the research site 
c.  is high precision science 
d.  is often done in a lab 
e.  attempts to control all variables 
 
  However, as the physical sciences tackle ever more complex problems, they move away from the classic research model in favor of one that more closely resembles the social sciences   
  The study of weather utilizes computer models that are based on simulations using various assumptions about many variables parallels a study of juvenile delinquency or the social impact of env' change which would also utilize assumptions about many interdependent variables  
 
The social & physical sciences which examines envl issues are unique because saving the env is a public good in that it is in everyone's interest, though many people, because of what soc scientists call false consciousness, inauthenticity, or ideology, do not recognize that interest, & even deny it & fight against it 
 
  The universal importance of the env makes envlism too involved in too many forums   
  Being involved in many envs allows the envl mvmt to make moral & ethical claims that it is imperative for all groups to cooperate in overriding the politics as usual multiple level discord  
 
ISSUES OF THE ENVL DEBATE & SOCIAL SCIENCE METHODOLOGY 
 
  The problems for the social sciences in the envl debate & the methodology of envl social science include:   
  1.  that the 3rd World is opposed to much of the North's agenda on the env, whether it be from an enlist or indlist pt of view   
  2.  a view that the env & the econ are in opposition, though not all social scientists agree   
  3.  the domination of the envl debate by the physical sciences & little true integration of the social sciences   
  4.  a lack of a unified social theory   
  5.  the complexity of the social & physical envl debate   
  6.  the fact that the debate is not just about social or physical science issues in that it is about pwr in the pol & econ realms & the very structure of society  
  SEVEN TRENDS IN THE ENVL DEBATE   
  There are SEVEN important trends in the envl debate including the:  
  1.  greening of the New Soc Mvmts (NSMs)  
      See Also:  NSM's  
  2.  greening of the corp world  
      See Also:  Greenwashing  
  3.  corporatizing of the env mvmt  
  4.  globalization of env problems around such issues as intl pollution, global warming, intl debt, & more  
  5.  use of the physical sciences to solve envl probs  
      See Also:  Env sci  
  6.  use of the soc sci to solve envl probs  
      See Also:  Soc sci & policy analysis  
  7.  mystification of science  
      See Also:  Env Science
 
  In relation to the mystification of science, the social examination of the process of science, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Thomas Kuhn found that there is normal research & new paradigm research   
  For Kuhn, when an old paradigm becomes transparently inadequate, a new paradigm comes to gain credibility  
  Kuhn's analysis implies that the social sciences examining the env should explore a new paradigm that covers relationships btwn soc theory & nat & phys sciences  
  In The Green Case by Steven Yearley, all envl problems have a soc dimension   
  For Yearley, there are good class arguments for who supports envl issues, that is primarily the well educated, middle class  
  For Yearley, the soc & nat sciences are talking past each other & paying too little attn to the imp constituency of the well educated middle class  
  For Yearley, the way forward, the way to advance the envl debate & the way to estb a paradigm which takes account of both the physical & the social sciences is to dev what he calls critical realism  
  CR recognizes that  
  a.  There are relatively enduring structures & processes in both the soc & nat worlds  
  b.  The relations among all organisms, including humans, & w/ structures & processes may constrain & / or enable action  
  CR recognizes the need to move beyond a mere interdisciplinary approach to true integration & see people as a part of nature  
  The best way is to abandon distinction btwn people & nature, but even such env authors as Dickens maintains this distinction in his title: Society & Nature  
  BIOLOGICAL THEORY & THE ENV 
 
  Ecology is the study of the relationships btwn organisms & the ecological systems on which they are dependent  
  The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in the 1800s  
  See Also:  A Socio Hist Analysis of the Indl Age  
  Ecology is heavily influenced by Darwinian theory which holds that only those beings sufficiently fit will produce off-spring  
  For ecologists, beings find a niche & niches have a limited carrying capacity  
  People have niches & indeed have made the whole world their niche  
  But in applying evolution to people, ecologists are not generally looking at social, econ, pol, gender, racial or other factors   
  Ecologists have no discussion of cap, communism or other social forms & therefore, there is no consideration as to how these soc relations interact w/ envl & ecol sys  
  The lack of integration of the social & physical sciences comes in part from the fear of earlier attempts to integrate all science in, for example, social Darwinism, which essentially became a pseudo science that was a thinly disguised rationalization for racism in the early 1900s  
 
SOCIAL THEORY & THE ENV 
 
 
From prehistoric times & until recently in modern times, the env was simply out there as an infinite resource at the disposal of industrialization & social progress
 
 
From prehistoric times & until recently in modern times, the limits of soc progress lay in social relations, not the env
 
 
And as soc scientists view envl issues, they come to view the issues as wholly soc or cultural
 
 
METHODOLOGY FROM THE LEFT
 
  The view from the Left on society & the env is holistic, justice oriented, & group based
 
  From the left political view, green politics cannot be purely ecological in that they must bring in economics & other soc sci  
  Envl issues are viewed as part of a fundamentally exploitative, unjust & undemocratic form of society  
  There are powerfully organized producer interests forcing people to become individualistic  
  The Left is radical to the extent that if the problem w/ the env is capitalism, then they are willing to "overthrow" it  
  Rudolph Bahro is a noted socialist thinker in Eastern Europe whose alternative view is that the problem of the env' is a greater problem than mere rapid industrialization  
  For Bahro the solution in part for the envl debate is to deindustrialize the North relative to what it is now  
  While Bahro is a socialist who bases much of his work on class analysis, class relations will not serve as a basis for social change while envl issues may  
  Bahro's position is the flip side of where many Left thinkers begin  
  For the Left wing thinkers, just as Green Parties cannot be wholly concerned w/ ecology, so parties of change cannot be totally concerned w/ social relations, ignoring ecology  
  Bahro agrees that the social sciences tend to ignore natural & physical sciences, i.e. the env  
  Most critical theorists ignore the fact that people are part of nature  
  Nature is ignored by Leftist thinkers because the concept of the “natural human” both avoids & creates so many questions so as to make analysis difficult  
  To ignore the split btwn people & nature is to accept the split btwn people & nature  
  Feminism deals more explicitly w/ the "natural" differences btwn the sexes & so has advanced more toward understanding both nature & “natural people” or natural social relations  
 
METHODOLOGY FROM THE RIGHT 
 
  The view from the Right on society & the env is methodologically individualistic, embraces fundamental ideas of human nature, & is more comfortable w/ a human & nature split  
  The right seems more wedded to methodological individualism & is even more non interdisciplinary than the Left  
  Hayek notes in The Fatal Conceit that humans have biological & human natures  
  From the Right wing perspective, people still have attributes from pre historical life which include the ability to interact w/ a limited number of trusted others  
  From the right, evolution has not changed people or society very much in the last few thousand years   
  An example of the right's belief that people have not evolved is Desmond Morris'  The Naked Ape: which examines basic human traits of survival, control, conquest, etc.  
 
Hayek goes beyond a Morris type of analysis & admits that there is an "extended order" in the last few thousand years, in which biological evolution has been extended by cultural evolution
 
 
For Hayek & other people on the right, we have rules, or norms, which are passed from generation to generation which are tacit understandings which have allowed us to thrive
 
 
For Hayek & others on the right, the norms which allow society to thrive include: 
-  honesty 
-  morality 
-  privacy 
-  property rights (animal instincts??)
 
 
Hayek's key point is that cultural relations act as a constraint on our genetic inheritance  
  An individual or even a society cannot have sufficient knowledge to know why the extended order, i.e. culture, has evolved in the way it has  
  Those on the right hold that our present, dominating culture is closely linked to the mkt econ since that was an early form of trade  
  Critics of the right counter that early trade was done through a barter system w/ only very little money  
  Early on there were not even any traditional small businesses, only family centered bartering  
  For the right, society is now too complex for us to be able to plan on a national scale & thus the best planning is done by individuals & families  
  For the right, the planners in the command economies were the major beneficiaries  
  Even on the right, Hayek is being to break down the distinction btwn the social & the natural  
  And Hayek's ideas are being applied to the study of the env though he does not examine it directly  
  Right leaning thinkers who study the env recognize that knowledge of the env is scanty & complex & just as is the case w/ the economy, society may not be able to plan for it  
  Thus the solution to the envl debate from the right is similar to the solution they have for the econ:  since envl issues are too complex for societal level planning, the planning is best done by individuals & families  
  In sum, Hayek et al see capitalism as the solution, where as left wing theorists see it as the problem  
  For the right, mkt econs can be used to solve ecological problems such as done w/ the mkt. for pollution where each mfr owns pollution rights  
  For the right, mkt forces & human ingenuity will always take care of shortage by providing solutions  
  The right is suspicious of catastrophe laden predictions in that the population bomb has not exploded yet  
  For the right, people have an innate need for an external threatening authority  
  For the right, govt bureaucrats are rent seekers, i.e. they are looking for someone else to pay the rent  

 
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Outline on  Epistemology & the Sociology of Knowledge
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  INTRODUCTION:  Social sciences, humanities & even the physical & life sciences struggle to understand how & what we understand: 
What is knowledge? 
What is the value of knowledge?
Is there a difference btwn truth & knowledge?
How do know something is knowledge?  correct?  "the truth?" etc.
 
  EPISTEMOLOGY DEFINED   
  Epistemology:  The theory or science of the
- origin
- nature
- limits
  of knowledge
 
  CULTURE OF SCIENCE:  OBJECTIVITY & SUBJECTIVITY   
blank In the West, the culture of science is such that  science has become "all powerful" in our society, making its anomalies difficult to acknowledge   
  In our culture of science, we are socialized to believe that truth / knowledge is absolute  
  But the study of epistemology makes it is apparent that science  / knowledge is not absolute or certain  
  People often confuse objectivity & subjectivity assuming they mean, respectively, certain & uncertain, just & unjust, true & false  
  Objectivity & subjectivity are distinguished simply by the way of understanding that creates it  
  Objective knowledge is almost always created via science  
  Subjective knowledge is usually created through common sense, emotional understanding, etc.  
  SUBJECTIVITY   
 
But science itself has a significant subjective component
 
 
For most social sciences, knowledge is objective & subjective 
 
 
Knowledge is not just facts, it is theories, & conjectures too
 
  We often do not keep the "levels" of facts, theories, conjectures straight, we often confuse them  
  Facts are never as independent of theory as we would like them to be especially in the social sciences  
 
Because even scientific knowledge has both an objective & subjective component, there are no absolute facts
 
 
Example:  THE "Standard Kilogram" is made up of a brick of platinum & iridium, but it was found in the summer of 2003 that the Standard Kilogram seemed to be losing weight & this weight loss could not be explained
 
  Example:  Unemployment is 5.4%
The definition of "unemployed" frequently changes because it is a politically & socially sensitive measure.  You cannot be unemployed if you are a student, out of work for more than 6 mos., a housewife, etc. 
 
  Subjectivity remains in science because knowledge is framed by the FOUR conditions of:
a. ideas
b. the senses
c. paradigms
d. social / political conditions
 
  a.  KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON IDEAS   
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One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on ideas  
  While facts are considered to be objective, theories, paradigms & conjectures are subjective, & yet the line btwn them is never clear  
  The line btwn the objective & subjective aspects of knowledge are not clear because facts are dependent for definition on theory  
  b.  KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON THE SENSES  
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One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on the senses  
  Because of illusions & misperceptions, a researcher cannot trust the senses, & instruments affect what they measure  
  c.  KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON PARADIGMS   
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One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on paradigms  
  We saw earlier that after a paradigm shift, many fundamentals of knowledge change  
  d.  KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON SOCIAL & POLTICAL CONDITIONS   
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One of the conditions of subjectivity of knowledge is that social & political conditions affect the composition of knowledge  
  The subjectivity of knowledge can be seen in that the definitions of unemployment, marriage, race, etc. are always influenced by the soci historical politico context of that time, & thus change  
  The soci historical politico context of science does not necessarily affect sciences' validity, but it may be used as a cover for bias  
  Bias affects subjectivity & objectivity through THREE processes of preexisting culture, the stratification of knowledge, & the control of knowledge  
 
THREE ANTIDOTES TO BIAS 
 
  a.  QUESTION ALL KNOWLEDGE  
  A particular socio historical political context impacts what people in a society will & will not accept as knowledge or truth because of pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms, i.e. culture  
  Do you believe in multiple dimensions?  ghosts?  UFOs?  the Earth goes around the sun?  
  The antidote to socio histoical political bias is to question knowledge itself, have no blind faith in science;  Keep on Questioning   "Question Authority"  
  b.  WHO BENEFITS FROM KNOWLEDGE?  
 
A particular soci historical politico context stratifies the value of knowledge
 
  The knowledge about a stock may be of value to Martha Steward
The knowledge of how to make a gun full auto may be of value to the Crips
The knowledge of particular birth control methods is of value to women
 
  Knowledge is controlled based on its value to conflicting groups in society  
  The antidote to the stratification of knowledge is to ask, "Who benefits from a given bit of knowledge?"  
  c.  WHO CONTROLS A PARTICULAR SET OF KNOWLEDGE?  
  A particular soci historical politico context puts particular people, groups, societies in the position to create, destroy, control knowledge  
  The antidote to particular groups controlling knowledge is to ask:  "Who controls or creates that knowledge?"  
  As a result of his extensive travels, Montesquieu recognized that knowledge was 'contextual'   
  The precautionary rule is a caveat to the scientific methods which holds that because evidence of harm is uncertain, & error costs are very high, it is acceptable to take precautionary action  

 
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Examples:  Knowledge is based on ideas
Facts are "objective"    256,000 mi to the moon:   planet orbiting black hole:  space is bent 
        Economics:  unemployment   5.4% as defined by who? 
Theories, paradigms & conjectures are subjective       Life begins at conception, 3 mos., viability, birth, 1 week
     Religion v. science / evolution

 
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Examples: Knowledge is based on the senses
Hume:  Cannot trust senses:    Stick looks bent in water 
Cannot trust instrument readings:  Measuring life on Mars:  chemical reaction
  Instruments may not measure what we think they measure
  Instruments affect / impact / change what they measure:  measuring cellular life, atomic events changes them
Observing people changes their behavior:  from heart rate & BP to dating behavior

 
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Examples:  Knowledge is based on paradigms
Allegiance to a paradigm tends to blind one to anomalies:  facts that don't fit the paradigm
    Theories of flat Earth actively suppressed any info that challenged it
    Conflict theorists see mostly conflict & little cooperation       Conflict can advance a group's interests
    Functionalists see mostly cooperation & little conflict          Conflict is dysfunctional

 
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Examples:  Knowledge is based on social & political conditions
The health of the economy is constantly redefined by parties, politicians, business leaders, etc.
The value of wolves in the wilderness is seen differently by different groups of interest:  environmentalists, hunters, wilderness, etc. 
Our knowledge of maleness & femaleness & our roles in society 

 
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 Outline on the  Sociology of Science
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  MERTON & THE SOC OF SCIENCE   
  Merton is a functionalist theorist who noted that science is a distinctive institution w/ a particular normative structure, i.e. a unique culture w/ its own informal rules & regs  
  For Merton,   
  a.  science operates almost exclusively according to Weber's theoretical or intellectual rationality, also known as the rational cognitive processes, which is the ability to utilize people's rational problem solving capacities in the rational realm of analysis or way of knowing  
  b.  science operates outside of Weber's substantive rationality which is the dominance of norms & values in the rational choice of means to ends  
  c.  science tries to operate according to Weber's dictum that science should be value free & universal  
  Examining science as a tool of competing political & econ interests who control the funding, the type of research done, & thus in a manner, the outcome of research is the demystification of the political economy of science
 
  RISK ASSESSMENT   
  A sociological examination of the field of science notes that risk assessment makes large assumptions on many issues when science can only give a probability of an event occurring
 
  Science can function properly in each of the political economic systems & as a risk assessor, but it is important to understand what is occurring
 
  MORAL & ETHICAL CLAIMS   
  Neither the physical sciences nor the social sciences make moral or ethical claims, & yet many of the issues that each deal w/ have many moral & ethical dimensions interwoven in them
 
  An example of the interweaving of moral & ethical dimensions into physical & social science arenas can be seen in the examination of the env where it is recognized that saving the env is a public good because it is in everyone's interest
 
  INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE   
  But often the physical or social examination of any public issue, e.g. the env, health care, the econ, makes a single discipline of science involved in too many forums
 
  The application of science to a public issue generally requires that several modes of science operate in an interdisciplinary mode which is much more all encompassing than they are currently configured to operate in
 
  Operating in an ultra interdisciplinary mode frequently makes it appear as if the science are making moral & ethical claims, but in fact, they should not though some analysts do make such claims
 
  Science can be used to support a position on a public issue, while it can also be used to degrade a position on a public issue
 
  Thus science can be used to support envlist claims, but has also been used to destroy envlist claims
 
  Thomas Kuhn's theory of scientific revolutions, i.e. paradigm changes, explains that we undergo sci rev's which totally invalidate old perspectives such as seen in the change in the worldwide belief from a flat to round Earth, from geocentrism to heliocentrisism, from religious explanations of the origin of humanity to evolution from 
Newtonian to Einsteinian physics, as well as the development of the sociological paradigms of functionalism, conflict theory & symbolic interactionism
 
 
SCIENCE & SOCIAL PROBLEMS & POLICY 
 
  Science is seen as the discourse / perspective which is best suited to the study of soc problems & social policy 
 
  Science has a high level of social authority
 
  There are two concerns w/ science in relation to it's expression in policy & as reported by the media, including:  
  a.  that it takes a scientific review to establish a ‘sound scientific basis’ for a given issue like global warming, reducing welfare, stimulating the econ, etc.  
  b.  that it is difficult to integrate the social sciences into the framework of the physical sciences & policy  
  The social sciences are generally seen as subordinate to the physical sciences   
  In most policy debates, soc sci has been subordinate to science, or totally absent   
 
Social impact assessment ( SIA ) takes natural science predictions & then works out the social & economic consequences 
 
  Soc sci has deconstructed science by showing that science does not always possess the answers & sometimes is used in a misleading way in a process called mystification   
  Science, like any issue, can become politicized when uncertainties are emphasized / overlooked, when only one pt of view is presented, etc.   
  What are the criteria of good science for policy making?  
  Example:  Global Warming
The debate on global warming reflects the rich world's agendas & interests
The debate on global warming goes back & fourth from alarmism to pacifism
 
  THE CLASSIC RESEARCH MODEL   
  Classic research is reductionist in that it exhibits: 
a.  a high level of control
b.  high precision in the scientific process
c.  lab conditions
d.  the control of all variables
 
  Weather prediction, computer models, etc. are based on simulations using various assumptions about many variables  
  The classic research model cannot estb it's conditions of control, lab study, the control of all variables, etc. when examining such complicated phenomenon such as the weather or the env  
  PEER PRESSURE & PEER REVIEW IN SCIENCE   
  In public domain: judgments of research community create closure & natural validation around particular constructions of an analysis:  e.g. global warming  
  But a weakness in peer review is that one incompletely warranted scientific judgment may be ‘confirmed’ by another incomplete study  
  Cronyism or favoritism science is a kind of scientific network interdependency & mutual ‘bootstrapping’   
  Scientists look at different data w/ different theoretical perspectives long before the policy analysts receive the ‘dumbed down’ version  
  Peer pressure also occurs btwn scientists & policy makers  
  When peer review works correctly, objective scientists who are experts in a field review the work & give an unbiased opinion of any work submitted to them  
  See Also:  The Scientific Method  
  SCIENCE & THEORY   
  Theory provides a conceptual formulation that provides a logical explanation or framework for all the facts (objective info gained through observation & experiments)  
  Theories must be validated in the same way that a hypothesis is  
  Basic principles or natural laws are those theories that stand out as precisely predictable w/ no known exceptions:  gravity, laws of thermodynamics, etc.   
  There seems to be only tenuous/contentious theories in env science  
  The principles or laws are limited to those of chemistry, physics, etc.  
  Thomas Kuhn:  Paradigm Shift:   
  Sets of theories support a paradigm or perspective  
  They try to explain all known facts  
  Anomalies are facts that cannot be explained w/in a perspective  
  A paradigm shift occurs when a new set of theories comes along & explains all facts to a superior degree, displacing the old paradigm  
  An example of a paradigm shift is the replacement of Newtonian physics w/ Einsteinian physics, the latter which explained nuclear fission better  
  There has been no paradigm shift yet in ecology in that people still largely hold the belief that nature is unchangeable & is their for human exploitation   

 
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 Outline on the  Critique of Science, Methodology, & the Nature of Knowledge
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  -  Project:  The Critique of Science Applied to an Env Issue 
Link
 
SUMMARY: 
1.  Modern culture idealizes science 
2.  Complexity overwhelms the scientific method 
3.  Complexity compounds uncertainties in any scientific inquiry 
4.  There are unsolvable methodological problems in applying the physical & social science to policy issues, as well as serious weaknesses 
5.  Science is often politicized, & the application of science to policy issues is nearly always politicized 
6.  Scientific analysis cannot create public policy 
7.  The physical sciences typically dominate the social sciences in that in the view of the public & govt administrators, it has more legitimacy & value 
8.  The scientific method is framed by paradigms & paradigms shift in a historical context 
9.  Knowledge is obj & subj but usually we think of it as one OR the other, depending on our affirmation or negation of the knowledge, 
        but in practice knowledge is both obj & subj 
10.  Science is based on linear models while reality itself is much more complex 
11.  Science is subject to economic control because funding, speaking tours, etc. often flow from corp sources or from sources who are beholden to corp sources 
12.  me demonstrated that all science can show is correlation, not cause & effect 
13.  Weber demonstrated that sci should strive to be value free, but ultimately, it cannot be so 
14.  For Montesque, knowledge is contextual
 
  WAYS OF UNDERSTANDING   
 
We have many ways of understanding 
 
 
Science is only one of the ways we understand things & we generally divide that into the physical & social sciences
 
 
Other ways of understanding include common sense, religion or spirituality, aesthetically or emotionally as through the humanities
 
  Society today uses the scientific method to create scientific knowledge  
  Beliefs, values, norms are created by common sense, religion, aesthetics, & other ways of knowing  
  There are many critiques of science, methods, & the nature of knowledge  
  1.  MODERN CULTURE IDEALIZES SCIENCE   
  Modern culture idealizes science, & in the process oversimplifies it & accepts it w/ too little questioning of the inherent biases  
  The aura of science & objectivity adds to the image of the policy analyst as an apolitical technocrat  
  Today we see people as remote scientists, pointy headed professors, dirty politicians, great business people, boring, red taping bureaucrats, greedy lawyers, etc.  
  Most people do not question many ideas / decisions  
  2.  COMPLEXITY OVERWHELMS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD   
 
Complexity overwhelms the scientific method
 
  Because of the advancement of science & the application of science to policy issues, scientific questions are so complex that many scientific endeavors are overwhelmed in that they are inaccurate or incorrect, etc.  
  Massive projects such as the space shuttle, education reform, etc. are rarely accurate, effective, etc.   
  The complexity of social & physical scientific issues makes the scientific meth problematic because it is difficult to isolate variables  
  Because in general we cannot apply the experimental method to complex social issues, scientists must use other methods  
  3.  COMPLEXITY COMPOUNDS UNCERTAINTIES   
  Complexity compounds uncertainties in any scientific inquiry  
  Even in those scientific endeavors that are thorough enough to address complex issue, the uncertainties, the unknowns that must be addressed make the outcome uncertain; i.e. the more complex the scientific endeavor the less validity & reliability of the outcome  
  Theories, such as global warming, evolution, physics theories of atomic bombs are based on many "fact" each w/ its own uncertainty  
  Even one small uncertainties can add up to gross error, & several small uncertainties may compound each others' effects to create gross error  
  During the Manhattan Project scientists took bets over whether the 1st A-bomb would cause an atomic chain reaction in the atmosphere which would destroy the Earth  
  Evolution shows that even a small amount of diversity w/in a species can result in large variations over time, especially given the right variety of envl conditions  
  4.  METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS   
  There are unsolvable methodological problems in applying the physical & social science to policy issues, as well as serious weaknesses  
  Policy issues are inherently complex & therefore any outcomes may be inaccurate, incomplete, uncertain, etc. as are the outcomes to complex scientific problems that are not applied to policy issues  
  Policy issues are subject to special biases of control of the research question, control of funding, control of the outcome, etc.  
  Scientific cultures, social scientific cultures, govt bur cultures, political cultures, etc. provide numerous pitfalls in communication, interests, viewpoints, etc.   
  Karl Popper notes the implications that hypothesis must be falsifiable if they are to be accurately test, but when moving to the level of policy analysis the application of science fails in this regard in that we cannot estb. a falsifiable hypothesis on global warming, we can only test innumerable hypotheses which address the policy issue of global warming  
  In most policy issues, such as env, welfare, tires, & so on, the expl meth is "difficult to apply" because there is
- no control group
- no isolation of the expl grp
- an uncertain basis for the pre-test; i.e. should it be 1 yr. ago, 10?  100? ...
- no isolation of the expl treatment grp
- no comparison of exp & control grp
- a tendency for sampling to be overwhelmed by the global nature of probs
- weak isolation of the experiment in general resulting in  unknown the possible influences of unknown factors
- difficulty in operationalizing definitions
    How do we define a ‘dead or dying’ tree? 
    How warm is global warm?
- difficulty in replicating any experiment or study
 
  For Wynne, science is not plagued only by imprecision, but “fundamental indeterminancies”   
  5. SCIENCE IS OFTEN POLITICIZED   
  Science is often politicized, & the application of science to policy issues is nearly always politicized  
 
Political Scientists & sociologists tried to follow economists into the mainstream, but have not been as successful in winning public acceptance & integrating our concepts into everyday culture
 
  6.  SCIENTIFIC ANALYSIS CANNOT CREATE PUBLIC POLICY   
  It is difficult to create public policy from scientific analysis   
  Even when good science is available, policy does not primarily arise out of science, but rather primarily out of politics, ethics, etc.  
  Policy debates frequently line up scientific findings on both sides of the question  
  Even w/ good science, there is the assumption that social consensus would follow, but this is just the beginning of the battle  
  The application of science is difficult in industry & in politics, but the most difficult in policy formulation  
  The application of science to policy is bounded by politics & economics which is to say they both limit & control policy  
  The conflict pt of view notes that the players will struggle over scientific results as first step in policy debate  
  The participants in a policy issue will struggle over the translation of science into policy  
  The participants in a policy issue will struggle over the application of policy  
  The participants in a policy issue will struggle over the evaluation of policy  
  The participants in a policy issue will  struggle over the reformulation of policy, application & evaluation  
  See Also:  The role of social sci's in policy analysis  
  7.  THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES DOMINATE THE SOCIAL SCIENCES   
  The physical sciences typically dominate the social sciences in that in the view of the public & govt administrators, it has more legitimacy & value  
  The domination of the social sciences by the physical sciences continues to distort the integration of the two to create public policy  
  8. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IS FRAMED BY PARADIGMS   
  The scientific method is framed by paradigms & paradigms shift in a historical context  
  Paradigms are seen as "true," but they shift & they are usually just simply unrecognized   
 
Thomas Kuhn: noted that science advances during periods of fundamental change, & not linearly as w/ bricks used to construct a building. 
 
  The upheavals are called paradigmatic change  
  Science & notions of objective tests of truth are more historically conditioned than we have thought  
 
Attack on Positivism:  believed they could construct a body of knowledge that encompassed all areas of human life
 
  Douglas Amy holds that positivism survives because it limits, in a politically convenient way, the types of questions which may be asked  
  9.  KNOWLEDGE IS OBJECTIVE & SUBJECTIVE   
  Knowledge is objective & subjective but usually we think of it as one OR the other, depending on our affirmation or negation of the knowledge, but in practice knowledge is both objective & subjective
 
  For the everyday person, facts are objective & are viewed as "truth" but simple enough so we do not see them as "Truth" which is to say that fact may be simplistic truth but cannot explain any complex relationships  
  For the everyday person, theories often complex enough so that they are recognized as being able to discern Truth  but are often seen as wrong or false  
  For the everyday person, paradigms are usually unrecognized & thus do not enter into the public debate  
  For the everyday person, conjectures are theories that are in question, but are often the basis for action acted on as if true  
  For the everyday person, the truth usually seen as the "hard truth"
Truth is usually a common sense opinion
 
  For the everyday person, truth opinions are based on culture which is the commonly held knowledge, beliefs, values & norms of a culture  
  Thus we only have opinions about science & the other ways of knowing such as common sense  
  We base action on informed opinions, not truth
For science, there is no Truth, there is only what we currently accept as the scientific opinion
 
  See Also:  KBVN  AOI  
 
AJ Ayer demonstrated that we cannot divide all statements into empirical & analytical or observation & analysis w/ the former being objective & the latter objective  
  All truth lasts only until it is unproven  
  We cannot have the objectivity of the physical sciences because it is impossible to separate human beliefs from the context & process of analysis  
  But for many scientists, the timeliness of truth argument is a slide into complete relativism in that which we cannot find absolute truth, we can find sufficient truth on which to act in the present, which is the only truth that matters  
  We we act as individuals, as an org, as an agency, as a society, given the timeliness of truth, we need to reflect & assess the outcome of our action  
  10.  SCIENCE IS BASED ON LINEAR MODELS   
  In science, scientific rationality & generalization are usually based on linear models while reality itself is much more complex  
  Classic research is reductionist  
  The reductionism of classic research demands high levels of control of the situation, high precision, laboratories, the control of all variables, etc.  
  Classic research is possible in only some limited cases of the physical & social sciences & generally when scientific issues advance to policy level issues, it is impracticable  
  Scientists & everyday people seek trends & averages when making generalizations, but nature is not linear  
  11.  SCIENCE IS SUBJECT TO ECONOMIC CONTROL   
  Science is subject to economic control because funding, speaking tours, etc. often flow from corp sources or from sources who are beholden to corp sources   
  12.  HUME'S CRITIQUE OF SCIENCE IS THERE IS ALWAYS UNCERTAINTY   
  Hume demonstrated that all science can show is correlation, not cause & effect  
  Hume demonstrated that we cannot show "true" cause & effect relationship  
  For Hume, the best we can show is a correlation w/ a degree of uncertainty  
  Hume demonstrated that one can never be certain that all variables have been examined, one can only be sure of the limited set of variables under examination  
  13.  WEBER DEMONSTRATED SCIENCE SHOULD STRIVE TO BE VALUE FREE   
  Weber demonstrated that sci should strive to be value free, but ultimately, it cannot be so  
  For Weber, values can only be minimized, & never eliminated   
  14. MONTESQUIEU DEMONSTRATED THAT KNOWLEDGE IS CONTEXTUAL   
  For Monte, knowledge is contextual  
  For Monte, in the mod era, we make wide generalizations, but the best knowledge is that which is limited to its original context / setting  
  To understand the importance & meaning of a scientific finding, it is necessary to understand where it came from, & the people behind it  

 
Internal
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 Outline on the  Politicization of Knowledge & Science
External
Links
  THE POLITICIZATION OF SCIENCE   
  Science is often politicized, & the application of science to policy issues is nearly always politicized
 
  Political Scientists & sociologists tried to follow economists into the mainstream, but have not been as successful in winning public acceptance & integrating our concepts into everyday culture
 
  The Great Society floundered on the shoals of political reaction & bureaucratic fragmentation, rational social science could not provide enough power or status to resist these interest groups
 
  Social scientists have assumed that science had some weight but the most basic ideas are either highly contested, i.e. that education around social issues is an unmitigated good, to complete rejection of ideas such as evolution or social causes
 
  Critics from a broad range of disciplines have shown that analytical methodologies cannot provide scientific, objective answers to policy issues
 
  Policy analysts should be aware of the critique of objective physical sciences
 
  INTEREST GROUPS IN SCIENCE & POLICY   
  Within the bounds of the accepted natural & physical sciences, legitimate social interests (and the policies they advocate) can be in conflict
 
  Dominant interests control expertise & hence shape knowledge to reinforce their interests
 
  Think tanks, universities & colleges, research centers,  private & public funding, govt, biz are all involved in the creation of knowledge & all have varying degrees of politicization
 
  Private funding includes individuals, corps, lobbying grps, interest grps, foundations, etc. each of whom may people more or less objective, i.e. interest oriented
 
  Public funding is affected by same grps as private funding & by politics as usual
 
  Scientific findings, policy statements, etc. are dispersed through ed, media, word of mouth, & so on & each of these may be more or less objective, i.e. interest oriented
 
  Knowledge is shaped by the outcome of struggles & negotiations btwn social interests including the interests of "the scientific view" itself
 
  Internal (science) & external (e.g. media, ed, etc.) social interests combine to produce "natural knowledge"
 

 
Internal
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Outline on the Ways We Understand the World
External
Links
  -  Project:  The Common Sense Quiz 
Link
  SOCIOLOGY IS ONE WAY TO UNDERSTAND THE WORLD   
  Sociology is one of the ways of understanding the world which utilizes the methods of the social sciences  
  What are other ways of understanding? 
What are some ways we understand the world/ our existence? 
 
 





















































 

 
  A.  COMMON SENSE UNDERSTANDING IS PRACTICAL COMPREHENSION THAT OFTEN IS NOT COMMON   
  Common sense is the ability to see & act upon what is obvious  
  Common sense is great for some things, but in many other situation it is totally inadequate  
  B.  RELIGIOUS UNDERSTANDING IS MORAL / ETHICAL COMPREHENSION OF SECULAR LIFE & A COMPREHENSION OF 'THE SACRED BEYOND'   
  Many people understand the world through "traditional religions" such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, etc.   
  Many people understand the world through "non-traditional religions" such as Paganism, Wiccan, etc. or any form of "personal spirituality" or philosophy   
  Many people understand the world through superstition   
  Review:  World Religions:  some have different ways of understanding  
  C.  TRADITIONAL / AUTHORITARIAN UNDERSTANDING IS THAT WHICH IS ACCEPTED BECAUSE IT WAS HANDED DOWN FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION   
  We understand the world based on what others traditionally believe & on what others 'force' us to believe   
  D.  UNDERSTANDING BASED ON EMOTION IS THAT FEELING OR SENSE THAT PROVIDES CERTAINTY OF KNOWLEDGE  
  Aesthetics the study of / understanding of life through poetry, literature, art, theater, etc.  
  The concept of the emotional quotient  ( EQ )  denotes that some people can sense or understand their own / another's emotion w/ great accuracy & clarity   
  Some people can sense the emotion of a large group of people   
  One way of understanding is religious ecstasy which is emotionally based religion  
 
E.  SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING IS THAT BASED ON TRIAL & ERROR / EXPERIMENTAL TESTS 
 
  Science is the dominant approach to understanding reality in modern industrial societies   
  One of the major qualities of the modern age is understanding based on the modern invention of the scientific method  
  Many of the other methods of understanding utilize some aspects of science  
  See Also:   The Scientific Method  
  THE BRANCHES OF ACADEME / ALL KNOWLEDGE IS ORGANIZED INTO THE HUMANITIES, THE PHYS SCIENCES, & THE SOC SCIENCES   
  I.    Humanities  
  II.  Physical Sciences  
  III.  The Social Sciences  
        The Sociological Imagination  
  COMMON SENSE & SCIENCE ARE SIMILAR IN THAT TO SOME EXTENT THEY ARE BASED ON PRAGMATISM / TRIAL & ERROR  
  Common sense & science are very similar.  Science is simply more well reviewed than common sense  
  Common sense is "personal science"  
  Everyday we make our own hypothesis, tests, generalizations, etc.  
  Example:  Should I bring an umbrella today? 
Scientific opinion:  yes:  90% chance of rain 
--front coming in this afternoon 
Common sense:   no:  it's clear; hasn't rained in 3 days
 
  Sociology uses the scientific method to develop understanding  
  Sociology is often viewed as common sense, but as we saw on ways of understanding, common sense is untested, & unverified  
  Sociology is tested & verified  
  UNDERSTANDING IS OFTEN DONE THROUGH THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES, THE HUMANITIES, & THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, OFFERING INSTRUMENTAL,  INTERPRETIVE, & CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE   
 
To understand culture in everyday life, we usually use all of the methods of understanding above, except science  
 
We utilize all the ways of understanding, our culture of understanding, which is composed of knowledge, Beliefs, Values, & Norms (KBVN) , but usually not science, to understand everyday life   
 
People try to understand the new neighbors on issues from A to Z utilizing all of the types of understanding, usually, except science  
 
Our way of understanding' determines our actions or behavior  
 
The ways of understanding our culture, which is composed of our shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN ) & the immediate situation creates our basis for our action: our behavioral/ mental states of our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI )
 
  Marx, Weber, Durkheim & most recently Habermas & other theorists have developed schemas of understanding, knowledge, science, rationality, etc.   
  Habermas notes that for most of history, the physical sciences have been concerned w/ instrumental ways of knowing while the humanities have been concerned w/ interpretive ways of understanding   
  Habermas posits that w/ the rise of the social sciences in recent history, critical or emancipatory ways of understanding have been, & are being developed   
  Instrumental knowledge is concerned w/ tech control, ie the calculating of means to ends:  work: applied to environment,  other societies,  & people   
  Instrumental knowledge is often important in the econ / the workplace   
  Interpretive knowledge is the rational exploration of the past: & the human condition & is usually nonjudgmental & mostly factual   
  For interpretive knowledge, understanding past generations helps understand the present  
  Critical knowledge uncovers in whose interest instrumental & humanistic knowledge lies   
  Critical knowledge fosters emancipation in the form of the realization of  fundamental human needs such as creativity & social interaction   

 
Internal
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  An Overview of  Culture
External
Links
 Link
-  Video:  Culture 
Link
  -  Project:  Identifying a Culture 
Link
  -  Project:  The Intersections of KBVN 
Link
  -  Project:  Real & Ideal Culture
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  What Is Culture? 
Link
 
-  Project:  Video:  The Social Orgs of Culture 
Link
Link
-  Video:  Romeo & Juliet 
Link
  CULTURE IS THE SHARED KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES, NORMS ( K B V N ) & THE PHYSICAL & ABSTRACT MANIFESTATIONS OF THAT CONTENT   
  All societies have a culture   
 
Culture may be defined as the shared content of society   
  The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, norms       ( K B V N )   
 
The four components of culture are physically manifested through symbols & language 
 
 
Symbols are defined as anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture 
 
 
The meaning of the same symbols varies from society to society, w/in a single society, and over time 
 
 
Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life   
  Do not confuse the common usage of the word "culture" w/ the sociological use   
  People commonly use culture to mean society &/ subculture & this usage would include both culture ( KBVN ) & social structure ( PF REG M CEML )   
  THE EXPRESSION OF CULTURE IS ACCOMPLISHED IN MANY WAYS INCLUDING LANGUAGE, ART, RELIGION, CUSTOMS, & MORE   
  When examining culture, KBVN are often expressed in SEVEN configurations 
 Roles                      Language                        Technology 
 Customs                 Material Objects 
 Religion                 Groups of People 
 
 
Culture shock refers to personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life 
 
 
Only humans depend on culture rather than instincts to ensure the survival of their kind 
 
  Culture is a long time in the making   
  Culture can be a constraint in that humans cannot live w/o culture, but the capacity for culture has some drawbacks   
  Culture can be a source of freedom in that culture forces us to choose as we make & remake a world for ourselves   
 
The social sciences carry out 'cultural mapping,' i.e. a cataloging of the various aspects of culture throughout societies   
  THE SOCIAL SCIENCES EXAMINE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF CULTURE   
  1.  Sociologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in modern society & how culture impacts social structures & personality   
  2.  Anthropologists examine how cultures are created & maintained in ancient  &/ indigenous societies   
  3.  Geographers examine how place & space shape culture & vice versa & how culture is organized spatially   
  4.  Psychologists examine how the subconscious is manifested in culture   
  5.  Political scientists examine how culture affects govt & the political process   
  Sociologists generally accept TWO human manifestations of culture:  material & non material culture which occur in the TWO settings of the physical environment & the human environment   
  All the levels meld into one seamless culture: 
1.  Material culture 
     a.  Material culture & the physical environment 
     b.  Material culture & the human environment 
2.  Non material culture
     a.  Non material culture & the physical environment 
     b.  Non material culture & the human environment 
 
  1.  MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED IN OBJECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS OF KBVN 
 
  a.  MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED THROUGH THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT   
  The physical environment includes the "natural" environment as well as human made rural landscapes, city-scapes, etc.   
  Even the physical environment in which we live comes to be identified as a representative of our material culture & the environment does shape our KBVN   
  Usually different regions have a cultural attachment to their environment   
Link
Examples of material culture & the physical environment   
 Link
b.  MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFESTED THROUGH THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT   
Link
  1)   World symbols:  An example of a world symbol is the UN Building or the Earth picture  
Link
  2)   National symbols:  a nation's flag   
Link
  3)   Regional symbols:  race car   
Link
  4)   Homes/ businesses styles:  ranch home, mobile home   
Link
  5)   Cars, boats etc. styles:  SUV, mini van, sports car, etc.   
Link
  6)   Clothing styles:  woman in a black dress, men in black   
Link
  7)   Body shape / style:  body art   
  2.  NON MATERIAL CULTURE IS MANIFEST IN SUBJECTIVE, ABSTRACT, IDEOLOGICAL, ETC. REPRESENTATIONS OF CULTURE   
Link
Non material culture is manifested in abstract representations of KBVN   
  a.  KNOWLEDGE IS MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE  
Link
Knowledge is shared truth based on science   
  Examples of cultural manifestations of knowledge are Darwin fish symbols, Stanford T-shirts, math symbol jewelry, tech gear & the very ideas these symbols represent   
  b.  BELIEFS ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE   
Link
Beliefs are shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense   
  Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content   
  Examples of cultural manifestations of beliefs are Christian fish symbols, Jesus T-shirts, Crescent Moon jewelry, religious dress, & the very ideas these symbols represent   
  c.  VALUES ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE   
Link
Values are shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life   
Link
Core American values have an ideal & a real Aspect;  See the Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values   
  Ideal values are those that actors hold "patriotically," or rhetorically, that actors believe that they hold   
  Real values are those that actors actually practice; when faced w/ a "situation," actors show their real values   
  The concept of  real values can be seen in the fact that Americans have the core cultural value of democracy, but fail to vote   
  d.  NORMS ARE MANIFESTED / DEMONSTRATED IN & BY CULTURE THROUGH FOLKWAYS, MORES, LAWS, ETC.   
Link
Norms are shared expectations about behavior, i.e. socially defined rules 
 
  i.   Folkways are informal, minor norms that usually carry only minor & informal sanctions, or punishments, when they are violated   
 
Example:  Manners   
  ii.  Mores are informal norms, that are very important to people & may be written into law   
  Example:  People should not talk loudly in religious buildings 
 
  iii. Laws are formal, codified norms which everyone is expected to be aware & which carry specific, legal sanctions   
  Example:  driving regulations 
 
  Western cultural practices are exported by the media to remote corners of globe 
Paul Harvey:  Yet this is not “one world” 
 
  INTERSECTIONS OF KBVN OCCUR AS A RESULT OF SOCIALIZATION & LIFE EXPERIENCES, & VARY WIDELY RESULTING IN INFINITE MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURE   
Link
Culture's components of  K + B + V + N, have limited intersections   
  Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content   
  WI Thomas on truth.... & culture:  'What we believe to be true, becomes true in its consequences'   
  Examples:  men are buffoons 
Cuban Missile Crisis:  the Russians are offering a way out / the Russians are holding a hard line 
A clique believing someone is cool 
 
Link
We each have conflicting views on  KBVN   AOI  which often create anxiety, cognitive dissonance, etc. on an individual level and conflict, strife, war, etc. on a societal level   
Link
Non material culture & the physical environment can be seen is the aesthetic question:  "What is the meaning of wind whispering in trees to your culture?"   
Link
Non material culture & the human environment can be seen is the aesthetic question:  "What is the meaning of a veiled face?   of green hair?"   

 
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Material culture & the physical environment

Examples:    mountains, ocean, corn fields 
Midwest:  rich farm land, lazy rivers, flat land, cold winters 
West coast:  beaches, sunshine, warm winters, best climate 
Appalachia:  mountains, forests, strip mines 


 
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Material culture & the human environment
Physical objects representing non material or abstract culture 
      World Symbols 
      National Symbols 
      Regional Symbols 
      Homes
      Cars, boats, planes, etc. 
      Clothes 
      Body 

 
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World symbols
Not many of these 

UN Building


 
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National symbols

US Flag 
Confederate Battle Flag 

Some smaller items 
Food:  chocolate 


 
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Regional symbols
Silo 
Mississippi River 
Empire State Building 
Cheese 
Potatoes 
Tobacco 

 
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Homes
Shacks to Mansions to Castles 

 
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Car, boats, etc.
Mini van to SUV to Harley to junker 

 
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Clothing
Clothing, like language, is so personal that it identifies your culture 
We use clothing to indicate respect ( in a ritual such as marriage, or funeral ) or disrespect 

 
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Body
Body image & decoration is becoming more & more malleable: 
We now idolize the thin, athletic body 
But less thin that the "Twiggy" days of the late 1970's 
Heavier men & women were preferred in earlier times 
Women have been subject to greater pressures to achieve the ideal body image than have men.... but is this changing? 

 
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Non material culture
Abstract:  the knowledge, beliefs, values & norms  ( KBVN ) of a society 

           a.  Non Material culture & the physical environment 
           b.  Non Material culture & the human environment 

 
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1. Knowledge:  shared truth based on science   We believe it to be true 

Physical Sciences 
  Natural 
  Life 
Social Sciences 
Humanities 
Arts 

Knowledge is not absolute in that it changes from society to society from year to year 
Generally we can speak of scientific knowledge 


 
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2. Beliefs: shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense 
General recognition of less truth validity 
There is no clear line btwn Knowledge & Beliefs 

 
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3. Values:  Shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life

We are generally unaware of what our values are unless we have gone through training/coaching/therapy to "know thyself" 


 
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Table on the Ideal & Real Aspects of Core American Values
Core American values: general consensus 
( may conflict )
Ideal culture: 
accepted in principle
Real culture: 
actually practiced
1.  Freedom   Freedom for all; Freedom is our Number 1 Value!  We allow more freedom for a middle majority & the upper class, less for the others.  Many groups have limited freedom
2.  Democracy
 
 
3.  Individualism 
 
 
4.  Responsibility 
 
 
5.  Religion/morality 
 
 
6.  Science/tech 
 
 
7.  Opportunity
 
 
8.  Competition
 
 
9.  Work ethic
 
 
10.  Humanitarianism
 
 
11.  Practicality
 
 
12.  Nationalism
 
 
13.  Romance
 
 
14.  Sexuality
 
 

 
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4. Norms
 Folkways:    manners, grammar, dressing appropriately 
 Mores:        littering to flag burning 
 Laws:          littering, flag burning, to robbery & murder 

We are not generally conscious of norms 
Their impact is automatic:  internalized 

We often can ponder the norm of a particular situation 


 
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Knowledge, beliefs, values, norms are like four intersecting circles
 K & B can be tested, but are not 
V & N are not recognized as vague 

 
Top
 
Culture = K + B + V + N 
The sum of our culture 
(knowledge, beliefs, values, rules [norms]) 
creates truth for each of us 
What people agree on is “the truth”

WI Thomas:  If people believe something is true, it becomes real in its consequences. 
 Knowledge & beliefs define action 
 Earth:  flat or round 
 Love:  eros, filial, romantic 
Beauty: 

We are not generally aware of what our culture is 
We do not know what is in our own mind w/ regards to K B V N 


 
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KBVN AOI
We are generally not explicitly conscious of our KBVN 
We hold conflicting positions in relation to KBVN AOI 
But some people are more introspective about 
     Attitudes 
     Opinions 
     Interests 

 
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Non Material culture & the physical environment
Humans definitely attribute abstract meanings to the physical environment 
As scientists, we cannot judge this, only try to understand it
Durkheim delved deeply into this question: 
Some critics today decry our loss of connection w/ the environment & the mystical 

What is the meaning of an untouched forest? 
What is the meaning of a Clinch River freshwater mussel?
What is the meaning of Antarctica?
The moon?
The stars?
The planets? 


 
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Non Material culture & the human environment
As human influence & material creations grow, so does the amount of meaning we attribute to human made creations 

What is the meaning of a Ford Excursion?  ( the largest SUV ) 
What is the meaning of green hair? 
What is the meaning of a 5 caret diamond ring?  estimated value $1/4 million 


 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on   KBVN AOII
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your KBVN AOII & the Env 
Link
  CULTURE & OUR AWARENESS OF CULTURE   
  Culture is the shared content of society 
 
  Culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ( K B V N ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content  
  Attitudes, opinions, interests, & ideology ( AOII ) are an individual's culture  
  Our consciousness or awareness of culture is manifested through our AOII  
  The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms       ( K B V N ) 
 
  Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life
 
  UNAWARENESS OF CULTURE
 
  We are generally unaware of our own culture, of the KBVN that we hold in common w/ most other members of society
 
  The fact that we are unaware of our culture is not to say that we are unconscious of our culture
 
  We can gain awareness of some of KBVN
- through living "the examined life"
- through therapy, counseling, etc.

"Know thyself"

 
  INTERSECTION OF K & B 
 
  Individuals usually believe that their K & B are the same
 
  What we K may not jive w/ what we believe such as is seen w/ general society beliefs on female & male drivers, & the knowledge that, for example, the insurance industry has about female & male drivers
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a person, that person has a consistent, healthy mental state
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it has a consistent, healthy mental state & would tend to be a functional social entity
 
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a person, that person has a conflict, possibly unhealthy mental state that may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it is in conflict, & may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
 
The impact of culture on actions comes through our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI )
 
  ATTITUDE   
 
An attitude is a mental state that one consciously feels (emotes) that affects beh & generally cannot be articulated
 
 
An attitude is the amalgam of our culture, our KBVN, that we can sense but are not consciously enough aware of so that we can explain or voice it to ourselves or others
 
 
But since we do often act on the basis of emotion or feeling, attitudes are important in shaping behavior
 
  We are generally unaware of our attitude in a rational sense, i.e. we find it difficult to explain or even understand it   
  When we have a strong attitude, we may be aware of it's general direction   
  Those significant others who know us well may know our attitude better than we do because they have a better chance to be an outside, objective observer   
  OPINION   
 
An opinion is an attitude that one can articulate, at least to a minimum extent
 
  We can voice our opinion  
  It is a reflection of our K & B of which we are aware  
  An opinion is a reflection of our Vs & Ns which are general below our level of awareness   
  But in most cases our understanding of our opinion is a poor reflection of our actual or real attitudes   
  Because we often cannot totally explain opinions, or because it is obvious to us that they are based on beliefs or values, & not on knowledge, an opinion is a particular judgment or belief resting on grounds insufficient to produce certainty  
  Most people recognize that opinions are not rationales for doing or believing something   
  We generally accept that opinion can be easily swayed  
  PUBLIC OPINION   
 
Public opinion is the opinions of people throughout a soc about 1 or more controversial issues
 
 
Generally a group or society can voice its public opinion if they have a relatively free & open society & they have the resources in the form of media or social scientists to uncover that public opinion & make it known
 
  Public opinion is a reflection of our below awareness V & N but in most cases it is a poor reflection  
 
In modern societies today there is often the sense that public opinion is true
 
  There are two reasons that public opinion is judged to be true  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because it is judge to be an accurate, scientific reflection of many people & thus the truth is based on the idea that the opinion has been reliably measured  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because we have a fundamental, democratic value "the people" are always right  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe it is accurate & if we have the same belief  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe that many people hold that belief  
  Many earlier social scientists examined what they called the spirit of society (SpS) which is the generally unconscious attitude of a society  
  The SpS is mostly below most people's awareness level & thus it is an emotional experience  
  Durkheim wrote about the collective unconsciousness which is similar to the SpS  
  Tocqueville wrote about the which is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of the sociological imagination, Mills writes that to understand our relationship in the world, it is necessary to understand the general character of the men & women who are coming to prevail in that society & thus the general character is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of class & false consciousness, Marx writes that a class of people must have a historical view of the social relationships that are the best for them, i.e. their interests, in that society, & thus class consciousness is similar to the SpS  
  INTERESTS   
  An interest is what social relationships an individual or group judge to promote their general welfare  
  Interests are usually economic  
  For Marx, an interests is determined by person's relationship to the means of prod  
  Interests are mostly below the level of awareness for an individual or a group & thus are an emotional experience  
  Marx & others pt out that we need to make interests more apparent to selves & others if we expect society to function properly  
  Example:  What is my interest in a new road going by my house?  What is my  interest in the war in Iraq?  What is my interest in the development of the space shuttle?   
  TYPOLOGY OF INTERESTS   
  People often act against there self interest & against the interest of soc  
 
Type of Interest
Real one's "objective" interest
Perceived what one believes to be their interest
False not in one's "objective" interest
Class the interest of a class
Community the interest of a community
Social the interest of a society
Human the interest of the world/all humanity
 
  IDEOLOGY  
  An ideology is a  particular system of ideas a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group or a person especially on social & political topics  
  Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality
 
  An ideology may be understood as a "worldview"  
  KBVN AOII AFFECTED BEHAVIOR  
  It is only logical to assume that one's attitude, opinion, etc. would affect or determine one's behavior  
  In most cases, we assume that our actions, therefore, are congruent w/ out KBVN AOII, but in practice that may not always be so  
  Because much of KBVN AOII falls below the level of explicit consciousness, & because we may have one or several conflicts, contradictions, or inconsistencies in our mental system of KBVN AOII, we may act in a way that does not represent what one would expect from our KBVN AOII  
  We may not act consistently because we may emphasis one part of our mental system in one context & another part in another context  
  A person may believe that K is motivating her/him, when in fact an inconsistent V is actually motivating them  
  To the extent that we know ourselves & to the extent that our mental system is consistent, we will act more predictably  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization  

 
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Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior
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Knowledge He wore a coat because he knew it would rain; he saw the weather radar report  
Belief She wore a coat because she believed in would not rain because it was nice in the morning  
Value He  work a coat because he valued being warm & dry, as opposed to the value of looking good w/o one  
Norm She wore a coat because Mom always made her wear one when it looked like rain  
Attitude His negative attitude about wearing his coat was apparent to everyone but him; he didn't believe he needed it.  
Opinion In her opinion, she didn't need to wear the coat.  
Real Int It was in his (real) interest to wear the coat because there was a high chance of rain.  
Perceived She saw that it was in her interest to wear the coat because she knew her mother watched the weather.  
False He didn't think it was in his interest to wear the coat because he thought it looked bad.  
Class It is in the interest of the lower class to have coats.  It is not in the interest of the rich for the lower class to have coats because it makes them comfortable & more likely to demand other things.  
Community It is in the interest of the community for the lower class to have coats.  
Natl It is in the interest of the nation for all classes to have coats.  
World It is in the interest of the world for everyone to have coats.  
Ideology Belief in an ideology of human rights including the basic necessity of life for all means that all people should have food, water, clothing, shelter, ed....  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  

 
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Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding
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  Way of Understanding Cultural /mental state  
  Common sense BN O  
  Religion BN O  
  Science K  
  Emotion VN AI  
  All of the above Ideology  
  Ways of Understanding  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization   

 
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Outline on  Paradigms: Shifting & Competing
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  -  Project: Paradigms
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  -  Video:  Sociological Perspectives
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  INTRODUCTION   
 
The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies  
  The values / beliefs of science include the ideas that: 
a.  there is progress
b.  science is cumulative, "brick by brick" we construct science base upon agreed on facts
 
  Theories are the infrastructure, But people are working on different buildings, i.e. paradigms  
  And all the bricks (facts) must be used  
  Facts that do not fit a theory are called anomalies  
  All theories have anomalies:  i.e. they cannot explain everything  
  The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies  
  PARADIGM DEFINED   
  Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape & underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories  
  A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations of why society is the way it is  
  A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects:  
  a.  a set of questions to be asked about the subject  
  b.  a general theoretical approach explaining the nature of the subject  
  c.  a set of values relating to the subject  
  d.  a set of theories concerning a common theme  
  There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of understanding  
  COMPETING PARADIGMS   
  Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition of ideas within or between societies  
  Astronomy: collapsing universe vs. expanding universe
Paleontology:  great comet vs. predation cold blooded vs warm blooded dinosaurs
Biology:  Darwinians vs. evolutionary shock
Sociology:  Functionalism vs. Conflict Theory     vs. Symbolic Interactionism
 
  PARADIGM SHIFTS   
  Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies, or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period  
  Examples: 
- world views changed from geo centric to helio centric
- polytheism to monotheism
- flat to round world
- earth centric to helio centric
- magic to science
- demons to mental illness
- creationism to evolution
- Newtonian physics to Einsteinian physics
 
  Paradigms are also known as perspectives, schools, school of thought, etc.  
  Science does not embrace "one truth" because human truth is always contested & relative, rather, what is true is constantly changing, but we act as if science is one truth  
  Because there is no absolute truth, & because people have competing ideas on what  is closest to truth, we have paradigms  
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Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, & Disciplines  
 
Sociology is a multiple paradigm science:  functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism
 
  Theories & paradigms provide a conceptual formulation that provides a logical explanation or framework for all the facts, i.e. the objective info gained through observation & experiment  
  Theories must be validated in the same way that a hypothesis is validated  
  PARADIGMS & LAWS   
  Paradigms & laws are not validated in the way that theories & hypotheses are validated  
  Paradigms & laws are validated when the consensus of the scientific community, when the preponderance of theoretical evidence supports them  
  While a single experiment or piece of evidence may serve to validate a theory of hypothesis, it takes evidence, theoretical validation, & the consensus of the scientific community to validate a paradigm or law  
  NATURAL LAWS   
  Basic principles or natural laws are theories that stand out as precisely predictable with no known exceptions:  gravity, laws of thermodynamics, etc.   
  There seems to be only tenuous/contentious theories in the social sciences, but also in some physical sciences such as env science  
  Principles or laws are limited to those of chemistry, physics, etc.  
  THOMAS KUHN:  THE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS, 1962  
  Thomas Kuhn wrote about paradigm shifts wherein a veritable scientific rev occurs that essentially deposes an old paradigm, such as Newtonian physics, & replaces it w/ a new one, i.e. Einsteinian physics  
  A paradigm shift is a new set of theories that comes along & explains all facts to a superior degree, displacing the old paradigm  
  An example of a paradigm shift is seen in where Einsteinian physics replaced Newtonian Physics because it could explained nuclear fission better & other anomalies better  
  As of the present there have been no paradigm shifts in the social sciences nor in some newer physical sciences such as ecology, though each has multiple, competing paradigms  

 
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Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, Disciplines
Paradigm
Set of theoretical assumptions that shape & underlie explanations of why society/the world is the way it is
Examples
The Expanding Universe
Functionalism
Theory
Explanation of cause & effects that encompasses relationships btwn 2 or more facts
Examples
Suicide is caused by isolation/lack of integration
Racism is taught/learned
Crime is caused by frustrated expectations
Poverty is caused by the concentration of wealth
Law
Theory or part of a theory that is well established & therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community 
There are no laws in the social sciences
Examples
Nothing can move faster than light
To every action, there is an equal & opposite reaction
Discipline A recognized area of academic exploration
Examples
sociology
biology
literature

 
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  An Introduction to   Methods: How the Social Sciences are Done
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-  Project:  Surveying 
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  For Macionis, there are 3 types of methods in the social sciences including scientific methods, critical methods, & interpretative methods; however in practice most social scientist employ many of these types simultaneously   
  THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO GENERATE EXPLANATIONS & MAKE PREDICTIONS   
  Science is a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation   
  Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, meaning facts  we verify with our senses   
  Scientific methods of the social sciences are the most widely used & are what we are using when we speak of hypothesis, theories, statistics, validity, etc.   
  THE INTERPRETATIVE METHOD  IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO UNDERSTAND THE MEANINGS PEOPLE EXPERIENCE   
  For many social scientists, science as it is practiced today to study the natural world, misses a vital part of the social world: meaning   
  Human beings do not simply act; we engage in meaningful action   
  Weber, who pioneered this framework, argued that the focus of sociology is interpretation   
  See Also:  Weber   
  Interpretative sociology is the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world   
  The interpretative sociologist's job is not just to observe what people do but to share in their world of meaning & come to appreciate why they act as they do   
  CRITICAL SOCIOLOGY FOCUSES ON WHAT IS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND & EXERCISE SOCIAL CHANGE   
  The importance of social change in & of itself became noteworthy by Marx who rejected the idea that society exists as  a "natural" system w/ a fixed order   
  Critical sociology is the study of society that focuses on the need for social change   
  As Marx believed the point of the social sciences are not merely to study the world as it is but to change it   
  W/in the practice of critical methods, the general public often confuses social science findings w/ politics & so scientific social scientists object to taking sides, charging that critical social science is political & gives up any claim to objectivity   
  Critical methodologists would refute the objections of the so called scientific social scientists by noting that not only is critical social science political, but ALL science, whether it be natural or social, is political   
  METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ARE TOOLS FOR SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION   
  The deductive method of analysis begins w/ theory & builds a question ( hypothesis ) based on that theory   
  The hypothesis is usually tested using some form of the experimental method to test some part of the theory   
  The inductive method of analysis begins w/ gathering generalizations from data, & theory is then created to explain the generalizations   
  Research can be used to test a theory or generate a theory, but research cannot "find out the truth"   
  A theory is a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more cause effect relationships   
  Theories are made up of verifiable statements about reality that, with the right information, can be tested   
  Theory refers to a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more major cause effect relationships   
  Ideally, a theory can be tested through research   
  A law is a theory or part of a theory that is well established and therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community   
  A hypothesis is a research question, that always takes the form of a statement that must be able to be disproved   
  A hypothesis is a testable statement   
  When social scientists use research for theory testing, they usually make use of a hypothesis   
  A hypothesis always takes the form of a statement   
  A hypothesis usually involves some kind of cause effect relationship between two or more variables   
  A hypothesis is used because a theory is usually too large and complex to test at one time   
  A correlation is a relationship by which two or more variables change together   
 
A concept is an abstract idea that represents some element of the world 
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A variable is a concept that can take on different values or that has two or more categories from case to case   
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Independent variables influence or cause the dependent variable & are sometimes called the predictor variable   
  The independent variable is the variable that the researcher thinks is the cause   
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Dependent variables should be the effect in the cause effect relationship   
  The value of the dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable   
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A positive correlation occurs when both variables change in the same direction   
  A negative correlation occurs when the variables change in opposite directions   
  A control variable is a variable that is held constant in order to observe the effect on two or more other variable   
  A spurious correlation is an apparent, although false, relationship btwn two or more variables caused by some other variable(s)   
  The control variable  is introduced to determine whether the relationship btwn the independent & dependent variables is spurious   
  MEASUREMENT IS THE PROCESS OF ASCERTAINING THE EXTENT, DIMENSIONS, 
QUANTITY, ETC. OF SOMETHING ESP BY COMPARISON TO A STANDARD 
 
  1.  An operational definition is a precise statement of the measuring of a variable or of the categories of a variable for purpose of measurement   
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2.  Reliability is established when the researcher is using a method that demonstrates consistency of the measurement; the method produces the same results if it is used repeatedly or if a different investigator uses it   
  Professor Hairball has repeated his study on hair magazines every year for ten years.  He has always gotten the same results.  Therefore, Hairball believes his study is very reliable   
  Reliability is the consistency of the measurement   
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3.  Validity indicates that the researcher is measuring the concept they intended to measure; that the methods utilized yield accurate info about the phenomenon being studied   
  Validity is established by  measuring the concept you intend to measure   
  The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & journalistic accounts in newspapers, magazines, on the TV news, the internet, etc.   
  The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & humanistic accounts of social phenomenon such as novels, an expose', videos, docudrama, etc.   
  Social scientists such as post modernists, et al, believe that if social science is to be effective, it must connect w/ the subject, i.e., the phenomenon being studied, & the object, i.e. the person or people examining the research   
  An emotion laden research project is not necessarily unreliable or invalid, but special care must be taken 
 
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4.  Constructs are concepts that are abstract and at least to some extent must be formulated by the researcher   
  Constructs are created by researchers when they are attempting to measure abstract concepts such as intelligence 
 
  Examples of constructs include intelligence, happiness, power, satisfaction, quality of life, etc.   
  PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH STEM FROM THE FACT THAT PEOPLE REACT TO BEING STUDIED   
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Reactivity is the tendency of people being studied to react to the researcher or to the fact that they are being studied   
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The Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity where people being studied attempt to please the researcher   
  The Placebo effect is a form of reactivity where people, as a result of being studied, behave differently, i.e. as the test subjects do, when in fact nothing has changed   
  Objectivity is a state of complete personal neutrality in conducting research   
  Bias is non objectivity in research; personal involvement in conducting research whether intentional or unintentional   
  THE USE OF EXISTING DATA SOURCES IS THE METHOD OF USING INFO THAT HAS BEEN COLLECTED BY OTHERS TO CONDUCT RESEARCH   
  Sometimes a social scientist need not collect original data to study an issue or a problem b/c the necessary data have already been collected   
  There are various public & private data archives such as the US Census, the National Opinion Research Ctr (NORC), Gallup, the Inter University Consortium for Political & Social Research (ICPSR), & thousands more   
  Professional orgs often conduct surveys of participants in their professions & sometimes make such data available to researchers w/ related interests   
  An example of the use of an existing source would be continuing a survey that was started 50 yrs ago, & using the data from the old survey as a comparison or bench mark from which to judge data info from the new survey   
  General library research, using books & journals to write a research paper or construct the research background for the present research is also a form of using existing sources 
 
  THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF PRIMARY RESEARCH METHOD IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IS THE SURVEY:  ASKING A POPULATION SET A SERIES OF QUESTIONS BY A RESEARCHER WHO THEN ANALYZES THE ANSWERS   
  A survey is the method of selecting a particular subject & compiling a series of questions that will best resolve any research objectives, ie questions or postulates, that will satisfy the query   
 
An example of a survey is one that the military uses to evaluate the command climate of a unit of soldiers   
  The survey is the most widely used method in sociology   
  The kinds of surveys are the:
- closed end questionnaire 
- open end questionnaire 
- telephone interview 
- personal interview 
 
 
DIFFERENT QUESTION TYPES MEASURE DIFFERENT SOCIAL MATERIAL 
 
  Fixed response questions in a survey are like multiple choice exam questions   
  The Likert scale form of surveying gives a clear range of choices on a 5 or 7 point scale 

Strongly Agree   Agree    Neutral / No Opinion    Disagree     Strongly Disagree 
     ______          _____                _____                    _____             ______ 
 

 
  In open ended questions the respondent states or writes an answer to the question in their own words.  (Similar to an interview)   
  There are FOUR types of questions typically used in surveys & interviews, including: 
- Background  (demographics) 
- Activities 
- Knowledge 
- Sentiments (opinions, values, attitudes, feelings, etc.) 
 
  When writing survey questions, 
- use short statements 
- begin w/ 'easy' questions 
- use 'hard' questions near the end of the survey 
- end w/ open ended questions 
 
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Sampling is the random selection from a general population to establish a sample group, which should represent the entire population   
  AN EXPERIMENT IS A SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION IN A CONTROLLED / LIMITED SITUATION   
  Experiments are carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom   
  An example of an experiment is testing the integrity of a group of men against a group of women by placing money on a sidewalk & observing what % would pick the money up & keep it compared to who would turn it in, or ask who dropped the money in the first place   
  The steps in the experimental process include:
Sampling to determine the 
Control & experimental groups 
Pre-test 
Experimental manipulation 
Post-test 
Debriefing 
Analysis 
 
 
The experimental group goes through an experience or manipulation 
 
  The control group does not experience a manipulation of an independent variable & receives the pre-test & post-test   
  Lab experiments are done in setting w/ almost total control by researcher   
  The TWO types of field experiments are natural experiments & social experiments   
  In natural experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a natural event, or the tabulation data before & after a natural event   
  In social experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a social policy   
  INTERVIEWS ARE ORAL SURVEYS   
  The strength of an interview over a survey is that researcher can follow leads to unplanned questions   
  In structured interviews, the questions are pre planned   
  In unstructured interviews, the unplanned questions follow the flow of the conversation   
  FIELD OBSERVATION IS ATTENTIVENESS TO SOCIAL MATERIAL TO MEASURE IT IN SOME MANNER   
  The FOUR qualities of field observation include obtrusiveness, unobtrusiveness, participant & non participant   
  In obtrusive field observation, the researcher is seen, recognized as a researcher;  open or overt   
  In unobtrusive observation, the researcher is hidden or not recognized as a researcher;  secret or covert   
  In participant observation, the researcher is, during the research, participating in the activities of the subjects   
  Participant observation allows the researchers to observe a person or a group of people in their everyday activities   
  An example of this would be going to a Baptist church on Sunday to see how people in that area worship   
  In non participatory observation, the researcher is not participating; remains separated, aloof   
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Content analysis is an analysis of narrative data from open ended surveys, interviews, books, press, media, etc.) that looks for regularity   
  Statistical analysis is an analysis of existing data (census, govt records, etc.) or data you have collected (surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.) to determine correlations   
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Multivariate analysis is the sorting out many factors to determine most important factors   

 
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Examples of Variables

  age                    religion                     education level            env concern
  gender              political party             race                           satisfaction in the workplace
  income             marital status             occupation                  effective decisions


 
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Examples of Independent & Dependent Variables

Abuse & stress
Lack of social integration & suicide
Number of autos & global warming
Education & environmental concern
Income & environmental concern
Openness & satisfaction in the workplace
Number of guidelines to follow & effective critical decision making


 
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Examples of Positive & Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation:  both variables change in same direction
Ed level is positively correlated w/ income
Negative Correlation:  a situation where one variable increases & the other decreases
Ed level is negatively correlated w/ poverty rates


 
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Example of Constructs

ideal type of bureaucrat
Weber:  rational, power in the office, tenure, salary, entrance exams & appointment from within


 
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Table on Variable Measurement Types
 
Difference
Rank Order
Equal Space
Zeroed
Examples
Nominal
Yes
     
Deviance Committed
Ordinal
Yes
Yes
   
Hi Lo SES
Interval
Yes
Yes
Yes
 
Temperature
Ratio
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Income
Scale
Yes
 
Yes
 
Race
Gender

 
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Example of Validity

IQ   Many people question the validity of IQ tests. 
 


 
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Example of Reactivity

Hawthorne effect:  form of reactivity:  people being studied attempt to please the researcher: 
From H Motor Wiring Room:  young women & young male researchers


 
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Sampling: the random selection from a general population to establish a Sample Group, which represents the entire population

Sample Group:  a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire population.

The basic way to obtain a representative sample is by a random draw from everyone in the population in question. 

No matter how small your population, you almost always need 50 people in order to have a scientifically valid sample.

1,100 is enough for most major survey firms to survey the US 

Thus if you divide your sample into different groups, you need even more people. 
If you want to compare men & women:  50 of each
If you want to compare lower income, middle income & upper income men and women, how many do you need? 
6 groups:
50 lo income men
50 lo income women
50 mid income men
50 mid income women
50 hi income men
50 hi income women
300 total


 
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Example of Content Analysis

Violence & TV:  perform content analysis on top 10 novels  & top 10 TV shows of each decade to determine amount of violence.  Is there a correlation? 


 
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Example of Multivariate Analysis

Divorce:  age at marriage; class, ed, race of spouses; income of each; expectations; children; urban/rural; love; sex; length of marriage; etc.


 
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Outline on the Scientific Method
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  SUMMARY:  THERE ARE SEVEN STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, INCLUDING:  1. OBSERVE   2. CLASSIFY   3. APPLY LOGIC  4. HYPOTHESIZE   5. RESEARCH   6. RECORD & ANALYZE FINDINGS   7. REPORT FINDINGS   
  The scientific method is put into operation through the steps of the research design process   
  1.  OBSERVATION   
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Observation (a.k.a. empiricism) employs the five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, & tasting  
  Hume found that the senses are subject to illusions, errors, or prejudices  
  Because of problems w/ the senses, the scientific method makes further demands on the researcher  
  Observations must be subject to confirmation and verification  
  Confirmed & verified observations lead to "factual information" where the facts are socially created  
  2.  CLASSIFICATION   
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Classification establishes relationships among facts:   
  Facts & classifications alone are sometimes viewed as "knowledge"  
  But this knowledge, classifications, must be seen as culturally based (i.e. biased)  
  In the mid 1800s, there was an explosion of modern classification  
  3.  LOGIC   
  Applying logic infers a relationship among facts or objects of classification  
  The relationship inferred by application of logic becomes a hypothesis, if it is to be tested  
  But there are other ways of knowing than by deductive logic, including emotion, tradition, religion, feminist, post-modern  
  And logic tells us nothing of values; but other ways of knowing do deal w/ values  
  Science & logic tacitly support existing social relations, cultural & moral identities  
  We live in a culture where tradition, religion, emotions, etc. have less influence than science, logic, etc.  
  Scientism is the habit of thought or procedure of scientists that embodies a particular set of values, norms, structures & institutions  
  Choosing the types of analyses to be utilized in the research project reflects the application of logic   
  4HYPOTHESIZE   
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If the hypothesis is true, then such & such should follow 
 
  A hypothesis is an "if, then statement"  
  A hypothesis takes the form that: 'If "C" or the Cause occurs, then "E" or the Effect should follow'  
  The hypothesis is a concise statement of the problem to be researched   
 
In research, the answers you get depend on the questions you ask
Some questions are never asked. 
Who controls the questions asked? 
See Interest Based Knowledge
 
  5.  RESEARCH   
  In actually conducting the research, some variation of the research instruments are used  
  Research instruments include surveys, interviews, statistical analysis, analyze existing data, observation, experiments, etc.   
  6.  RECORD & ANALYZE FINDINGS   
  Recording & analyzing findings is the process by which the researcher documents observations, numerical data, etc.  
  7.  REPORTING FINDINGS   
  Reporting findings is the process where scientific findings are usually reported in journals, books, govt publications, conferences, etc.  
  -  Qualities of the Scientific Method  
  -  The History of the Development of the Scientific Method  
  -  Criticism of science:  Weber on values & science  
  -  Hoaxes:  
  -  Montesquieu on the Scientific Method  

 
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1. Observe
Examples:  Egyptians studied motions of heavenly bodies to predict seasons, flooding of Nile & when to plant & harvest
1830:  Darwin observed species & developed theory of evolution

 
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2. Classification
e.g. Periodic Table, Phylums;  types of society (ancient, agriculture, industry, service)

 
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4. Hypothesize
If a build-up of CO2 causes warming in greenhouses, then a build-up of CO2 in the Earth's atm should cause warming
Social isolation causes suicide

 
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 Outline on  Experimental Research
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  INTRODUCTION   
  An experiment is carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom  
  In an experiment the research changes or manipulates the independent variable  
 
The classic experimental method is a research method in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable while keeping everything else constant in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable
 
  EXPERIMENTAL GROUP   
  The experimental group goes through an experience or manipulation  
  The experimental group is the group where there is a manipulation of the independent variable  
  CONTROL GROUP   
 
The control group is the group where there is no manipulation of the independent variable
 
  The control group does not experience a manipulation of an indep var & receives the pre-test & post-test  
 
Both the con grp & the exp grp must be exposed to a controlled env; i.e. exact same conditions
 
 
Both the con grp & the exp grp are given a pre-test or pre-experiment observation / measure
 
  THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS   
 
Then the exp grp is subjected to the "experimental treatment" aka the manipulation, procedure, stimulus, event, etc. 
 
 
After the exp manipulation, the researcher observes or measures the difference btwn the exp grp & the con grp
 
 
For the classic exp method to be effective, the researcher must be able to control the entire env, control all the variables, & compare the con & exp grps
 
 
Finally the researcher gives both the con & exp grps a post-test or post-experimental observation / measurement 
 
 
Sampling is important in the classic exp method & thus both the con & exp grps must be large enough to observe random, "natural" variation w/in the group
 
 
The experiment must be able to be replicated by other scientists 
 
  4 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS   
  a.  Lab experiments are done in a setting w/ almost total control by researcher & they generally include control & exp grps, a pre-test, an experimental manipulation, a post-test, & a debriefing  
  b.  Field experiments are done in a setting w/ little or control by researcher & they generally do include control & exp grps, a pre-test, a post-test, & nor a debriefing, but they often do include an experimental manipulation that may either spontaneously, or "naturally," or by a researcher  
  There are two types of field experiments, including:
i.  Natural Experiments
ii.  Social Experiments
 
  c.  A natural experiment may give either or both, or neither a pre & post tests around a natural event  
  In a nat exp, it is also possible to tabulate data from before &/or after a natural event  
  d.  In a social experiment, the researcher gives pre & post tests around a social policy or tabulates data around a social policy  
 
THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD & POLICY QUESTIONS
 
 
In most policy issues, or large issues such as the env, the exp method is difficult to apply
 
 
In most policy issues or large issues:  
 
1.  there is no con grp & there is no isolation of the exp grp
 
  2.   it is unclear as to the basis for the pre-test?  1 yr ago, 10?  100? 
 
  3.   there is no isolation of the exp treatment  
  4.  there is no comparison of the exp & con grps  
  5.  sampling is overwhelmed by global nature of problems  
  6.  it is impossible to estb control group or variable because outside variables affect a situation even it is unknown  
  7.  research on policy or large issues is rarely replicated  
  Thus science is not plagued only by imprecision, but “fundamental indeterminancies”  How do we define a ‘dead or dying’ tree?  How warm is global warm?  

 
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 Outline on  Social Laws
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  THERE IS A HIERARCHY OF THE VALIDITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE FINDINGS   
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There is somewhat of an agreed upon hierarchy in methods indicating the authority & acceptability of ideas / knowledge including the range of: 
- social laws
- paradigms
- theories
- concepts
- hypothesis
 
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Social laws are the most widely accepted knowledge 
 
  Social laws are felt to be absolute & irreversible   
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Today, there are no social "laws"
 
  But for each of us, behavior, beliefs, & ideology becomes so fixed, that we act as if there are social laws   
  The concept of the spirit as used by early social thinkers, embodies Monte’s understanding of the distinctive character of a system of social laws  
  MONTESQUIEU PROPOSED THE IDEA OF SOCIAL LAWS & HELD THAT THEY HAVE PARTICULAR QUALITIES   
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Montesquieu proposed that one of the qualities of social laws is that:  
  1.  they are the necessary relations arising from nature of things  
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2.  they apply to nature & to people
 
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3.  they underlie all things, human, natural, & divine
 
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4.  philosophy's task was to discover these laws
 
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5.  laws about human nature were extremely complex, hence the need for the scientific method & ideal types
 
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6.  knowledge of the laws would ease ills of society
 
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Monte believed customs emerge spontaneously while social laws are estb in a formal & explicit fashion
 
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Monte believed that social laws are spontaneous & natural, but formal  
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Monte’s conception of social laws is itself ambiguous because laws can be at variance w/ what a society needs because of the limits of human knowledge, errors, & chance events  
  TODAY, THERE ARE NO UNIVERSAL SOCIAL LAWS   
  But while law's are universal, there are there are no truly universal laws in society  
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We can reconcile the apparent lack of universal social laws by recalling that there can be laws, and/or ideal types which are generally true  
  But it is difficult to generalize, so each must be tailored to fit the particular situation  
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Monte believes that intellectual freedom is intact despite the apparent determinism implied by social laws  
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People are not passive creatures, evolving or developing automatically, rather we are active players who attempt to understand & influence our env & ourselves  
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Reflexive social theorists, post modernists & others do not accept the existence of social laws  
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Monte’s ideas on intellectual freedom are similar to many contemporary social theorists in that they see no conflict btwn social laws & freedom  
  SOCIAL SCIENTISTS ATTEMPT TO BRIDGE THE GAP BTWN DETERMINISM & INDIVIDUALISM   
  Monte & contemporary social theorists try to bridge the gap btwn social determinism & individualism, including:   
  a.  Anthony Giddens' concept of reflexive sociology   
  b.  in econ, the Rational Man Theory  
  c.  in psych: the 100th Monkey Syndrome  
  d.  Karl Weick's organizational theories   
  e.  Post Modernists who practically deny any structural forces  
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All theories do not try to bridge the gap btwn social determinism & individualism, but some, such as Giddens, Weick, & post modernists focus on the social forces / free will interaction  
  THERE ARE COMMONALTIES BTWN THEORIES OF DETERMINISM & THEORIES OF INDIVIDUALISM   
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What all of the theories that bridge the gap btwn determinism & individualism have in common is that:   
  a.  some people discover a new relationship, principle, or law in a particular field   
  b.  people learn this knowledge at different rates due to exposure, intelligence, access to power & resources...   
  c.  people act in accordance w/ this new knowledge   
  d.  people's reaction based on the new knowledge about an 'old' law or relationship often tends to negate the original law   
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Thus social laws are laws so long as people follow them
-  out of ignorance
-  out of agreement
-  from being forced
 
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Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolutions  in 1962 in which he contrasts normal research & the new paradigm research when the old paradigm becomes transparently inadequate  

 
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Example of Monte’s ambiguity of Social Laws

Monte felt that democratic republican societies had made mistakes in developing slavery

Domination of one race by another was believed to be a "nat law" based on Darwin, but Monte did not accept it


 
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 Outline on the  Role of the Physical Sciences in Policy Analysis 
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  The study of the env has focused on the production side of the econ such as pollution, toxic waste, over harvest, etc.
 
  The focus on the prod side of the env issue limits the solutions to the prod side such as to to fix or clean up dirty production via coal scrubbers or catalytic converters, or move rom one type of prod to another such as from trees to help, or gas cars to elec cars
 
  CONSUMPTION SIDE   
  On env issues, there has been a lack of a consumption side focus
 
  We need to focus on the consumption side but it is often politically & personally less desirable
 
  For many social scientists, consumption side solutions need to be considered because ultimately the world cannot support the indl world's level of consumption
 
  The ultimate envl problem is over population
 
  The southern hemisphere demands the northern hemisphere's level of consumption w/ the attitude that there is no need to reduce consumption levels
 
  A focus on the consumption side means that people would use less & use it more efficiently by recycling, insulate, develop mass transit, build smaller homes & autos
 
  RICH WORLD'S AGENDA   
  For many social scientists, the debate on global warming reflects the rich world's agendas & interests
 
  The debate on global warming goes back & fourth from alarmism to pacifism because science, like any issue, can become politicized & because uncertainties are emphasized at one point & overlooked at another & eventually, one pt of view becomes central to the argument
 
  PHYSICAL SCIENCES DOMINATE THE DISCOURSE   
  Historically, the physical sciences have dominated modern discourse
 
  Sci is seen as the discourse or perspective that is the best suited to study of the env
 
  Science has a high level of soc authority
 
  Most policy is based on hard science, though the role of science is never clear   
  WEAKNESSES OF SCIENCE IN POLICY MAKING   
  Social scientists who critique science note that modern culture idolizes science & complexity overwhelms the scientific method
 
  The physical sciences are weakened in any policy debate because, like any science, they cannot offer certainty, only probability   
  Because science offers no certainty, in the political realm the skeptics can always raise doubts, even when the bulk of the evidence is on the other side   
  In the global warming debate, a super majority of scientist agree it is a major problem; however, they don't agree on the transient & ultimate effects   
  The small debate w/in the global warming scientific community has become a large debate w/in the political / media arena because opponent & the media both emphasize a minority opinion to 'balance' the debate   
  Another weakness of science in policy making is that science follows it's own, deliberate pace, while the pace of policy making is nil, then may speed up, then may happen almost instaneously  
  THE SOCIAL SCIENCES STRENGTHEN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN POLICY MAKING   
  Redclift & Benton have two concerns w/ regards to the practice of science & envl issues which include:
a.  How can soc sci be integrated into framework of sci & policy? 
b.  What does it mean to dev a ‘sound scientific basis?’
 
  To understand the env problem, we need to understand the soc construction of science  
  Sci can mask the real dilemmas  
  Developing policy from science is problematic  
  Soc sci have a unique role in the creation of policy analysis in helping all participants understand the: 
a.  problem, whether it is an envl , medical, defense, welfare, etc., problem
b.  the process of change
c.  the solutions
 

 
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 Outline on the  Role of the Social Sciences in Policy Analysis
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  INTRODUCTION   
  Policy analysis & policy solutions are only one part of soc change
 
  Pol an is considered to be "top down" change unless it is a reflection of true ground swell of dem support  
  PROBLEMS BTWN SOC & PHYS SCIENCES   
  There are several problems of cooperation & the integration of types of knowledge btwn the soc & phys sci
 
  Problems that resulted from social sciences involvement with phys sciences include the problem: 
 
  a.  of teleology.  A teleological analysis sees soc as moving to a long term perfected state
 
  But for most social scientists, progress is not inevitable while evolution is inevitable
 
  For most social scientists, from the anti teleological pt of view, scientists should not put  "good" & "bad" values on most social changes such as the extinction of dinosaurs, or the evolution or development of the family  
  While it is possible to put values on human changes, that also is not the task of the social sciences; it is the task of politicians, religious leaders, etc. 
 
  For most social scientists, society should put values on the effects of pollution, but can we judge changes that seem natural? 
 
  b.  that the relations btwn soc & nat are neglected because, for one reason, the soc & phys sci's do not coop enough
 
  c.  that people are not seen as beings w/ nat histories
 
  WEAKNESSES OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN POLICY ANALYSIS   
  There are FOUR unique problems or weaknesses for the soc sci in pol an 
 
  Problems that resulted from social sciences involvement w/ pol an include the problem of
 
  a.  determining the role of soc sci in pol an
 
  b.  determining the role of the soc sci in framing the issues
 
  c.  focusing on the phys sci & ignoring the pol & soc implications  
  d.  the use of existing categories as unit of analysis  
  CONFLICT PT OF VIEW OF POLICY ANALYSIS   
  The participants in any policy issue will struggle over the sci results as first step in the policy debate  
  The participants in any policy issue will struggle over the: 
a.  translation of sci into policy
b.  application of pol
c.  evaluation of pol
d.  reformulation of pol
 
 
There are NINE Fundamental Roles of the Soc Sci in Pol An including the
1. ed of public 6. explication of the human relationship to env
2. ed of professionals (scientists, etc.) 7. analysis & understand of the role of sci, ed, pol, etc.
3. ed of politicians 8. process of social impact analysis (SIA)
4. ed of other participants in envl debate  9. process of conflict resolution
5. assist those opposing the powerful
 
  1.  EDUCATION OF THE PUBLIC   
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of the public  
  The lack of public uptake of policy issues is based on ignorance, misunderstanding, cultural conflict, & alienation  
  Public ed through schools, the media, etc. can reduce some of the problems os ignorance, but it generally cannot overcome resistance people have to knowledge because of their beliefs, values, or norms unless it is specifically designed to do so, & even then the power of ed is uncertain  
  2.  EDUCATION OF PROFESSIONALS   
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of professionals  
  Scientists, lawyers, politician, doctors, educators do not always understand their role in pol debate  
  Professionals are opinion leaders in that more people will accept their pt of view or their knowledge than they will from other sources  
  3.  EDUCATION OF POLITICIANS   
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of politicians  
  Politicians have frequently used the soc & phys sciences to create / bolster their public policy  
  While politicians create politicization of issues, they are also often caught up in the politicization of policy analysis  
  To dev a policy that is not purely politicized a politician much have knowledge of the issues if they are to formulate & advocate a new position  
  4.  EDUCATION OF PARTICIPANTS IN POLICY DEBATES   
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of participants in policy debate  
  Part in pol debates are either partisan, neutral, or ignorant of a particular pol issue  
  Each participant in a pol debate must be approached uniquely in terms of ed or soc change because each wants & has own its sources of KBVN, & they are often not aware of other sources & pts of view  
  See Also:  Participants in envl debate  
  5.  OPPOSE THE POWERFUL   
  It is inevitable that grps involved in policy analysis will have vastly different amts of power as when a community goes up against a corp, or a cross section of population across the US opposes the govt, etc.   
  The social sciences possess organizing skills, educational skills, access to info, negotiation skills, understanding of the operation of systems, etc., all of which are necessary to engage in policy making  
  In a democratic society, all grps should have the right to make their voice heard, & it is the role of the soc sciences to assist those w/o power  
  6.  EXPLICATION OF THE HUMAN RELATIONSHIP TO THE ENV  
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the explication of the human relationship to the env  
  The soc science can expand the gen understanding of human relationships w/ the env  
  The humanities & the  soc sci help people experience or learn their
-   beliefs
-   values
-   norms
-   emotional/aesthetics
& their relationship to to a policy issue such as the env, econ pol, welfare, etc.
 
  One of the goals of an ed in soc science is to dev a social ideology (sociological imagination which allows one to operate w/ all of the ways of knowing (scientific, emotional, aesthetic, traditional, etc.) on all levels of people's mental systems (KBVN) & thus to be open to all of the dimensions of a given policy issue or social obj
 
A tree is 
- a thing of beauty
- product
- a living thing
- a job
A snail
- is a unique thing
- is an obstacle to a product
- can destroy a job
 
A convict
- is a criminal
- deserves punishment
-  should pay reparations
- is a victim
- deserves a second chance
- can be rehabilitated
The unemployed are
-  lazy
-  moochers
-  disadvantaged
-  exploited by corps
-  deserving temporary assistance
-  need training
 
  7.  ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF SCIENCE, ED, POLITICS, ETC.   
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the analysis & understanding of the role of sci, ed, pol, etc.  
  Understanding the fundamental roles of soc sci in in policy debate includes the demystification the process of pol an as well as the improvement of the process of pol an  
  Soc sci has deconstructed science & shown that sci does not always possess the answers & sometimes is used in a misleading way creating mystification  
  For Redclift & Benton, soc sci has improved the utilization of all sci's by analyzing each sci's proper role  
  8.  SOCIAL IMPACT ANALYSIS  ( SIA )  
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the process of social impact analysis (SIA)  
  SIA is designed to clearly delineate the social, pol, econ, cul, etc. impact of a particular project or policy on soc, soc instit, cul, etc. such as 
- specific projects which affect the env  (logging sale)
- world trends in the env  (global warming)
- envl solutions
- a prison being located in a particular area
- a Walmart being located in a particular area
- a change in welfare rules, etc.
 
  SIA takes nat science predictions, policy predictions, etc. & then works out soc & econ consequences  
  9.  CONFLICT RESOLUTION   
  One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the process of conflict resolution  
  Soc sci aids in wking out conflicts btwn soc grps  
  Conclusion:  Toward an eclectic but unified approach to the melding of the sciences & resolving pol an issues  
  MELDING THE SCIENCES   
  To meld the sciences & resolve pol an issues  
  a.  it is imp to understand soc, econ & pol structures & the processes if one hopes to understand policy issues, soc prob, & solutions  
  b.  it is imp to understand our natl heritage from a soci perspective including the place of our evol nature, i.e. our genes & relations among individuals, family, soc grps, communities, nations, world, nature, etc..  
  c.  it is imp to understand that our knowledge base is very narrow for both soc & phys sci's; i.e., we have much to learn  
  d.  it is imp to understand that a unified theory of soc sci's is lacking  
  e.  it is imp to understand that a unified theory of soc & phys sci's is lacking  

 
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 Outline on  Social Movements
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  -  Supplement:  Video:  Social Mvmts
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  -  Video:  Living Wage:  The Insider Story:  UVa, 2006        3:07 minutes
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  -  Video:  Living Wage:  The Arrests:  UVa, 2006      27 sec
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  -  Video:  The US vs. John Lennon          1 hr 36 min
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  DEFINITIONS   
  A social movement is a large number of people acting together on behalf of some objective or idea
 
  A soc mvmt usually involves use of non institutionalized means such as marches, protests, rallies, boycotts, etc., to support or oppose some social change
 
  A defining characteristic of a soc mvmt is that it involves substantial numbers of people for an extended period of time
 
  A soc mvmt is a group of people who organize in an attempt to encourage or resist some kind of social change  
  CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOC MVMT  
  A soc mvmt is a group of people who have no political power who join together in order to acquire some  
  People in a soc mvmt hope to influence their community or their society by joining together  
 
A soc mvmt has an agenda that it seeks to promote
 
 
Generally, the agenda of a soc mvmt is contained w/in a larger ideology, which is a  world view (a set of beliefs & values) that it seeks to promote
 
  The success of a soc mvmt depends on its ability to convince participants & general public of the merits of its objectives
 
  A soc mvmt has large scale membership, a promotional character, & a sophisticated administrative process whose structure varies as the soc mvmt develops
 
  For many social theorists, social change & soc mvmt are part of a historic, dialectical & mutually reinforcing relationship
 
  Redcliff & Benton demonstrate that there are FOUR broad perspectives to the examination of soc mvmts, including:  1.  the descriptive approach, 2.  the historical approach,  3.  systematic classification,  4.  the comparison of soc mvmts & interest or pressure groups  
  1.  The DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH, though not founded on post modernism, is post modernist in its view that there is no consistent logic that captures all the qualities of soc mvmts  
  Because there is no consistent logic, analysts should rely on general description therefore we must rely on a general description  
  For Yearly there is no categorization that adequately describes Soc Mvmts & we must rely on description & consensus as to what is a SM & what is not  
  Most collective behavior theorist consider soc mvmts to be a type of collective behavior, but others see soc mvmts as a separate, unique form of social behavior
 
  2.  The HISTORICAL APPROACH to examining soc mvmts attempts to articulate the interest of some developing historical actor  
  Giddens notes that articulating interests may seem easy in retrospect, but is very difficult in practice, & even the most skilled analysts can rarely predict the future beyond a few days or weeks w/ any accuracy  
  See Also:  The History of Soc Mvmts  
  3.  The SYSTEMATIC CLASSIFICATION of soc mvmts examines the different functions of soc mvmts in society & as well a comparison of the roles or niches that different types of soc mvmts fulfill  
  One important type of systematic classification of soc mvmts is done by Giddens in his examination of the institutional dimensions of modernity  
  For Giddens the major institutions of modernity are capitalism, surveillance, militarism, & industrialism  
  For Giddens the power of the major institutions of modernity is being met, reflexively, by soc mvmts  
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The Table of the Institutions of Modernity & the Reflexivity of Social Mvmts shows that soc mvmts balance, challenge, temper, etc. the actions of the most powerful structures of modernity  
  See Also:  Giddens  
  4.  The separation of soc mvmts from "PRESSURE GRPS" is an important distinction that many analysts fail to make  
  For Redcliff & Benton, soc mvmts do cognitive praxis in that they produce innovative knowledge claims while pressure mvmts are a subset of a soc mvmt in that the latter may disseminate the knowledge that  soc mvmts create  
  Praxis is the combination of theory & social action  
  Soc mvmts define a new way of thinking, a world view, an ideology  
  However, some soc mvmts seem to have no new ideology, i.e. Moral Majority, & these types of mvmts are considered to be a unique type, often called counter mvmts, which are attempting to re-assert an old ideology  
  Major soc mvmt subjects
Political mvmt (revolution) 
Labor mvmt 
Women's mvmt
Civil rights mvmt 
Envl mvmt 
Peace mvmt
 

 
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The Table of the Institutions of Modernity & the Reflexivity of Social Mvmts
External
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Institution of Modernity
Reflexive Social Movement
 
Capital accumulation Labor mvmt  
Surveillance Democracy/free speech mvmt  
Military power Peace mvmt  
Industrialism Ecology mvmt  
The Table of the Institutions of Modernity & the Reflexivity of Social Mvmt shows that soc mvmts balance, challenge, temper, etc. the actions of the most powerful structures of modernity  

 
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 Outline on  New Social Movements
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  -  Project:  The Intersection of Culture & Social Structure via Social Issues by Social Group
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New social movements ( NSMs ) are the social mvmts that have arisen in the later half of the 1900s in conjunction w/ the rise of democracy & modernization
 
 
NSMs are distinguished from older social mvmts in that the latter were much more rare, often had to develop into a political mvmt or revolution to succeed, did not have the advantages of voice that democracy offers, nor of communications, the media, etc. as modernization offers
 
 
Old social mvmts include the Crusades, the Reformation, revolutions, etc. while the NSMs include the Labor Mvmt, the Civil Rights Mvmt, the Women's Mvmt, the Env Mvmt, etc. 
 
 
The NSMs arose w/ the demise of of traditional working class, the decline of industrial jobs
 
 
Since the 1950s, the Working Class is down from 50% to 20% of the population w/ less than 15% unionized in US
 
 
STRUCTURAL CHANGE IN THE 1ST WORLD 
 
 
Since the 1950s there is a decline of social democrats as seen in the Reaganist dismantling of Keynesianism, the welfare state & other achievements of the FDRites
 
 
The failure of social democrats to achieve their goals through traditional politics has fostered the fragmentation of the social groups supporting FDRism & social democratic policies into the NSMs
 
 
A strength & weakness of the NSMs is that they must now accommodate diverse groups including the working class, ethnic & gender minorities (minorities in terms of power) and new middle class of NSMs such as the feminists, env grps, peace grps, anti nuke grps, etc. 
 
  NSM'S CRITIQUE OF SOCIETY   
  NSMs often offer a broad critique of society as seen in their position that  
  - modern society is based on materialism  
  - modern society is based on individualism in that we often either ignore the problems of others or assume they are individual & not social in nature  
  - science, rationalism, modern society, etc. have the ideology of omnipotence & infallibility, but are flawed, possibly fatally flawed  
 
NSMs often embrace the modernist view of social change & knowledge, while some such as the anarchists eschew the modernist view in favor of chaos theory, post modernism, nihilism & so on
 
  LIMITS OF NSMs  
 
The limits of  the modernist NSMs includes the viewpoint that knowledge is 
1.  limited
2.  politicized
3.  a product of existence
4.  the result of the interplay of knowledge & beliefs
5.  the result of globalized issues
 
  1.  LIMITED KNOWLEDGE  
 
Knowledge is based primarily on limited scientific knowledge
 
  "Knowledge" is an unexamined combination of knowledge which is tested, 'valid' science (which has limitations) & beliefs which are untested 'valid' ideas, values, & norms  
  Environmentalism must be based on more than just environmental enlightenment based on physical science knowledge about the env  
  People view social problems in different ways, using different criteria including different scientific knowledge, values, politics, jobs, etc.  
  Scientific knowledge & beliefs are not fixed, rather they are experiencing rapid change  
  2.  POLITICIZED KNOWLEDGE  
 
Science is politicized in environmentalism, abortion, & other social issues that enter the realm of public discourse
 
  The politicization of science is the result of the natural dev of paradigms in the creation of knowledge, the use of knowledge by various grps in society, the creation & control of knowledge by grps in society, & the fact that particular socio hist contexts negate the ability of society to accept particular bits or types of society  
  3.  KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, ETC. ARE PRODUCTS OF EXPERIENCE   
 
Beliefs are a product of all levels of social existence
 
  Beliefs are formed through experiences in social structure & culture  
 
Just as knowledge is learned through everyday experiences of teaching & ed, trial & error, etc., so beliefs, values, & norms are learned through everyday experiences of faith, tradition, etc.   
Link
The Table on the Intersection of Culture & Social Structure via Social Issues by Social Group shows that knowledge, beliefs, values & norms surrounding an issue vary depending on what structure of society one is functioning in & by the group to which one belongs  
  The concept of master status embodies the idea that people may have a dominant social structure or social group to which they belong which in our society is usually one's occupation  
  However, even one's master status may be significantly influenced by one's relationship to another sphere of life such as ones' family, peers, religion, education, etc.  
  The relationship btwn social issues, social mvmts, social grps, culture, & social structure demonstrates that to a large extent all culture is local, i.e. situationally specific  
  4.  KNOWLEDGE & THE INTERPLAY OF KNOWLEDGE & BELIEFS   
 
The identity of social problems come & go, i.e. enter & leave the realm of public discourse, on the basis of "knowledge AND beliefs"
 
  Knowledge is changed by science, politics, the media, social mvmts, etc.  
  The concept of the "social construction of reality" holds that the creation of the env debate, or any public debate,  is a product of science, media, politics, culture, etc.   
  5.  KNOWLEDGE & GLOBALIZED ISSUES   
 
Many social issues are now globalized & have an impact on interest groups, & constituencies around the world, & these diverse groups & levels of analysis are extremely difficult to synthesize
 
 
The env problem, or any public problem, engenders policies, grps, debates, lobbyists, think tanks, etc. & all of these actors must comprehend all levels of action & discussion from the global level to the national level to the regional level to the local level to the personal, & how these actors & levels interact in the complex processes of the public discussion
 
 
The globalization of social issues can be seen in the dictum, "the personal is political," in that whether I drive a gas hog or an economy car, or whether I heat w/ coal, oil, nuclear/electric, wood, or super insulation, or whether I eat fast food or food from my own garden are all both personal choices & global issues
 
 
The difficulty of synthesizing the interests of diverse groups & multiple levels of social existence can be seen in the failure of the env & other mvmts to understand the peripheral nations, the interests of the working class, businesses, & racism, etc.
 

 
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Table on the Intersection of Culture & Social Structure via Social Issues by Social Group
Social Movement or Group that is concerned w/ this issue: 
Social Movement or Group that conflicts or allies w/ the soc mvmt or grp on this issue:
Social Issue:
Social Issues that compete w/ this social issue for this social group: 
Culture -->


 Social Structure  \/

 Knowledge

 

Beliefs

 

Values

 

Norms

 

Peers
 
 
 
 
Family  
 
 
 
Religion  
 
 
 
Govt  
 
 
 
Military  
 
 
 
Economy  
 
 
 
Charity  
 
 
 
Education  
 
 
 
Media  
 
 
 
Recreation & Leisure  
 
 
 
The Table on the Intersection of Culture & Social Structure via Social Issues by Social Group shows that knowledge, beliefs, values & norms surrounding an issue vary depending on what structure of society one is functioning in & by the group to which one belongs

 
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 Outline on  Environmentalism:  The Social Movement
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  ENVLISM IS HISTORICALLY NEW
 
  Envl mvmts are a relatively new phenomenon going back maybe 200 yrs
 
  Green mvmts are considered new in relation to old labor  
  Green, civil rights, women's, peace mvmts all differ from labor in that they draw support from across the classes  
  THE ENVL MVMT IS RELATIVELY SMALL 
 
  The envl mvmt is relatively small when compared to other soc mvmts  
  From one perspective the envl mvmt may not even qualify as a soc mvmt because it is small, radical, bureaucratized, & professionalized
 
  The envl mvmt's small membership implies that its effect is result of professionalization; i.e. the manipulation of the media & access to the pol sys  
  In the 80s, Greenpeace became less radical & more focused on lobbying
 
  THE ENVL MVMT IS INTL 
 
  The intl character of the envl mvmt is seen in the fact that it is in 
a.  all indl nations 
b.  some 2nd world nations 
c.  many 3rd world nations 
d.  authoritarian & democratic nations 
e.  pre industrial, industrial, & post industrial nations
 
  The intl character of the envl mvmt reflects the intl or transboundary character of envl issues  
  THE ENVL MVMT'S INTERESTS PARALLEL THE INTEREST OF GOVTS 
 
  Govts have an interest in getting other nations to deal w/ envl issues
 
  If the 3rd world conserves on gas & reduces emissions, then the 1st world is more free to do less; or if I do more, you may do less  
  Envl mvmts can use the divergent interests of nation to their own advantage by berating govt X for not doing as much as nation Y  
  In most cases, the industrialized nations were responsive to the pressure of their peers, & thus would follow at least a similar envl pol  
  However, the Bush Jr. Admin of 2000 - 2004, 2004 - 2008, has chosen not only to not respond to the community of nations, it has chosen to pursue policies at odds w/ the community of indlized nations on the env, as well as in other areas  
  The Bush Jr. Admin has not signed the largest & most important intl treaty, the Kyoto protocols on global warming & thus the traditional envl mvmt of using intl peer pressure to advance changes is less effective today  
  The envl mvmts that are the most internationalized are experiencing the most growth  
  Envl mvmts can cooperate on issues, but have their own populace in which to seek political & monetary support  
  THE ENVL MVMTS COMPETITORS   
  The envl mvmt has few intl competitors other than a few soc mvmts such as the: 
a.  women's mvmt 
b.  peace mvmt 
c.  human rights mvmt 
d.  civil rights mvmt 
e. others
 
  THE ENVL MVMT CREATED THE MODERN EQUIVALENT OF THE "COMMONS"   
  The envl mvmt has a greater vision for an alt society than other soc mvmts because of its broad critique of capitalism, consumption, & the Western lifestyle  
  Some envl mvmts support a completely alt value sys, alt soc, alt way of life  
 
The envl mvmt created the concept of the modern commons   
  THE ENVL PROBLEM IS THE MOST IMPORTANT   
  The envl mvmt holds that the env is perhaps the major soc prob faced by the world today  
  Many soc mvmts believe their issue is the most imp  
  The envl mvmt challenges the thesis that we are at "the end of history," i.e., that all major prob have been solved, or are being solved  
  For the envl mvmt, the major social cleavages have not been solved  
  Thus only the envl mvmt is a totally new political cleavage  
  But the transformational character of the envl mvmt is tempered by practical organizing concerns  
  THE IRONY OF THE ENVL MVMT   
  The very surplus that allows the 1st world & the knowledge class to exist is also the surplus which envl mvmt is attempting to end, limit, modify, etc.   
  SAVING THE ENVL IS A PUBLIC GOOD   
  For the envl mvmt, saving the env is in everyone's interest  
  The fact that the env is everyone's concern makes envlism too involved in too many forums  
  Being involved in the interests of all people allows envl mvmt to make moral & ethical claims that it is imperative for all grps to cooperate in overriding the politics as usual system, & address multiple level discords  
  Science can be used to support envlist claims, but has also been used to destroy envlist claims  

 
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 Outline on   Greenwashing & Greening
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  THE GREENING OF THE CORP WORLD & CORPORATIZING OF THE GREEN WORLD   
  The corporate world & has become more green & the green world has become more corporate
 
  The envl mvmt has allied itself w/ the market & the corp world has allied itself w/ the envl mkt
 
  Greenwashing implies that an org is pursuing a false, misrepresentational, or weak envl agenda in order to win over public support  
  While greenwashing implies using envl as propaganda to suit one's own interest, greening implies real or effective envl change through effective envl policies  
  The reality of greenwashing verses greening is often in the eye of the beholder  
  While orgs are often criticized for greenwashing, it does, in the least, indicate some envl concern or change  
  THE LIMITS TO GROWTH AGENDA   
  The limits to growth agenda, i.e. addressing the consumer side of envl issues, has basically gone nowhere w/ the Western world, or the developing world for that matter
 
  The limits to growth agenda, the consumer side of envl, would have constrained cap accumulation
 
  The Clean Air Act hurt one industry (coal), but allowed nuclear power to gain, & both are greening their corp pol & their public image
 
   It is difficult to say that nuclear pwr is more envlly friendly than coal; each has its own intractable problems
 
  The same relationship of exchanging one envl problem for another is common around the issue of global warming, but corp opposition is now mounting & many corps want action to prevent global warming 
 
  The limits to growth agenda parallels the development of the supply side analysis of the envl problem in that population, econ dev, urbanization, consumerism, etc. are all seen as fundamental, underlying dynamics that impact the env  
 
THE IDEOLOGY OF THE GREEN CORPORATION 
 
 
Many corps use green advertising that is misleading
 
 
BP uses its Beyond Petroleum ad as an example of greening
 
 
Exxon shows dolphins happily swimming around as an example of greening
 
 
An industry advertisement shows an eagle choking on pollution, & then they report how they cleaned it up
 
 
All companies use whatever public issue they can to sell more products
 
 
Is green advertising false advertising, or just accentuating the positive?
 
 
Greenwashing is the transformation of mkting into political rhetoric in that it presents a largely constructed image that has little basis in reality, that technically is not false or false advertising
 
 
Greenwashing has many forms in other arenas such as Walmart advertising that it is good for the local econ, or presenting happy employees; pickup trucks touting their high mileage, etc. 
 
 
CORPORATIZING THE ENVL MVMT 
 
 
The envl mvmt itself has professionalized & allied itself w/ green corps wherever possible
 

 
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  Outline on   Economic Development
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  ECON DEVELOPMENT   
  Economic development is the transformation of the nature & composition  of the economy & usually implies increases in prosperity
 
 
Ec dev is the process whereby simple, low income national economies are transformed into modern industrial economies  
  ECON GROWTH   
  Economic growth is not the same as economic development since the former implies quantitative growth only while the latter implies quantitative growth, but more importantly qualitative growth
 
  Ec growth implies qualitative growth, a movement up the hierarchy of economic types of  agriculture econ, extractive econ, industrial econ, high tech econ, & service econ  
  For many social activist the term econ dev is nearly synonymous w/ exploitation in that ec dev allows corps to move into an area & avoid many of the rules & reg of the indilzed nations including labor laws, envl laws, safety laws, etc.  
  ECON DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS   
  For social critics, ec dev retains all or most of the negative impacts that the indlized nations experienced in their own indl rev  
  All participants in the ec dev debate are concerned w/ making the ec dev process less exploitative & more friendly to corps, labor, the env, etc.  
  At present there is no clear distinction in the language to differentiate btwn "good" & "bad" ec dev, i.e. there are no labels for different types of ec dev other than to state it is green ec dev, or labor friendly ec dev, etc.   
  The issue of econ dev is important because through govt policies & the policies of econ dev agencies, many other issues & policies are impacted  
  Econ dev pol impacts envl pol, military pol, trade pol, human rights pol, etc.  
  Econ dev pol often impacts the very tone the debate around other issues & thus is often defining what is important on issues, the nature of scientific studies done, & the very ground rules for what is "knowledge" & what is not by setting the parameters of the discussion  
 
THE HISTORY OF ECON DEVELOPMENT   
  The history of economic development is that in the early 1900s,  European colonialism ended
 
  Ec dev was not recognized as a social process until after WW II  
  Former colonies & other countries had low living standards compared to the developed countries  
  The colonies came to be known as developing countries  
  As the concept of econ development emerges, the concepts of developing & undeveloped countries emerges
 
  MEASURING ECON DEVELOPMENT   
  Economists usually rank countries as developed, developing or undeveloped based on per capital income criterion
 
  Another intl econ ranking system, which parallels the developed, developing, undeveloped system, labels nations as core, semi peripheral, & peripheral   
  There are several problems w/ using the developed, developing, undeveloped system to measure ec dev including currency comparisons & quality of life issues
 
  The current measure of ec dev may result in the classification of oil rich nations w/ hi per capita income as dev, when in fact other than the oil ind, they are undeveloped  
 
The current measure of ec dev does not effectively acct for currency exchange rates & variations in the cost of living:  comparing dollars to denars & cost of living
 
  The current measure of ec dev does not take into acct quality of life factors such as food, shelter, health, retirement, etc.   
 
GDP, GNP, PPP  
  GDP, GNP, PPP are THREE methods of measuring income  
  Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is the amount of income that a given nation creates both nationally & internationally  
  GDP is the most frequently used measure of income  
  Gross national product ( GNP ) is the amount of income that is produced in each nation, thus the international production in another nation is not counted  
  GNP was the measure on income used until globalization became so widespread that GDP became a clearer measure   
  Purchasing power parity ( PPP ) is a measure that equalizes the measure of income based on the purchasing power of income for necessities   
  Using PPP as a measure of income means that, for example, that $55 K provides a mid class living in the US while $45 K provides a mid class living in Australia  
  PPP is considered to be the clearest measure of income across nations   
 
Other means of measuring development include: 
a.  nutritional status 
b.  hospital beds per capita 
c.  physician per capita 
d.  teachers per capita
e.  infant mortality 
f.  etc. 
 
  Examples of comparing economic development  
 
The gap between rich & poor is over $20,000 and growing
         Core:  PPP  GDP:   $ 15,000   to   $ 20,000   per yr.
  Periphery:  PPP  GDP:        $ 750   to   $   7,000
 
  India      per capita income est at $270 in 1985
Brazil    est at $1,640, 
Italy       est at $6,520 
 
  An analysis of the ec dev of Italy, i.e. Italy's living standard, is raises the question of whether 24 times greater than India's, or just how they relate to one another  
  The living standard gap btwn Italy & India could be biased, i.e. it could be too hi or too lo  
  An analysis of the comparative ec dev of Italy & India leaves no doubt that the Italian living standard is significantly higher than that of Brazil, which in turn was higher than India's by a wide margin  
  ECON DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS   
  There are FOUR types of economic activities: Primary Activities, Secondary Activities, Tertiary Activities, Quaternary Activities  
  Geographical path dependence analyzes the relationship btwn the present activities & the past activities of that place  
  There are always different pathways to development according to the circumstances of the variations in factors involved  
  What is the Geographic Path Dependence of the coalfields?  
  FIVE CHANGES IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE   
  Economic Development causes changes in FIVE  a society's social structure including the  
  a.  structure of a region's economic type of base: ag, raw material extraction, industrial, info/ high tech, services  
  b.  form of economic organization (e.g., barter, pure capitalism, state capitalism, socialism)  
  c.  availability & use of tech  
  d.  basic living conditions  
  e.  physical framework or infrastructure  
  UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT   
  Uneven development is a problem that has plagued nations & their economies:  e.g., a nation must have the infrastructure of roads, power, etc. to support an industrial base  
  GENDER & DEVELOPMENT   
  An analysis of gender & development demonstrates that in no country are women better off than men  
  In the core women have 85 to 95 % of the wealth of men  
  In the periphery, women have less than 5 % of the wealth of men  
  Developers have found that women invest in new sectors of the econ, whereas men are more likely to invest in tradl areas  
  Women must go to new sectors to gain an econ foothold  
  REGIONAL PATTERNS IN DEVELOPMENT   
  Regional patterns in development are a form of uneven development  
  Regional patterns in development are explained by the unique interaction of factors affecting development & scarce resources, history of neglect, aka the history of exploitation, lack of investment, concentration of low skilled people, etc.  
  Explain how each of these has occurred in the Appalachians   
  In reality, many pathways exist to development  
  The same factors that effect econ development itself, also effect which pathway is followed  
  Regions are interdependent & Econ Development is based on geographic, physical & social factors  
  THE STANDARD PATHWAY TO DEVELOPMENT   
  The 'standard pathway to development' typically includes the SIX phases of: 
a.  Hunter gatherer economy
b.  Agriculture economy
c.  Raw materials extraction economy
d.  Industrial economy
e.  Info processing / high tech economy
f.  Services economy
 
  Most core countries followed the standard pathway to it's end  
  Most semi peripheral countries are struggling in extraction or industry econ systems  
  Most peripheral countries are struggling in H-G, agricultural, & extraction type of econ systems  
  We cannot yet foresee what the next type of economy will be for the core countries  
  We now understand that the pathway to development for semi peripheral & peripheral countries will not be the same path taken by the core countries  
  Thus economists, social scientists, politician, business people, etc. are all attempting to discover the best pathway for each type of nation to take  

 
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 Outline on   World Regulatory Agencies & the Environment
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  INTRODUCTION   
  The internationalization of envlism grafted envl policy onto a set of geopolitical institutions including the nation state, post cold war relations, the World Bank, the IMF, GATT, etc.
 
  Geopolitical instits are the real policy setting instit for both ec dev as well as many other impacted issues such as the env, trade pol, labor legislation, etc.
 
  GLOBAL WARMING, DEBT CRISIS, RIO SUMMIT
 
  The envl mvmt has worked w/ the World Bank, the IMF, & other geopoliticial instits on dev projects
 
  Originally the envl mvmt did not take on the World Debt Crisis as being a fundamental contributor to envl degradation, but today they do
 
  Rain forest destruction accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas problems, which is small compared to the developed world gases
 
  The North continues to log both its own forests, & fund the deforestation of the South
 
  The World Bank’s control of 3rd world debt is the primary determinant of 3rd world development & thus many other policies including the env, trade, labor, etc.
 
  Grps focusing on social justice, i.e. poverty in the 3rd World have worked to create ec dev that benefits people & not just corps & govts
 
  Indebted countries are subject to having envl agendas attached to debt deals
 
  SOCIAL JUSTICE & ENVL COLONIALISM   
  Adding envl requirements to debt deals w/ deving countries tended to exasperate social injustice, i.e. poverty   
 
Thus, the 3rd world reacts against "envl colonialism" 
 
  The development of the 3rd world, the exploitation of the env, & the role of corps in 3rd world nations are all considered social justice issues   
  The social justice argument is that agreements / contracts cannot be made fairly btwn parties who have vastly unequal power   
  In most relationships, 3rd world entities have less power than their western counterparts   
  The 3rd world is demanding parity btwn ‘survival emissions’ of the south & ‘luxury emissions’ of the north 
 
  Many social scientists believe that the policies of the World Bank, GATT, state sovereignty, & the end of Cold War degrade the env as well as exasperate inequality  
  Reform of these world regulatory instits, & the creation of better policies continues but is a difficult process   
  The ec dev system can degrade the env by forcing competition among countries by exploitation or destruction of the env  
  GLOBAL ENVL AGREEMENTS   
 
At the Global Warming Conf in Japan in 1997, the developed nations finally hammered out an agreement to reduce emissions & the South demanded exemption & gets voluntary reductions, eventually becoming the Kyoto Protocols
 
 
The US Congress will not sign on unless the South complies w/ some level of non-voluntary reduction
 
 
The US never signs the agreement
 
  2005, the Kyoto Protocols go into effect w/ all ind nations except the US beginning to reduce emissions & China, India, & other developing nations agreeing to limit emission in 20 yrs.   
 
The dev of the Kyoto Protocols shows that to understand the env problem we need to understand the social construction of science & how science, social factors, politics, etc. interact to create particular social outcomes
 
 
Theories of Dependence demonstrate that 3rd world countries are under pressure to attract investment & their dependency makes them attract investment & to be more attractive to capital, nations exploit people & the env
 
 
THE WORLD BANK'S INFLUENCE ON DEV 
 
 
The World Bank’s control of 3rd world debt is the primary determinant of 3rd world dev
 
 
THE END OF THE COLD WAR 
 
  End of cold war has heralded, as Pres GHW Bush said, "a new world order" but 20 yrs later, nations, institutions, people are still exploring what that means  
  One effect of the end of the Cold War has been the rapid expansion of global capitalism  
  The end of the Cold War in the 1990 provides little geopolitical reason to restore foreign aid to 70s level  
  Public attn to the env waxes & wanes & so it is w/ national & foreign debt   
  Foreign debt is not currently seen as an issue for most people  

The End
 
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