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The Environment & the Social Sciences | ||||
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Epistemology: Sociology of Knowledge | ||||
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The Sociology of Science | ||||
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A Critique of Science | ||||
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The Politicization of Science | ||||
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The Ways of Understanding | ||||
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Culture | ||||
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KBVN AOII | ||||
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Paradigms | ||||
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Intro to Methods | ||||
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Scientific Method | ||||
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Experimental Method | ||||
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Social Laws, Theories, etc. | ||||
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The Role of the Physical Sciences in Policy Analysis | ||||
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The Role of the Social Sciences in Policy Analysis | ||||
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Social Movements | ||||
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New Social Movements | ||||
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Envl Social Movements | ||||
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Greenwashing & Greening | ||||
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Economic Development | ||||
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World Regulatory Agencies & the Environment |
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THE POLITICIZATION OF SCIENCE | |||||
Science is often politicized, & the application of science to policy issues is nearly always politicized |
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Political Scientists & sociologists tried to follow economists into the mainstream, but have not been as successful in winning public acceptance & integrating our concepts into everyday culture |
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The Great Society floundered on the shoals of political reaction & bureaucratic fragmentation, rational social science could not provide enough power or status to resist these interest groups |
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Social scientists have assumed that science had some weight but the most basic ideas are either highly contested, i.e. that education around social issues is an unmitigated good, to complete rejection of ideas such as evolution or social causes |
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Critics from a broad range of disciplines have shown that analytical methodologies cannot provide scientific, objective answers to policy issues |
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Policy analysts should be aware of the critique of objective physical sciences |
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INTEREST GROUPS IN SCIENCE & POLICY | |||||
Within the bounds of the accepted natural & physical sciences, legitimate social interests (and the policies they advocate) can be in conflict |
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Dominant interests control expertise & hence shape knowledge to reinforce their interests |
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Think tanks, universities & colleges, research centers, private & public funding, govt, biz are all involved in the creation of knowledge & all have varying degrees of politicization |
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Private funding includes individuals, corps, lobbying grps, interest grps, foundations, etc. each of whom may people more or less objective, i.e. interest oriented |
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Public funding is affected by same grps as private funding & by politics as usual |
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Scientific findings, policy statements, etc. are dispersed through ed, media, word of mouth, & so on & each of these may be more or less objective, i.e. interest oriented |
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Knowledge is shaped by the outcome of struggles & negotiations btwn social interests including the interests of "the scientific view" itself |
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Internal (science) & external (e.g. media, ed, etc.) social interests combine to produce "natural knowledge" |
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- Project: The Common Sense Quiz |
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SOCIOLOGY IS ONE WAY TO UNDERSTAND THE WORLD | |||||
Sociology is one of the ways of understanding the world which utilizes the methods of the social sciences | |||||
What are other ways of understanding?
What are some ways we understand the world/ our existence?
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A. COMMON SENSE UNDERSTANDING IS PRACTICAL COMPREHENSION THAT OFTEN IS NOT COMMON | |||||
Common sense is the ability to see & act upon what is obvious | |||||
Common sense is great for some things, but in many other situation it is totally inadequate | |||||
B. RELIGIOUS UNDERSTANDING IS MORAL / ETHICAL COMPREHENSION OF SECULAR LIFE & A COMPREHENSION OF 'THE SACRED BEYOND' | |||||
Many people understand the world through "traditional religions" such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, etc. | |||||
Many people understand the world through "non-traditional religions" such as Paganism, Wiccan, etc. or any form of "personal spirituality" or philosophy | |||||
Many people understand the world through superstition | |||||
Review: World Religions: some have different ways of understanding | |||||
C. TRADITIONAL / AUTHORITARIAN UNDERSTANDING IS THAT WHICH IS ACCEPTED BECAUSE IT WAS HANDED DOWN FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION | |||||
We understand the world based on what others traditionally believe & on what others 'force' us to believe | |||||
D. UNDERSTANDING BASED ON EMOTION IS THAT FEELING OR SENSE THAT PROVIDES CERTAINTY OF KNOWLEDGE | |||||
Aesthetics the study of / understanding of life through poetry, literature, art, theater, etc. | |||||
The concept of the emotional quotient ( EQ ) denotes that some people can sense or understand their own / another's emotion w/ great accuracy & clarity | |||||
Some people can sense the emotion of a large group of people | |||||
One way of understanding is religious ecstasy which is emotionally based religion | |||||
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E. SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING IS THAT BASED ON TRIAL & ERROR / EXPERIMENTAL TESTS |
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Science is the dominant approach to understanding reality in modern industrial societies | |||||
One of the major qualities of the modern age is understanding based on the modern invention of the scientific method | |||||
Many of the other methods of understanding utilize some aspects of science | |||||
See Also: The Scientific Method | |||||
THE BRANCHES OF ACADEME / ALL KNOWLEDGE IS ORGANIZED INTO THE HUMANITIES, THE PHYS SCIENCES, & THE SOC SCIENCES | |||||
I. Humanities | |||||
II. Physical Sciences | |||||
III. The Social Sciences | |||||
The Sociological Imagination | |||||
COMMON SENSE & SCIENCE ARE SIMILAR IN THAT TO SOME EXTENT THEY ARE BASED ON PRAGMATISM / TRIAL & ERROR | |||||
Common sense & science are very similar. Science is simply more well reviewed than common sense | |||||
Common sense is "personal science" | |||||
Everyday we make our own hypothesis, tests, generalizations, etc. | |||||
Example: Should I bring an umbrella today?
Scientific opinion: yes: 90% chance of rain --front coming in this afternoon Common sense: no: it's clear; hasn't rained in 3 days |
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Sociology uses the scientific method to develop understanding | |||||
Sociology is often viewed as common sense, but as we saw on ways of understanding, common sense is untested, & unverified | |||||
Sociology is tested & verified | |||||
UNDERSTANDING IS OFTEN DONE THROUGH THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES, THE HUMANITIES, & THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, OFFERING INSTRUMENTAL, INTERPRETIVE, & CRITICAL KNOWLEDGE | |||||
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To understand culture in everyday life, we usually use all of the methods of understanding above, except science | ||||
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We utilize all the ways of understanding, our culture of understanding, which is composed of knowledge, Beliefs, Values, & Norms (KBVN) , but usually not science, to understand everyday life | ||||
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People try to understand the new neighbors on issues from A to Z utilizing all of the types of understanding, usually, except science | ||||
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Our way of understanding' determines our actions or behavior | ||||
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The ways of understanding our culture, which is composed of our shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN ) & the immediate situation creates our basis for our action: our behavioral/ mental states of our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI ) |
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Marx, Weber, Durkheim & most recently Habermas & other theorists have developed schemas of understanding, knowledge, science, rationality, etc. | |||||
Habermas notes that for most of history, the physical sciences have been concerned w/ instrumental ways of knowing while the humanities have been concerned w/ interpretive ways of understanding | |||||
Habermas posits that w/ the rise of the social sciences in recent history, critical or emancipatory ways of understanding have been, & are being developed | |||||
Instrumental knowledge is concerned w/ tech control, ie the calculating of means to ends: work: applied to environment, other societies, & people | |||||
Instrumental knowledge is often important in the econ / the workplace | |||||
Interpretive knowledge is the rational exploration of the past: & the human condition & is usually nonjudgmental & mostly factual | |||||
For interpretive knowledge, understanding past generations helps understand the present | |||||
Critical knowledge uncovers in whose interest instrumental & humanistic knowledge lies | |||||
Critical knowledge fosters emancipation in the form of the realization of fundamental human needs such as creativity & social interaction |
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INTRODUCTION | |||||
An experiment is carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom | |||||
In an experiment the research changes or manipulates the independent variable | |||||
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The classic experimental method is a research method in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable while keeping everything else constant in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable |
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EXPERIMENTAL GROUP | |||||
The experimental group goes through an experience or manipulation | |||||
The experimental group is the group where there is a manipulation of the independent variable | |||||
CONTROL GROUP | |||||
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The control group is the group where there is no manipulation of the independent variable |
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The control group does not experience a manipulation of an indep var & receives the pre-test & post-test | |||||
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Both the con grp & the exp grp must be exposed to a controlled env; i.e. exact same conditions |
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Both the con grp & the exp grp are given a pre-test or pre-experiment observation / measure |
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THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESS | |||||
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Then the exp grp is subjected to the "experimental treatment" aka the manipulation, procedure, stimulus, event, etc. |
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After the exp manipulation, the researcher observes or measures the difference btwn the exp grp & the con grp |
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For the classic exp method to be effective, the researcher must be able to control the entire env, control all the variables, & compare the con & exp grps |
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Finally the researcher gives both the con & exp grps a post-test or post-experimental observation / measurement |
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Sampling is important in the classic exp method & thus both the con & exp grps must be large enough to observe random, "natural" variation w/in the group |
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The experiment must be able to be replicated by other scientists |
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4 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS | |||||
a. Lab experiments are done in a setting w/ almost total control by researcher & they generally include control & exp grps, a pre-test, an experimental manipulation, a post-test, & a debriefing | |||||
b. Field experiments are done in a setting w/ little or control by researcher & they generally do include control & exp grps, a pre-test, a post-test, & nor a debriefing, but they often do include an experimental manipulation that may either spontaneously, or "naturally," or by a researcher | |||||
There are two types of field experiments, including:
i. Natural Experiments ii. Social Experiments |
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c. A natural experiment may give either or both, or neither a pre & post tests around a natural event | |||||
In a nat exp, it is also possible to tabulate data from before &/or after a natural event | |||||
d. In a social experiment, the researcher gives pre & post tests around a social policy or tabulates data around a social policy | |||||
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THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD & POLICY QUESTIONS |
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In most policy issues, or large issues such as the env, the exp method is difficult to apply |
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In most policy issues or large issues: | ||||
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1. there is no con grp & there is no isolation of the exp grp |
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2. it is unclear as to the basis for the pre-test? 1 yr ago, 10? 100? |
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3. there is no isolation of the exp treatment | |||||
4. there is no comparison of the exp & con grps | |||||
5. sampling is overwhelmed by global nature of problems | |||||
6. it is impossible to estb control group or variable because outside variables affect a situation even it is unknown | |||||
7. research on policy or large issues is rarely replicated | |||||
Thus science is not plagued only by imprecision, but “fundamental indeterminancies” How do we define a ‘dead or dying’ tree? How warm is global warm? |
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The study of the env has focused on the production side of the econ such as pollution, toxic waste, over harvest, etc. |
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The focus on the prod side of the env issue limits the solutions to the prod side such as to to fix or clean up dirty production via coal scrubbers or catalytic converters, or move rom one type of prod to another such as from trees to help, or gas cars to elec cars |
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CONSUMPTION SIDE | |||||
On env issues, there has been a lack of a consumption side focus |
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We need to focus on the consumption side but it is often politically & personally less desirable |
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For many social scientists, consumption side solutions need to be considered because ultimately the world cannot support the indl world's level of consumption |
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The ultimate envl problem is over population |
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The southern hemisphere demands the northern hemisphere's level of consumption w/ the attitude that there is no need to reduce consumption levels |
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A focus on the consumption side means that people would use less & use it more efficiently by recycling, insulate, develop mass transit, build smaller homes & autos |
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RICH WORLD'S AGENDA | |||||
For many social scientists, the debate on global warming reflects the rich world's agendas & interests |
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The debate on global warming goes back & fourth from alarmism to pacifism because science, like any issue, can become politicized & because uncertainties are emphasized at one point & overlooked at another & eventually, one pt of view becomes central to the argument |
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PHYSICAL SCIENCES DOMINATE THE DISCOURSE | |||||
Historically, the physical sciences have dominated modern discourse |
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Sci is seen as the discourse or perspective that is the best suited to study of the env |
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Science has a high level of soc authority |
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Most policy is based on hard science, though the role of science is never clear | |||||
WEAKNESSES OF SCIENCE IN POLICY MAKING | |||||
Social scientists who critique science note that modern culture idolizes science & complexity overwhelms the scientific method |
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The physical sciences are weakened in any policy debate because, like any science, they cannot offer certainty, only probability | |||||
Because science offers no certainty, in the political realm the skeptics can always raise doubts, even when the bulk of the evidence is on the other side | |||||
In the global warming debate, a super majority of scientist agree it is a major problem; however, they don't agree on the transient & ultimate effects | |||||
The small debate w/in the global warming scientific community has become a large debate w/in the political / media arena because opponent & the media both emphasize a minority opinion to 'balance' the debate | |||||
Another weakness of science in policy making is that science follows it's own, deliberate pace, while the pace of policy making is nil, then may speed up, then may happen almost instaneously | |||||
THE SOCIAL SCIENCES STRENGTHEN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN POLICY MAKING | |||||
Redclift & Benton have two concerns w/ regards to the practice
of science & envl issues which include:
a. How can soc sci be integrated into framework of sci & policy? b. What does it mean to dev a ‘sound scientific basis?’ |
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To understand the env problem, we need to understand the soc construction of science | |||||
Sci can mask the real dilemmas | |||||
Developing policy from science is problematic | |||||
Soc sci have a unique role in the creation of policy analysis in helping
all participants understand the:
a. problem, whether it is an envl , medical, defense, welfare, etc., problem b. the process of change c. the solutions |
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INTRODUCTION | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Policy analysis & policy solutions are only one part of soc change |
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Pol an is considered to be "top down" change unless it is a reflection of true ground swell of dem support | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
PROBLEMS BTWN SOC & PHYS SCIENCES | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
There are several problems of cooperation & the integration of types of knowledge btwn the soc & phys sci |
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Problems that resulted from social sciences involvement with phys sciences include the problem: |
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a. of teleology. A teleological analysis sees soc as moving to a long term perfected state |
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But for most social scientists, progress is not inevitable while evolution is inevitable |
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For most social scientists, from the anti teleological pt of view, scientists should not put "good" & "bad" values on most social changes such as the extinction of dinosaurs, or the evolution or development of the family | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
While it is possible to put values on human changes, that also is not the task of the social sciences; it is the task of politicians, religious leaders, etc. |
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For most social scientists, society should put values on the effects of pollution, but can we judge changes that seem natural? |
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b. that the relations btwn soc & nat are neglected because, for one reason, the soc & phys sci's do not coop enough |
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c. that people are not seen as beings w/ nat histories |
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WEAKNESSES OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN POLICY ANALYSIS | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
There are FOUR unique problems or weaknesses for the soc sci in pol an |
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Problems that resulted from social sciences involvement w/ pol an include the problem of |
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a. determining the role of soc sci in pol an |
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b. determining the role of the soc sci in framing the issues |
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c. focusing on the phys sci & ignoring the pol & soc implications | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
d. the use of existing categories as unit of analysis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
CONFLICT PT OF VIEW OF POLICY ANALYSIS | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The participants in any policy issue will struggle over the sci results as first step in the policy debate | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The participants in any policy issue will struggle over the:
a. translation of sci into policy b. application of pol c. evaluation of pol d. reformulation of pol |
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1. EDUCATION OF THE PUBLIC | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of the public | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The lack of public uptake of policy issues is based on ignorance, misunderstanding, cultural conflict, & alienation | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Public ed through schools, the media, etc. can reduce some of the problems os ignorance, but it generally cannot overcome resistance people have to knowledge because of their beliefs, values, or norms unless it is specifically designed to do so, & even then the power of ed is uncertain | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
2. EDUCATION OF PROFESSIONALS | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of professionals | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Scientists, lawyers, politician, doctors, educators do not always understand their role in pol debate | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Professionals are opinion leaders in that more people will accept their pt of view or their knowledge than they will from other sources | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3. EDUCATION OF POLITICIANS | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of politicians | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Politicians have frequently used the soc & phys sciences to create / bolster their public policy | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
While politicians create politicization of issues, they are also often caught up in the politicization of policy analysis | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
To dev a policy that is not purely politicized a politician much have knowledge of the issues if they are to formulate & advocate a new position | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
4. EDUCATION OF PARTICIPANTS IN POLICY DEBATES | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the ed of participants in policy debate | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Part in pol debates are either partisan, neutral, or ignorant of a particular pol issue | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Each participant in a pol debate must be approached uniquely in terms of ed or soc change because each wants & has own its sources of KBVN, & they are often not aware of other sources & pts of view | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
See Also: Participants in envl debate | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
5. OPPOSE THE POWERFUL | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
It is inevitable that grps involved in policy analysis will have vastly different amts of power as when a community goes up against a corp, or a cross section of population across the US opposes the govt, etc. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The social sciences possess organizing skills, educational skills, access to info, negotiation skills, understanding of the operation of systems, etc., all of which are necessary to engage in policy making | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In a democratic society, all grps should have the right to make their voice heard, & it is the role of the soc sciences to assist those w/o power | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
6. EXPLICATION OF THE HUMAN RELATIONSHIP TO THE ENV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the explication of the human relationship to the env | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The soc science can expand the gen understanding of human relationships w/ the env | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The humanities & the soc sci help people experience or learn
their
- beliefs - values - norms - emotional/aesthetics & their relationship to to a policy issue such as the env, econ pol, welfare, etc. |
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One of the goals of an ed in soc science is to dev a social ideology
(sociological imagination which allows one to operate w/ all of the ways
of knowing (scientific, emotional, aesthetic, traditional, etc.) on all
levels of people's mental systems (KBVN) & thus to be open to all of
the dimensions of a given policy issue or social obj
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7. ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF SCIENCE, ED, POLITICS, ETC. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the analysis & understanding of the role of sci, ed, pol, etc. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Understanding the fundamental roles of soc sci in in policy debate includes the demystification the process of pol an as well as the improvement of the process of pol an | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Soc sci has deconstructed science & shown that sci does not always possess the answers & sometimes is used in a misleading way creating mystification | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
For Redclift & Benton, soc sci has improved the utilization of all sci's by analyzing each sci's proper role | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
8. SOCIAL IMPACT ANALYSIS ( SIA ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the process of social impact analysis (SIA) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
SIA is designed to clearly delineate the social, pol, econ, cul, etc.
impact of a particular project or policy on soc, soc instit, cul, etc.
such as
- specific projects which affect the env (logging sale) - world trends in the env (global warming) - envl solutions - a prison being located in a particular area - a Walmart being located in a particular area - a change in welfare rules, etc. |
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SIA takes nat science predictions, policy predictions, etc. & then works out soc & econ consequences | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
9. CONFLICT RESOLUTION | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
One of the fundamental roles of the soc sci in pol an includes the process of conflict resolution | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Soc sci aids in wking out conflicts btwn soc grps | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Conclusion: Toward an eclectic but unified approach to the melding of the sciences & resolving pol an issues | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
MELDING THE SCIENCES | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
To meld the sciences & resolve pol an issues | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
a. it is imp to understand soc, econ & pol structures & the processes if one hopes to understand policy issues, soc prob, & solutions | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
b. it is imp to understand our natl heritage from a soci perspective including the place of our evol nature, i.e. our genes & relations among individuals, family, soc grps, communities, nations, world, nature, etc.. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
c. it is imp to understand that our knowledge base is very narrow for both soc & phys sci's; i.e., we have much to learn | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
d. it is imp to understand that a unified theory of soc sci's is lacking | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
e. it is imp to understand that a unified theory of soc & phys sci's is lacking |
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ENVLISM IS HISTORICALLY NEW |
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Envl mvmts are a relatively new phenomenon going back maybe 200 yrs |
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Green mvmts are considered new in relation to old labor | |||||
Green, civil rights, women's, peace mvmts all differ from labor in that they draw support from across the classes | |||||
THE ENVL MVMT IS RELATIVELY SMALL |
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The envl mvmt is relatively small when compared to other soc mvmts | |||||
From one perspective the envl mvmt may not even qualify as a soc mvmt because it is small, radical, bureaucratized, & professionalized |
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The envl mvmt's small membership implies that its effect is result of professionalization; i.e. the manipulation of the media & access to the pol sys | |||||
In the 80s, Greenpeace became less radical & more focused on lobbying |
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THE ENVL MVMT IS INTL |
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The intl character of the envl mvmt is seen in the fact that it is
in
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The intl character of the envl mvmt reflects the intl or transboundary character of envl issues | |||||
THE ENVL MVMT'S INTERESTS PARALLEL THE INTEREST OF GOVTS |
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Govts have an interest in getting other nations to deal w/ envl issues |
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If the 3rd world conserves on gas & reduces emissions, then the 1st world is more free to do less; or if I do more, you may do less | |||||
Envl mvmts can use the divergent interests of nation to their own advantage by berating govt X for not doing as much as nation Y | |||||
In most cases, the industrialized nations were responsive to the pressure of their peers, & thus would follow at least a similar envl pol | |||||
However, the Bush Jr. Admin of 2000 - 2004, 2004 - 2008, has chosen not only to not respond to the community of nations, it has chosen to pursue policies at odds w/ the community of indlized nations on the env, as well as in other areas | |||||
The Bush Jr. Admin has not signed the largest & most important intl treaty, the Kyoto protocols on global warming & thus the traditional envl mvmt of using intl peer pressure to advance changes is less effective today | |||||
The envl mvmts that are the most internationalized are experiencing the most growth | |||||
Envl mvmts can cooperate on issues, but have their own populace in which to seek political & monetary support | |||||
THE ENVL MVMTS COMPETITORS | |||||
The envl mvmt has few intl competitors other than a few soc mvmts such
as the:
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THE ENVL MVMT CREATED THE MODERN EQUIVALENT OF THE "COMMONS" | |||||
The envl mvmt has a greater vision for an alt society than other soc mvmts because of its broad critique of capitalism, consumption, & the Western lifestyle | |||||
Some envl mvmts support a completely alt value sys, alt soc, alt way of life | |||||
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The envl mvmt created the concept of the modern commons | ||||
THE ENVL PROBLEM IS THE MOST IMPORTANT | |||||
The envl mvmt holds that the env is perhaps the major soc prob faced by the world today | |||||
Many soc mvmts believe their issue is the most imp | |||||
The envl mvmt challenges the thesis that we are at "the end of history," i.e., that all major prob have been solved, or are being solved | |||||
For the envl mvmt, the major social cleavages have not been solved | |||||
Thus only the envl mvmt is a totally new political cleavage | |||||
But the transformational character of the envl mvmt is tempered by practical organizing concerns | |||||
THE IRONY OF THE ENVL MVMT | |||||
The very surplus that allows the 1st world & the knowledge class to exist is also the surplus which envl mvmt is attempting to end, limit, modify, etc. | |||||
SAVING THE ENVL IS A PUBLIC GOOD | |||||
For the envl mvmt, saving the env is in everyone's interest | |||||
The fact that the env is everyone's concern makes envlism too involved in too many forums | |||||
Being involved in the interests of all people allows envl mvmt to make moral & ethical claims that it is imperative for all grps to cooperate in overriding the politics as usual system, & address multiple level discords | |||||
Science can be used to support envlist claims, but has also been used to destroy envlist claims |
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THE GREENING OF THE CORP WORLD & CORPORATIZING OF THE GREEN WORLD | |||||
The corporate world & has become more green & the green world has become more corporate |
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The envl mvmt has allied itself w/ the market & the corp world has allied itself w/ the envl mkt |
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Greenwashing implies that an org is pursuing a false, misrepresentational, or weak envl agenda in order to win over public support | |||||
While greenwashing implies using envl as propaganda to suit one's own interest, greening implies real or effective envl change through effective envl policies | |||||
The reality of greenwashing verses greening is often in the eye of the beholder | |||||
While orgs are often criticized for greenwashing, it does, in the least, indicate some envl concern or change | |||||
THE LIMITS TO GROWTH AGENDA | |||||
The limits to growth agenda, i.e. addressing the consumer side of envl issues, has basically gone nowhere w/ the Western world, or the developing world for that matter |
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The limits to growth agenda, the consumer side of envl, would have constrained cap accumulation |
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The Clean Air Act hurt one industry (coal), but allowed nuclear power to gain, & both are greening their corp pol & their public image |
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It is difficult to say that nuclear pwr is more envlly friendly than coal; each has its own intractable problems |
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The same relationship of exchanging one envl problem for another is common around the issue of global warming, but corp opposition is now mounting & many corps want action to prevent global warming |
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The limits to growth agenda parallels the development of the supply side analysis of the envl problem in that population, econ dev, urbanization, consumerism, etc. are all seen as fundamental, underlying dynamics that impact the env | |||||
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THE IDEOLOGY OF THE GREEN CORPORATION |
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Many corps use green advertising that is misleading |
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BP uses its Beyond Petroleum ad as an example of greening |
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Exxon shows dolphins happily swimming around as an example of greening |
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An industry advertisement shows an eagle choking on pollution, & then they report how they cleaned it up |
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All companies use whatever public issue they can to sell more products |
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Is green advertising false advertising, or just accentuating the positive? |
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Greenwashing is the transformation of mkting into political rhetoric in that it presents a largely constructed image that has little basis in reality, that technically is not false or false advertising |
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Greenwashing has many forms in other arenas such as Walmart advertising that it is good for the local econ, or presenting happy employees; pickup trucks touting their high mileage, etc. |
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CORPORATIZING THE ENVL MVMT |
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The envl mvmt itself has professionalized & allied itself w/ green corps wherever possible |
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ECON DEVELOPMENT | ||||
Economic development is the transformation of the nature & composition of the economy & usually implies increases in prosperity |
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Ec dev is the process whereby simple, low income national economies are transformed into modern industrial economies | |||
ECON GROWTH | ||||
Economic growth is not the same as economic development since the former implies quantitative growth only while the latter implies quantitative growth, but more importantly qualitative growth |
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Ec growth implies qualitative growth, a movement up the hierarchy of economic types of agriculture econ, extractive econ, industrial econ, high tech econ, & service econ | ||||
For many social activist the term econ dev is nearly synonymous w/ exploitation in that ec dev allows corps to move into an area & avoid many of the rules & reg of the indilzed nations including labor laws, envl laws, safety laws, etc. | ||||
ECON DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS | ||||
For social critics, ec dev retains all or most of the negative impacts that the indlized nations experienced in their own indl rev | ||||
All participants in the ec dev debate are concerned w/ making the ec dev process less exploitative & more friendly to corps, labor, the env, etc. | ||||
At present there is no clear distinction in the language to differentiate btwn "good" & "bad" ec dev, i.e. there are no labels for different types of ec dev other than to state it is green ec dev, or labor friendly ec dev, etc. | ||||
The issue of econ dev is important because through govt policies & the policies of econ dev agencies, many other issues & policies are impacted | ||||
Econ dev pol impacts envl pol, military pol, trade pol, human rights pol, etc. | ||||
Econ dev pol often impacts the very tone the debate around other issues & thus is often defining what is important on issues, the nature of scientific studies done, & the very ground rules for what is "knowledge" & what is not by setting the parameters of the discussion | ||||
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THE HISTORY OF ECON DEVELOPMENT | |||
The history of economic development is that in the early 1900s, European colonialism ended |
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Ec dev was not recognized as a social process until after WW II | ||||
Former colonies & other countries had low living standards compared to the developed countries | ||||
The colonies came to be known as developing countries | ||||
As the concept of econ development emerges, the concepts of developing & undeveloped countries emerges |
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MEASURING ECON DEVELOPMENT | ||||
Economists usually rank countries as developed, developing or undeveloped based on per capital income criterion |
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Another intl econ ranking system, which parallels the developed, developing, undeveloped system, labels nations as core, semi peripheral, & peripheral | ||||
There are several problems w/ using the developed, developing, undeveloped system to measure ec dev including currency comparisons & quality of life issues |
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The current measure of ec dev may result in the classification of oil rich nations w/ hi per capita income as dev, when in fact other than the oil ind, they are undeveloped | ||||
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The current measure of ec dev does not effectively acct for currency exchange rates & variations in the cost of living: comparing dollars to denars & cost of living |
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The current measure of ec dev does not take into acct quality of life factors such as food, shelter, health, retirement, etc. | ||||
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GDP, GNP, PPP | |||
GDP, GNP, PPP are THREE methods of measuring income | ||||
Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is the amount of income that a given nation creates both nationally & internationally | ||||
GDP is the most frequently used measure of income | ||||
Gross national product ( GNP ) is the amount of income that is produced in each nation, thus the international production in another nation is not counted | ||||
GNP was the measure on income used until globalization became so widespread that GDP became a clearer measure | ||||
Purchasing power parity ( PPP ) is a measure that equalizes the measure of income based on the purchasing power of income for necessities | ||||
Using PPP as a measure of income means that, for example, that $55 K provides a mid class living in the US while $45 K provides a mid class living in Australia | ||||
PPP is considered to be the clearest measure of income across nations | ||||
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Other means of measuring development include:
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Examples of comparing economic development | ||||
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The gap between rich & poor is over $20,000 and growing
Core: PPP GDP: $ 15,000 to $ 20,000 per yr. Periphery: PPP GDP: $ 750 to $ 7,000 |
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India per capita income est at $270 in
1985
Brazil est at $1,640, Italy est at $6,520 |
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An analysis of the ec dev of Italy, i.e. Italy's living standard, is raises the question of whether 24 times greater than India's, or just how they relate to one another | ||||
The living standard gap btwn Italy & India could be biased, i.e. it could be too hi or too lo | ||||
An analysis of the comparative ec dev of Italy & India leaves no doubt that the Italian living standard is significantly higher than that of Brazil, which in turn was higher than India's by a wide margin | ||||
ECON DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS | ||||
There are FOUR types of economic activities: Primary Activities, Secondary Activities, Tertiary Activities, Quaternary Activities | ||||
Geographical path dependence analyzes the relationship btwn the present activities & the past activities of that place | ||||
There are always different pathways to development according to the circumstances of the variations in factors involved | ||||
What is the Geographic Path Dependence of the coalfields? | ||||
FIVE CHANGES IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE | ||||
Economic Development causes changes in FIVE a society's social structure including the | ||||
a. structure of a region's economic type of base: ag, raw material extraction, industrial, info/ high tech, services | ||||
b. form of economic organization (e.g., barter, pure capitalism, state capitalism, socialism) | ||||
c. availability & use of tech | ||||
d. basic living conditions | ||||
e. physical framework or infrastructure | ||||
UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT | ||||
Uneven development is a problem that has plagued nations & their economies: e.g., a nation must have the infrastructure of roads, power, etc. to support an industrial base | ||||
GENDER & DEVELOPMENT | ||||
An analysis of gender & development demonstrates that in no country are women better off than men | ||||
In the core women have 85 to 95 % of the wealth of men | ||||
In the periphery, women have less than 5 % of the wealth of men | ||||
Developers have found that women invest in new sectors of the econ, whereas men are more likely to invest in tradl areas | ||||
Women must go to new sectors to gain an econ foothold | ||||
REGIONAL PATTERNS IN DEVELOPMENT | ||||
Regional patterns in development are a form of uneven development | ||||
Regional patterns in development are explained by the unique interaction of factors affecting development & scarce resources, history of neglect, aka the history of exploitation, lack of investment, concentration of low skilled people, etc. | ||||
Explain how each of these has occurred in the Appalachians | ||||
In reality, many pathways exist to development | ||||
The same factors that effect econ development itself, also effect which pathway is followed | ||||
Regions are interdependent & Econ Development is based on geographic, physical & social factors | ||||
THE STANDARD PATHWAY TO DEVELOPMENT | ||||
The 'standard pathway to development' typically includes the SIX phases
of:
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Most core countries followed the standard pathway to it's end | ||||
Most semi peripheral countries are struggling in extraction or industry econ systems | ||||
Most peripheral countries are struggling in H-G, agricultural, & extraction type of econ systems | ||||
We cannot yet foresee what the next type of economy will be for the core countries | ||||
We now understand that the pathway to development for semi peripheral & peripheral countries will not be the same path taken by the core countries | ||||
Thus economists, social scientists, politician, business people, etc. are all attempting to discover the best pathway for each type of nation to take |
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INTRODUCTION | |||||
The internationalization of envlism grafted envl policy onto a set of geopolitical institutions including the nation state, post cold war relations, the World Bank, the IMF, GATT, etc. |
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Geopolitical instits are the real policy setting instit for both ec dev as well as many other impacted issues such as the env, trade pol, labor legislation, etc. |
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GLOBAL WARMING, DEBT CRISIS, RIO SUMMIT |
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The envl mvmt has worked w/ the World Bank, the IMF, & other geopoliticial instits on dev projects |
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Originally the envl mvmt did not take on the World Debt Crisis as being a fundamental contributor to envl degradation, but today they do |
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Rain forest destruction accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas problems, which is small compared to the developed world gases |
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The North continues to log both its own forests, & fund the deforestation of the South |
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The World Bank’s control of 3rd world debt is the primary determinant of 3rd world development & thus many other policies including the env, trade, labor, etc. |
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Grps focusing on social justice, i.e. poverty in the 3rd World have worked to create ec dev that benefits people & not just corps & govts |
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Indebted countries are subject to having envl agendas attached to debt deals |
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SOCIAL JUSTICE & ENVL COLONIALISM | |||||
Adding envl requirements to debt deals w/ deving countries tended to exasperate social injustice, i.e. poverty | |||||
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Thus, the 3rd world reacts against "envl colonialism" |
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The development of the 3rd world, the exploitation of the env, & the role of corps in 3rd world nations are all considered social justice issues | |||||
The social justice argument is that agreements / contracts cannot be made fairly btwn parties who have vastly unequal power | |||||
In most relationships, 3rd world entities have less power than their western counterparts | |||||
The 3rd world is demanding parity btwn ‘survival emissions’ of the south & ‘luxury emissions’ of the north |
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Many social scientists believe that the policies of the World Bank, GATT, state sovereignty, & the end of Cold War degrade the env as well as exasperate inequality | |||||
Reform of these world regulatory instits, & the creation of better policies continues but is a difficult process | |||||
The ec dev system can degrade the env by forcing competition among countries by exploitation or destruction of the env | |||||
GLOBAL ENVL AGREEMENTS | |||||
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At the Global Warming Conf in Japan in 1997, the developed nations finally hammered out an agreement to reduce emissions & the South demanded exemption & gets voluntary reductions, eventually becoming the Kyoto Protocols |
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The US Congress will not sign on unless the South complies w/ some level of non-voluntary reduction |
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The US never signs the agreement |
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2005, the Kyoto Protocols go into effect w/ all ind nations except the US beginning to reduce emissions & China, India, & other developing nations agreeing to limit emission in 20 yrs. | |||||
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The dev of the Kyoto Protocols shows that to understand the env problem we need to understand the social construction of science & how science, social factors, politics, etc. interact to create particular social outcomes |
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Theories of Dependence demonstrate that 3rd world countries are under pressure to attract investment & their dependency makes them attract investment & to be more attractive to capital, nations exploit people & the env |
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THE WORLD BANK'S INFLUENCE ON DEV |
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The World Bank’s control of 3rd world debt is the primary determinant of 3rd world dev |
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THE END OF THE COLD WAR |
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End of cold war has heralded, as Pres GHW Bush said, "a new world order" but 20 yrs later, nations, institutions, people are still exploring what that means | |||||
One effect of the end of the Cold War has been the rapid expansion of global capitalism | |||||
The end of the Cold War in the 1990 provides little geopolitical reason to restore foreign aid to 70s level | |||||
Public attn to the env waxes & wanes & so it is w/ national & foreign debt | |||||
Foreign debt is not currently seen as an issue for most people |
The End
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