Rev ES: Socio-Hist Analysis of the Env

c. How do we construct a Social Impact Assessment (SIA) which imparts an understanding how society impacts the env & how the env impacts soc in an impartial, yet thorough manner?

THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SCIENCE

The symbolic interactionist paradigm which embodies the concept of the social construction of reality holds that the creation of the env debate is a product of science, media, politics, culture, etc.

Social problems come & go based on the factors which impact the social construction of reality

Those dealing w/ env problems, policies, grps, etc., all must comprehend all the levels of analysis including the global --> national --> regional --> local --> personal

Many times people will compare or attempt to debate using analyses that were constructed at different levels of analysis

POLITICIZATION OF SCIENCE

Science is politicized in the envl debate

Science alone does not offer all the solutions because solutions must be rooted in societal change, i.e. the application of policy to science

The envl mvmt does not understand the 3rd World, the interests of wking class, & many other soc relationships

ROLE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE IN ENVL STUDY

The role of social science in envl study:

1. has been subordinate to science, or even totally absent

2. takes natural science predictions & then works out the social & economic consequences through an SIA or some similar process

3. has deconstructed science: shown that science does not always possess the answers & sometimes is used in a misleading way (mystification)

4. aids in the education of the public

The lack of public uptake of envl ed or envl issues is based on ignorance, misunderstanding, cultural conflict, & alienation

5. aids in working out conflicts btwn social groups

THE CULTURE OF CLASSIC RESEARCH

A sociological analysis of the methodology & culture of science, i.e., epistemology, notes that "classic research:"
a. is reductionist
b. necessitates a high level control of the research site
c. is high precision science
d. is often done in a lab
e. attempts to control all variables

However, as the physical sciences tackle ever more complex problems, they move away from the classic research model in favor of one that more closely resembles the social sciences

The study of weather utilizes computer models that are based on simulations using various assumptions about many variables parallels a study of juvenile delinquency or the social impact of env' change which would also utilize assumptions about many interdependent variables

The social & physical sciences which examines envl issues are unique because saving the env is a public good in that it is in everyone's interest, though many people, because of what soc scientists call false consciousness, inauthenticity, or ideology, do not recognize that interest, & even deny it & fight against it

The universal importance of the env makes envlism too involved in too many forums

Being involved in many envs allows the envl mvmt to make moral & ethical claims that it is imperative for all groups to cooperate in overriding the politics as usual multiple level discord

	ISSUES OF THE ENVL DEBATE & SOCIAL SCIENCE METHODOLOGY
	The problems for the social sciences in the envl debate & the methodology of envl social science include:
	1. that the 3rd World is opposed to much of the North's agenda on the env, whether it be from an enlist or indlist pt of view
	2. a view that the env & the econ are in opposition, though not all social scientists agree
	3. the domination of the envl debate by the physical sciences & little true integration of the social sciences
	4. a lack of a unified social theory
	5. the complexity of the social & physical envl debate
	6. the fact that the debate is not just about social or physical science issues in that it is about pwr in the pol & econ realms & the very structure of society
	SEVEN TRENDS IN THE ENVL DEBATE
	There are SEVEN important trends in the envl debate including the:
	1. greening of the New Soc Mvmts (NSMs)
	See Also: NSM's
	2. greening of the corp world
	See Also: Greenwashing
	3. corporatizing of the env mvmt
	4. globalization of env problems around such issues as intl pollution, global warming, intl debt, & more
	5. use of the physical sciences to solve envl probs
	See Also: Env sci
	6. use of the soc sci to solve envl probs
	See Also: Soc sci & policy analysis
	7. mystification of science
	See Also: Env Science
	In relation to the mystification of science, the social examination of the process of science, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Thomas Kuhn found that there is normal research & new paradigm research
	For Kuhn, when an old paradigm becomes transparently inadequate, a new paradigm comes to gain credibility
	Kuhn's analysis implies that the social sciences examining the env should explore a new paradigm that covers relationships btwn soc theory & nat & phys sciences
	In The Green Case by Steven Yearley, all envl problems have a soc dimension
	For Yearley, there are good class arguments for who supports envl issues, that is primarily the well educated, middle class
	For Yearley, the soc & nat sciences are talking past each other & paying too little attn to the imp constituency of the well educated middle class
	For Yearley, the way forward, the way to advance the envl debate & the way to estb a paradigm which takes account of both the physical & the social sciences is to dev what he calls critical realism
	CR recognizes that
	a. There are relatively enduring structures & processes in both the soc & nat worlds
	b. The relations among all organisms, including humans, & w/ structures & processes may constrain & / or enable action
	CR recognizes the need to move beyond a mere interdisciplinary approach to true integration & see people as a part of nature
	The best way is to abandon distinction btwn people & nature, but even such env authors as Dickens maintains this distinction in his title: Society & Nature

	BIOLOGICAL THEORY & THE ENV
	Ecology is the study of the relationships btwn organisms & the ecological systems on which they are dependent
	The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in the 1800s
	See Also: A Socio Hist Analysis of the Indl Age
	Ecology is heavily influenced by Darwinian theory which holds that only those beings sufficiently fit will produce off-spring
	For ecologists, beings find a niche & niches have a limited carrying capacity
	People have niches & indeed have made the whole world their niche
	But in applying evolution to people, ecologists are not generally looking at social, econ, pol, gender, racial or other factors
	Ecologists have no discussion of cap, communism or other social forms & therefore, there is no consideration as to how these soc relations interact w/ envl & ecol sys
	The lack of integration of the social & physical sciences comes in part from the fear of earlier attempts to integrate all science in, for example, social Darwinism, which essentially became a pseudo science that was a thinly disguised rationalization for racism in the early 1900s
	SOCIAL THEORY & THE ENV
	From prehistoric times & until recently in modern times, the env was simply out there as an infinite resource at the disposal of industrialization & social progress
	From prehistoric times & until recently in modern times, the limits of soc progress lay in social relations, not the env
	And as soc scientists view envl issues, they come to view the issues as wholly soc or cultural
	METHODOLOGY FROM THE LEFT
	The view from the Left on society & the env is holistic, justice oriented, & group based
	From the left political view, green politics cannot be purely ecological in that they must bring in economics & other soc sci
	Envl issues are viewed as part of a fundamentally exploitative, unjust & undemocratic form of society
	There are powerfully organized producer interests forcing people to become individualistic
	The Left is radical to the extent that if the problem w/ the env is capitalism, then they are willing to "overthrow" it
	Rudolph Bahro is a noted socialist thinker in Eastern Europe whose alternative view is that the problem of the env' is a greater problem than mere rapid industrialization
	For Bahro the solution in part for the envl debate is to deindustrialize the North relative to what it is now
	While Bahro is a socialist who bases much of his work on class analysis, class relations will not serve as a basis for social change while envl issues may
	Bahro's position is the flip side of where many Left thinkers begin
	For the Left wing thinkers, just as Green Parties cannot be wholly concerned w/ ecology, so parties of change cannot be totally concerned w/ social relations, ignoring ecology
	Bahro agrees that the social sciences tend to ignore natural & physical sciences, i.e. the env
	Most critical theorists ignore the fact that people are part of nature
	Nature is ignored by Leftist thinkers because the concept of the “natural human” both avoids & creates so many questions so as to make analysis difficult
	To ignore the split btwn people & nature is to accept the split btwn people & nature
	Feminism deals more explicitly w/ the "natural" differences btwn the sexes & so has advanced more toward understanding both nature & “natural people” or natural social relations

	METHODOLOGY FROM THE RIGHT
	The view from the Right on society & the env is methodologically individualistic, embraces fundamental ideas of human nature, & is more comfortable w/ a human & nature split
	The right seems more wedded to methodological individualism & is even more non interdisciplinary than the Left
	Hayek notes in The Fatal Conceit that humans have biological & human natures
	From the Right wing perspective, people still have attributes from pre historical life which include the ability to interact w/ a limited number of trusted others
	From the right, evolution has not changed people or society very much in the last few thousand years
	An example of the right's belief that people have not evolved is Desmond Morris' The Naked Ape: which examines basic human traits of survival, control, conquest, etc.
	Hayek goes beyond a Morris type of analysis & admits that there is an "extended order" in the last few thousand years, in which biological evolution has been extended by cultural evolution
	For Hayek & other people on the right, we have rules, or norms, which are passed from generation to generation which are tacit understandings which have allowed us to thrive
	For Hayek & others on the right, the norms which allow society to thrive include: - honesty - morality - privacy - property rights (animal instincts??)
	Hayek's key point is that cultural relations act as a constraint on our genetic inheritance
	An individual or even a society cannot have sufficient knowledge to know why the extended order, i.e. culture, has evolved in the way it has
	Those on the right hold that our present, dominating culture is closely linked to the mkt econ since that was an early form of trade
	Critics of the right counter that early trade was done through a barter system w/ only very little money
	Early on there were not even any traditional small businesses, only family centered bartering
	For the right, society is now too complex for us to be able to plan on a national scale & thus the best planning is done by individuals & families
	For the right, the planners in the command economies were the major beneficiaries
	Even on the right, Hayek is being to break down the distinction btwn the social & the natural
	And Hayek's ideas are being applied to the study of the env though he does not examine it directly
	Right leaning thinkers who study the env recognize that knowledge of the env is scanty & complex & just as is the case w/ the economy, society may not be able to plan for it
	Thus the solution to the envl debate from the right is similar to the solution they have for the econ: since envl issues are too complex for societal level planning, the planning is best done by individuals & families
	In sum, Hayek et al see capitalism as the solution, where as left wing theorists see it as the problem
	For the right, mkt econs can be used to solve ecological problems such as done w/ the mkt. for pollution where each mfr owns pollution rights
	For the right, mkt forces & human ingenuity will always take care of shortage by providing solutions
	The right is suspicious of catastrophe laden predictions in that the population bomb has not exploded yet
	For the right, people have an innate need for an external threatening authority
	For the right, govt bureaucrats are rent seekers, i.e. they are looking for someone else to pay the rent

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Nature

External
Links

- Project: Your Philosophy of Nature

Link

Nature is the physical universe & the forces that change it

The physical aspects of nature include the earth, wind, fire, space, plants, animals, etc.

From a holistic view of nature, people are a part of nature

Wonderful diversity of flora, fauna, geography, weather, etc.

Nature has physical aspects

Nature has social aspects

From a social perspective, the qualities of an object always depend on the "location" of the observer

Surprisingly, this is now also a principle of quantum physics

The qualities of nature depend on your relationship to it such as seen in a tree being:
- wood to a carpenter
- beauty to a poet
- shade to a traveler
- habitat to a bird lover

Wilderness is waste, beauty, solitude, habitat

Social ideas about nature shape the kinds of questions we ask about it

Environmental crises are social problems, as much as physical

Our understanding of nature is a product of our world view and our relationship to it (needs)

There are TWO types of human relationships w/ nature

1. Our "natural" relationship: We are part of nature because we are just another Species
"Good" caretaker
"Bad" utilizer

Human culture should not be seen as a separate category from genetic behaviors, in that culture to a part of our species being

However we have many parts of our culture that are unique to us as humans

Our culture, just as any other capacity, is our set of capacities which enable us to make sense of our natural and social world, and our places within it

2. Our reciprocal relationship: We relate in a reciprocal way to our environment:
It acts on & changes us and we act on & change it

We relate in a reciprocal way to our environment: It acts on & changes us and we act on & change it

A large part of the problem of the nature/human dualism comes from our view of value/culture free science as being able to determine objective facts

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Human Nature

External
Links

There are NINE paradigms that explain human nature, including:

1. religion
2. predestination
3. tabula rasa

4. instincts
5. genetics/biology
6. socio-biology

7. social
8. species being
9. non-academic pseudo theories

1. The religious paradigm on the explanations of human nature references to an "unknowable" creator as creating or molding human nature

2. The predestination paradigm on the explanations of human nature is usually a religious view, which holds that not only are we created solely by an "unknowable" creator, but that we have no free will to create ourselves

3. The tabula rasa paradigm on the explanations of human nature posits that we are born by a creator, but we have few essential characteristics, & thus have the ability to create ourselves

Locke, 1632 - 1704

Montesquieu, 1689 - 1755

4. The instinctual paradigm on the explanations of human nature holds that we are influenced every moment by primal, unconscious mental/biological mental formations

Freud: Eros & Thanatos

5. The genetics/biology paradigm on the explanations of human nature theorizes that are born w/ essential, physically determined characteristics that are the primary determinant of our human nature

6. The socio biology paradigm on the explanations of human nature is similar to the tabula rasa paradigm in that we are born w/ few/many essential characteristics which are conditioned by the environment

7. The social paradigm on the explanations of human nature is similar to the tabula rasa & socio- biology paradigms in that we are born w/ essential characteristics, but socialization has a major impact on who we are

Mead

Cooley

Habermas

8. The species being paradigm on the explanations of human nature is similar to the social paradigm in that human human nature is the result of socialization; however for Marxists, the socialization done in the creative act of labor or work is especially determinant of human nature

Marx

9. Non-academic pseudo theories paradigm on the explanations of human nature advocates that human nature is the result of some combination of the other human nature paradigms & is usually linked to an ideology, i.e. a cult or extreme social movement that is selective on which aspects of a theory it will or will not accept

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Species Being: Marx's Conception of Human Nature

External
Links

- Project: We Are What We Do

Link

- Project: Human Nature & Species Being

Link

Species being means human nature

Species being is an archaic ( or old fashioned ) word for human nature

What distinguishes people from animals?

Like humans, animals use tools, use nature, make things
- Bees build nests
- Chimps use tools
- Animals have emotions
What makes us different?

The primary behavior that distinguishes humans from animals is that we plan what we are going to do before we do it

Humans mentally pre-conceive the objective/process while animals build only instinctually

For Marx, people are "naturally" "laborers"

People work on the social, material & natural world of which they are part

In doing so, they change the world, the world changes them ( natural selection) & the activities in which we engage change us

Work is a part of our human nature

We are creative beings who must create through work to realize ourself, actualize, develop, etc.

Humans are constructing & being constructed by nature

The changing of econ systems is a result of individuals & groups struggling w/ their social & natural contexts

Marx saw history as an analogy based on competitive struggle

Marx's conception of human nature is that we need to humanly mold the world by means of our theoretical practical activity ( praxis )

We create world in the sense that we produce tools & w/ tools & externalize objects w/ the materials of nature, thus modifying nature

Animals do mold the world too through the use of tools, the use nature, & making things

For Marx, human essence is the most fully expressed through labor

For Habermas, human essence is realized in communication

Labor is a creative activity carried out in cooperation w/ others by which people transform the world outside themselves

Through the creative process of labor, we also transform our world within: we learn, struggle, will, experience compassion, etc. through labor

Labor is social

Labor is always social or cooperative because we usually produce w/ others & we usually produce for others

But market production is alienating

Early production was done
- for the family or tribe
- to give away
- to trade
- for status

See Also: Marxist history

Marx believed that the process of labor was the process of objectification

We make objects which embody our hopes, dreams, creativity, essence, etc. & yet these things stand separate from their creators

We seek to express / objectify ourselves

Marx believed, 'We are what we do.'

For Marx, our species being is undeveloped

Marx had a conception of the natural person, natural needs, & potentials paralleling the Enlightenment thinkers

We have latent & potential powers, along w/ active powers

If people are no more than a laboring beast, we need not remain so; we can become creative, that is, we have potential

For Marx, it is not that we create that makes us different than animals; there are THREE features that make humans different than animals
a. we plan before we create
b. we desire/need to create
c. we create ourselves through what we create

We do not know what the natural person is like

We do not know what a peaceful, fulfilled society is like

We can only imagine that a society w/ fulfilled people, w/ creative, unalienated labor, is much different than what now exists

Marx believed that capitalism resulted in our human nature being alienated

Failure to realize our human nature results in alienation

Both Marx & Freud believed that to deny human nature is to distort human nature

Marx's laboring/creative species being is similar to Freud's Eros or sex drive

Marx believed we did not truly know human nature because it had been so distorted by the flawed economic system

Perhaps Marx's sense of our human nature is closest to Maslow's view of human nature

Both Marx & Maslow believed that we have higher needs & potentials that can be developed

Link

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs describes his conception of developmental human nature

Marx's creative laboring was not similar to Maslow's lower survival needs of food, water, clothing, shelter

Marx's species being is similar to Maslow's highest need: self actualization

The concept “we are what we do” is similar to the concept of self actualization

We realize ourselves, for ourselves, not in relation to others as in Maslow's status needs, but through what we do

Human nature dictates the nature of society

Because our species being is based on our creativity / laboring so society itself is based on the system of creativity /laboring: the economy

Top

Chart on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

The Chart on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs demonstrates, as Freud believed, that the lower needs are the foundation upon which other needs are fulfilled, but unlike Freud, higher needs are primarily social in nature

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on What is Society?

External
Links

SOCIETY IS A GROUP W/ IDENTITY, W/ SHARED AUTHORITY, W/ COMMON AREA, IN AN ENVIRONMENT

Society is the people & sum of inventions, institutions, relationships, created & reproduced by humans

SOCIETY HAS THE EIGHT QUALITIES OF GILAGECS

1. SOCIETY IS MADE OF GROUPS

We will see the menagerie of social institutions, made up of groups....
And yet we see our culture as ONE
In some respects, we are groups of groups of groups... a group is its own society

2. SOCIETY HAS A DISTINCT IDENTITY

Self awareness is an important part of consciousness

A society, a culture must recognize itself before anyone else can recognize it

3. SOCIETY HAS A COMMON LANGUAGE

Language once was one of the most powerful indicators of what society someone belonged to, but today, language is less & less important

The globe is experiencing a 'concentration of languages,' i.e. many languages are disappearing & a few are coming to dominate

4. A SOCIETY HAS A SHARED AUTHORITY

Most societies rely on political authority, & there is a general transition from violent / authoritarian authority to rule of law / democracy & bureaucracy

5. SOCIETY HAS A COMMON GEOGRAPHIC AREA

Today, most societies have an identity w/ national borders, but nations & societies are socially permeable, i.e. not exact

Geography & location is becoming less of a factor on societies as technology & transportation expand

We now have a "world society" in that some parts of society are known the world over

6. SOCIETY IS IN, AS WELL AS SHAPED BY, THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

While all species are shaped by the environment, there is wide debate on how much our environment shapes us

7. SOCIETY HAS CULTURE WHICH IS THE MANIFESTATION OF KBVN

Society has culture which is the content of society & culture is made up of a society's shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN )

8. SOCIETY HAS SOCIAL STRUCTURE WHICH IS THE FORM OF SOCIETY AS MANIFESTED IN PF REG M CEML

The physical environment influences the nature of social structures in society ( PF REG M CEML )

Peers	Military
Family	Charity
Religion	Education
Economy / work	Media
Govt	Leisure / recreation

Below are three examples of how various social structures are located in particular geographic areas & are actually shaped by the physical environment

Peers	Races, ethnicities, regional types
Wk / econ	H-G, Agriculture, Herding, Extraction, etc.
Leisure / recreation	Swim, ski, etc.

THE PRIMARY DIFFERENCE BTWN MODERN & NON MODERN SOCIETY IS RATIONAL & TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY, RESPECTIVELY

Modern society:
- is relatively self contained
- is aware of it's identity
- has a common geographic area
- has a shared authority, which is primarily rational authority

Non modern society is essentially the same as modern society except it is smaller, more ethnocentric, & has traditional authority

The concept of society is an abstraction in that society is not something you can see or touch because is is not just people, but their relationships

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Development of the Human Conception of Nature

External
Links

In everyday life, nature seems to be a nearly immutable force; i.e. a presence that is ever present & unchangin

From the perspective of the social sciences, nature has changed radically over the centuries of human development

From the perspective of the social sciences, the human conception of nature have change radically over the centuries of human development

The development of the human conception of nature has paralleled the physical changes that humans have made upon nature

Humanities conception of nature has embraced a variety of widely divergent understandings, ideologies of nature

The human conception of nature ranges from one of being part of nature, to one of seeing nature as a thing to be exploited, to one of seeing nature as a child to be protected to one of a secret garden to be preserved

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Dev of the Human Concept of Nature in the Hunter Gatherer Era

External
Links

3. THE HUNTER GATHERER ERA circa 1.5 mm BC to 10 K BC

Hunter Gatherers...
- had matriarchal gender relationships & viewed nature itself as a god or gods
- had diverse views on god & nature
- believed nature was to be respected or even feared
- believed nature was the source of all life
- had people who saw themselves in nature

Animism is the doctrine which holds that the soul or spiritual body exists in a material universe

For Animists...
- animate & inanimate objects have a spirit
- nature cannot be separated from supernatural
- human are extensions of this spirit
- humans cannot be separated from nature
- a sense of kinship existed btwn humans & nature

Today anthropologists believe that the first god was the female moon who was powerful because she told of coming of seasons, the cycle of months, & more

Anthropologists believe after the female moon, the god of the male sun was predominant, then the earth, & then a series of human gods & goddesses

The male sun gained significance as the importance of agriculture grew

The earth gained significance & the trees, streams, rivers, plants, mountains, etc. all became endowed w/ god-hood

The earth god was known as Gaea & the sun god was known as Raa

PAGANISM

Paganism is the worship of a pantheon of personified gods

Paganists often believed in the personification of animistic powers

The ancient "hearth" societies of Egypt, Greek, Rome, etc., were pagan

Some traditional societies are still paganistic, poly-theistic, today

Examples of Paganism
Examples: Greek & Roman gods
Poseidon: god of ocean
Thor: god of thunder, etc.

The Gods had human qualities

People & gods & nature are all alike conflict, struggle among all, e.g. struggle btwn people-nature-gods

Each pagan god has emotions, desires, histories such as seen in the idea of jealous gods, or an angry storm....

The envl effects of animism & paganism were good & bad

THE ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS & COSTS OF H-G SOCIETY & PAGANISM

Anthropologists believe these religious beliefs had beneficial ecological effects on humanity & ecology

The ecological benefits of H-G society & paganism include the:
- regulation of harvesting plants & animals to reduce over exploitation
- regulation of consumption such as pork & trichinosis
- use of fire to develop land

The ecological costs of H-G society & paganism include:
- desertification
- the extinction plants & animals such as the woolly mammoth

Animism & polytheism continued in early Egypt, Greece, Syria, China, India

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Dev of the Human Concept of Nature in the Pre Empires Era

External
Links

4. THE PRE EMPIRES ERA circa 10 K BC to 3 K BC

Agriculture develops & ...
- supplants H & G as the major means of subsistence
- patriarchy supplants matriarchy
- creates the first surplus of products
- dev the idea that nature is to be conquered which continues through modern western culture

During the Pre Emps Era,
- there is the first separation of people from nature
- there is the belief that some people and/or societies are inferior
- the idea of progress is conceived

The relationships Pre Emps societies have w/ nature are parallel to, i.e. mutually interdependent w/ the relationships that they have w/ other societies & w/ people as individuals

In general, if a society is exploitative toward nature, it is exploitative toward societies & people; & vice versa

In general, if a society lives in harmony w/ & respects nature, it also has just relations w/ other societies & people; & vice versa

Animism & polytheism continue to evolve in the hearth societies of early Egypt, Greece, Syria, China, India, et al

EARLY MONOTHEISM

Early monotheism develops, esp Judaism

The 1st know monotheism was the worship of Raa, the Egyptian sun god

The monotheistic worship of one god over all was very controversial & the Pharaoh had to "cleanse" society of pagan gods & symbols

After the dynasty which advocated the monotheistic worship of Raa, even though it was "cleansed," polytheism return

Judaism develops in the Pre Empires Era & eventually develop the monotheism which eventually evolves into the Judaism, Christianity, & Islam as we know them today

Abraham left Mesopotamia btwn 1800 & 1500 BC

Moses received 10 Commandments circa 1200 BC

The Torah, i.e. the Old Testament, is written circa 1000 BC

THE ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS & COSTS OF MONOTHEISM

Judeo Christianity & nature:

Contrary to the pagan tradition, Greeks & Western civilization 1st viewed people as separate from nature

For early monotheists, god is above nature, & separate separate from it

For early monotheists, nature was created by god

For early monotheists, people were created by god in his image

For early monotheists, humans are also above nature, separate from it, & charged w/ ruling over nature

Under Judeo Christianity, people have 'dominion' over nature

The meaning of ‘dominion?’ in the Judeo Christian tradition is disputed in that some believe it means exploitation, while others believe it means care taking

Some monotheists exploit / control nature as we would an animal

Some monotheists care for / nurture nat as we would a child

Because we are seen as separate from nature, the idea of "wilderness" develops to denote the difference btwn humanized civilization, & that unconquered area

In the Post Indl Era, the concept of wilderness comes to mean largely, a preserve, or isolated natural area

In the previous H G Era, people had largely been in nature, & their religion reflected oneness w/ nature, while people in the Pre Emps Era, nature is ' out there;' i.e. we are separate from it

In the Pre Emps Era, nature is also in us in the form of emotions, sexuality, etc.

The idea of nature being in us continues today, though w/ variations

Both nature 'out there' & 'deep w/in' are to be conquered / controlled

Nature is seen as “the other,” as evil, immature, unsocialized & so must be tamed / socialized

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Dev Concept of Nature in the Early Empires Era

External
Links

5. THE EARLY EMPIRES ERA 3 K BC to 200 BC

Taoism is one of the three primary religions of China, w/ Confucianism & Buddhism being the other two

Taoism...
- was founded on the doctrines of Lao-tsze (b. 604 BC)
- values nature for its own sake
- holds that we are not separate from nature, we are not above it

Buddhism follows the teaching of Buddha, aka "The Enlightened One" who was Siddhartha Gautama

Gautama lived in India in the 6th C BC

Buddhism holds that life is an evil or at the least, an illusion

For Buddhists, nirvana is the end to the cycle of reincarnation, something akin to Christianity's heaven

BUDDHISM & NATURE

Buddhism holds that

- in nature, & life in general, everything is connected & thus exists in a state of mutual interdependence

- if we harm or exploit nature & we harm or exploit ourselves

- we have a higher level of consciousness than nature

- because harm to nature is harm to ourselves & because we have a higher level of consciousness than nature, it is therefore our responsibility to care for nature

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Dev the Concept of Nature in the Roman Era

External
Links

6. The Roman Era circa 200 BC to 500 AD

Christianity emerges & becomes a world religion

As Christianity emerges in the Roman Era, there is little change in relationship w/ nature

Circa 300 AD, during the Roman Era, the Bible is written, esp the New Test

During the Roman Era, there is little change in relationship w/ nature

For Christians & Romans in the Roman Era, nature & human nature are wild, and, or evil & must be conquered

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Concept of Nature in the Middle Ages

External
Links

7. The Middle Ages circa 500 to 1300

During the Middle Ages, there is little change in the relationship of societies & people w/ nature

Islam emerges circa 800 AD & becomes a world religion
Islam is the religious system of Mohammed (570-632 AD)
The Koran was written circa 800 AD
The word Islam connotes the "submission to the will of Allah (god)"
Islam is compatible w/, & builds on the doctrines of Judeo-Christianity

Islam's view on nature is close to the Judeo-Christian view on nature

For Islamists, Allah created Heaven & Earth to serve humanity but humans are sovereign over nature

The abuse of Earth is opposed & some believe that people should show stewardship & respect, but as in Christianity, this dictum is interpreted in many ways

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Concept of Nature in the Early Industrial Age

External
Links

8. The Early Industrial Age is aka the Colonial Period which occurred circa 1300 - 1700

During the early industrial age, the concept of manifest destiny is developed

Manifest Destiny is the doctrine that humans should explore & conquer nature

During the early industrial age, the doctrine of manifest destiny held that it is the duty of humanity to domesticate both nature & "savages"

The doctrine of manifest destiny combines components of both imperialism & religion

Religion used as justification for imperialism against both people & nature

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Concept of Nature in the Industrial Age

External
Links

9. The Industrial Age experienced progressive reforms & conservationism circa 1700 - present

a. Early environmentalism developed & the manifest destiny philosophy lost ground

Peoples' concept of nature is separated from religious views as the concept of ecology develops

During the industrial age, ...
- the first movement of what we might recognize as environmentalism develops
- sports & outdoors magazines bring public attention to the environment
- there is rapid urban population growth
- women became key actors in cleaning up the urban environment
- women were also social force in race & gender relations

In 1866, the German scientist & philosopher Ernst Haeckel coins the term ecology, & it becomes a discipline

George Catlin first proposed idea of national parks in 1832

Henry David Thoreau ( 1817 - 1862 ) ...
- wrote Walden after he spent about 2 yrs in solitude on Walden Pond
- is credited as the originator of American ecological philosophy
- believed the natural world is an antidote to negative effects of modern life on our character
- contributed to the school of Romanticism which was a reaction to materialist, empiricist views

The Romantics view of nature, e.g. Thoreau, et al, is in a certain sense, spiritual

On Civil Disobedience
What are you doing in there,
What are you doing out there?

Frederick Law Olmstead: father of Central Park

First Arbor Day on April 10, 1872

Sierra Club founded by John Muir in 1892

Theodore Roosevelt empowers the USFS, creates many National Forests:
most of these were lands already decimated by development
or thought to be too low quality or remote to be developed

TR had a strong sense that the natural resources of US were limited
TR was a hunter, an outdoors man, & a conservationist, not a preservationist

b. Progressive Reforms & Conservationism ( 1900 - 1945 )
1st national park Yellowstone: 1905

Conservation: a doctrine of planned and efficient progress/use of the environment
Splits into preservationists and conservationists

Preservationism: a doctrine advocating keeping areas preserved from human influence of all types: no use/development

John Muir: Preservationist: Advocates saving Yosemite, eventually become Nat. Park

Gifford Pinchot: Conservationist:
Convinced Roosevelt to establish National Forest System which became the USFS
1898: first FS chief: friend of Teddy Roosevelt

Influenced by European forest management
Attended Yale: managed forest of Vanderbilt in North Carolina

The Public Lands Question: Should there be public land or should all land be privatized?
This question still very alive today

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Concept of Nature in the Age of Global Capitalism

External
Links

10. THE AGE OF GLOBAL CAPITALISM circa 1910 - present

a. THE AGE OF RECREATION & ECOLOGY Post - WW 2 to 1969

During the Age of Recreation & Ecology the public recognition of major envl issues began w/ air & water pollution, & the population explosion

NPS Director Conrad Wirth advocates a wish list of national park needs called Mission 66 which included a 10 year improvement plan

In the 1960s the battle btwn industrialists & "environmentalists" begins

Silent Spring is written by Rachel Carson, & The Population Bomb is written by Paul Ehrlich, & they become important books advancing the causes of the env mvmt

During the Age of Global Capitalism, the US passes major envl legislation under Nixon which establishes the EPA

The 1960s experienced a flurry of activity around the env

The major theme around the env in the Age of Global Cap it that the fed govt must take major role in solving what was beginning to be called the envl crisis

The limited partnerships btwn feds & the states were recognized as insufficient to deal w/ the env because the envl crisis was a global issue

See Also: Counter Mvmts

Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson saw the Vietnam teach-ins & pledged $15,000 of his own $$ for an envl teach-in

The Stanford student body president Denis Hays was natl coordinator for the very 1st Earth Day, April 22, 1970

Business & ind mobilized to slow pace of envl reg

Envl orgs were no longer the only game in town

The env mvmt covered a range of issues so broad that no one grp could deal w/ it all

For the 1st time issues had become matters not for public debate & legislation, but for admin choice

Politics became dominated by tech issues, placing a premium on the monetary resources necessary to command expertise

Admin & private corp institutes employed more tech people than did the envlists

RELIGION & NATURE IN THE AGE OF GLOBAL CAPITALISM

The role of religion in humanity's relationship to the env is diffuse & relegated to a general spirituality, & has little link w/ organized religion

Some branches of mainstream religion espouse views rooted in their religious texts that support an envlist view

Leaders such as James Watt, the Secretary of the Interior under Reagan, voice manifest destiny views that nature was put under man's command (sic) for man's benefit

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Concept of Nature in the Post Ind Age

External
Links

11. THE POST INDUSTRIAL AGE circa 1970 - present

a. THE REAGAN, BUSH SR. ADMINS ( 1980 - 1988, 1988 - 1992 ) WERE KNOWN TO BE GENERALLY ANTI ENVLIST

During the Reagan - Bush era, the 'Reagan Revolution' resulted in the cutting of govt regs

Reagan was president from 1980 - 88 & Bush, Sr was president from 1988 - 1992

Reagan & Bush, Sr. advocated major roll backs in all of fed govt, including env regs & EPA which resulted in lax enforcement or the remaining regs

Under Bush Sr., VP Quail dev the Council on Competitiveness

Bush et al used the Council on Competitiveness to sidestep EPA Regs

Under the Council on Competitiveness any reg. that hurt competitiveness could be circumvented

Global Warming 1st appears as a public issue during the Reagan Bush era

Global Warming becomes a major issue by end of the Reagan Bush era

Ronald Reagan, not often recognized for environmental accomplishments, pushed through the most successful environmental treaty in history: the Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol was an international treaty that protected the earth's atmosphere by beginning a phase out of ozone depleting chems

The Montreal Protocol has also prevented the equivalent of 135 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions since 1990

	b. THE CLINTON ADMIN ( 1992 to 2000 ) WAS MORE ENVLIST THAN PREVIOUS ADMINS, BUT DID NOT PUSH AN ENVL AGENDA
	Clinton was president from 1992 - 2000
	During the Clinton Admin, global awareness of envl issues increases & is addressed, to an extent by the 'New Democrats'
	In 1990, Gallup finds that 20 % of the electorate are strong envlists
	In 1992 Gallup Intl finds that envl concern is not limited to the indl nations
	Clinton could not do much about envl issues because of a strongly Republican Congress
	In 1994 during the Clinton Admin, the 1st Republican Congress in 60 yrs is elected, making it very difficult for either Dems or Reps to advance their agenda
	This new Rep Congress was lead by Newt Gingrich & his 'Contract w/ America' which had several goals, one of which was to estb free mkt envism
	Free mkt envism attempts to, for example, estb mkts to trade pollution rights
	Gingrich's Contract w/ Am implodes & the Reps gain pwr but become factionalized & extremist, & thus fail to enact much of their envl agenda
	The 1st Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 refocused the need for envl issues to be viewed globally
	Clinton eliminated the Council on Competitiveness which was estbed by Reagan to limit the effectiveness of envl regs
	In the Clinton admin, there was the sense that envl politics during the last 15 yrs was guided by popular opinion, not science
	Global warming becomes policy for govt action
	Many people believe they see the effects of global warming in the weather, forest fires, droughts, melting ice packs, hurricanes, etc. but it must be acknowledged that this is anecdotal evidence at best
	In 1997, an Earth Summit special session was called for & took place at the UN in NYC
	At the Earth Summit special session the struggle btwn No & So becomes paramount & the developed & undeveloped nations cannot agree on who should move the most on the env
	Friends of the Earth: Briefing on the Earth Summit. http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/briefings/earth_summit_faq.pdf	Link
	The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the intl Framework Convention on Climate Change w/ the objective of reducing
	On Dec 11, 1997 at the 3rd Conference of the Parties to the Kyoto treaty agreed to reduce greenhouse gases that cause climate change
	As of November 2007, 174 parties have ratified the protocol, but not the US because the Rep Congress would not agree to it
	Under Clinton, the EPA launched its "Common Sense Initiative" to make health protection cheaper & smarter by focusing on results rather than one size fits all regs
	Clinton claimed that his Northwest Forest Plan put communities in the Northwest back to work, while conserving ancient forests, but critics on both sides of the issues, i.e. indists & envlists were not satisfied
	After decades of conflict, the Clinton Administration negotiated a consensus plan to protect California's most valuable natural resource, its water
	The San Francisco & Delta estuary supplies drinking water to 2/3s of the state's people, provides irrigation for 45 % of the nation's fruits & vegetables, & sustains 300 aquatic species
	At the end of his admin in 2000, Clinton makes biggest fed land designations since Teddy Roosevelt estbing such NP as the Grand Escalante NP in UT

	THE BUSH JR ADMIN ( 2000 - 2008 ) MAY BE KNOWN AS THE MOST ANTI ENVL ADMIN IN US HISTORY
	In 2000 GWB is elected President
	During the campaign & during his 1st yrs in office, Bush Jr advocates: - drilling in the Arctic Nat Refuge - a postponing of clean air & water regs to boost econ - to continue to study global warming not acting on it - a continuation of earlier admin's policies to refuse to join the Rio Envl Treaty
	The Bush admin tried to block the Roadless Rule, which would have allowed many roadless areas to be designated as wilderness, but later Bush's opposition was overturned by the courts
	The Bush admin's EPA rules that CO2 is not a pollutant & thus cannot be regulated
	Because of being bogged down in Iraq, Reps lose the Congress by 1 vote in 2004 & so cannot pursue their free mkt envl policies
	Bush Jr conceded in a speech that the US was "addicted to oil" yet he & VP Cheney, who was a former top official w/ Haliberton, estbed a very pro oil admin
	Bush Jr gave a nod that global warming was a concern, yet fostered a govt bureaucracy that denied & opposed its impact
	Bush Jr ends his admin by establishing the world's largest marine reserve in the central Pacific near Hawaii
	The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Reserve is an island chain spanning nearly 1,400 miles of the Pacific northwest of Hawaii
	The roughly 100 mile wide area of the marine reserve encompasses a string of uninhabited islands that support more than 7,000 marine species, at least a fourth of which are found nowhere else on Earth

	THE OBAMA ADMIN ( 2008 - ) HAD MORE ENVL GOALS THAN THE CLINTON ADMIN, BUT AT FIRST MAJOR ENVL LEGISLATION WAS TRUMPED BY THE ISSUES OF THE IRAQ / AFGHAN WARS & THE BUSH JR ECON RECESSION
	In 2008 Obama is elected President
	During his campaign, Obama has an aggressive envl policy, but early in his first year most of the goals have not been realized
	During his campaign, Obama calls for cutting US CO2 emissions 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050
	The Obama admin proposed cutting CO2 by cap & trade system that would auction off 100 % of emissions permits, making polluters pay for the CO2 they emit
	The Obama admin proposed channeling revenue raised from auctioning emissions permits of btwn $30 b & $50 b a year, toward developing & deploying clean energy technology, creating "green jobs," & helping low income Americans afford higher energy bills
	It appears that before the 2010 mid term elections that the Obama admin will not be able to cajole his large majority, but fractured Democratic Congress to pass any kind of global warming legislation
	Other issues, particularly dealing w/ the Bush Jr recession, & the Iraq & Afghan wars, result in the env being a second level issue for the Obama admin
	Greens grumble about his stands on nuclear power, offshore drilling & clean coal, while others are impressed by his record on clean water & clean air
	Countering the Bush Jr admin's policy, the Obama admin's EPA rules that CO2 is a pollutant & thus can be regulated
	Perhaps the Obama admin's greatest accomplishment is the deal w/ automakers to raise automobile fuel efficiency standards to an industry average of 35.5 miles per gallon by 2016
	In 2010 the Obama admin has called for a comprehensive energy & climate bill that includes incentives for nuclear energy, additional offshore oil & gas drilling, & incentives for clean coal technologies
	During the presidential campaign Senator McCain pledged to end the destructive & unnecessary practice of blowing off the tops of mountains to access coal seams
	Obama did not quite match McCain's pledge, but implied that he would like to see mountain top removal (MTR) end
	Advocates opposed to MTR were disappointed in June, 2010 when instead of ending the practice, the Obama admin announced a new interagency plan to regulate MTR coal mining
	This new process of permitting all mines in a different way has slowed the speed of MTR & lays the groundwork to end it
	the random granting or rejecting of MTR mining permits has left people on both sides of the issue perplexed
	Obama also disappointed wildlife advocates when he removed the gray wolf from the endangered species list in some states
	As a result, Idaho moved quickly to implement an aggressive hunting season that seeks to kill 220 wolves
	While wolf hunts occurred in a few western states in 2009, a judge has halted them for 2010
	PUBLIC OPINION
	In general during the Post Ind Age, religion is not an important determinant force in humanity's conception of nature
	As is often the case, other issues trump the env & from 2008 through 2010 that has been the econ, & the wars in Iraq & Afghan
	In 2010, there is a pitched battle over public opinion in relation to global warming
	The Bush Jr admin had created a govt bureaucracy & fostered private funding to discredit the existence of global warming
	In 2007, a NASA official came out, stating he & other scientists had been censored on global warming by the Bush Jr admin
	However, in 2010 a grp of British scientists' emails were released indicating they felt they should use their science to support the fact that global warming is occurring
Link	The Table on American Public Opinion on the Environment shows that views on the env swings widely depending on the availability of energy & spectacular env crises
	See the Next Era: The Future

Top

The Table on American Public Opinion on the Environment

1967

environment not an issue

1968

not an issue

1969

not an issue

1969

Nixon signs NEPA, declares this the envl decade Santa Barbara oil spill

1970

After Earth Day, ranked 2nd, by June, env dropped off list

1971

pollution & population make the list

1972

on the list

1973

6th, pollution was 5th Arab oil embargo

1974

energy ranked 1st

1978

Love Canal Resources for the Future (RTF): inflation was 10% but there was still support for envl protection

1979

Three Mile Island

1983

Times Beach MO dioxin contaminated the town

1984

Bhopal, India: Union Carbide gas leak

1980s

Gallup found that energy often was an issue
Environment was not

1980s

Reagan Revolution: main concern was to reduce amt of govt regs

1988

In the Bush vs. Dukakus presidential contest, Bush manages to define himself as the envl President
Beginning of Republican “stealing” of envl issue: begin to mainstream “free market envism”
Redefined wetlands legislation

1989

More concern for the env:
Pollution of sea from dumping, med waste, chem's Pollution of fresh water

1990

Gallup lists 20% as strong envlists

1992

Clinton vs. Bush
Gore: Earth in the Balance

1992

Gallup Intl: showed envl concern is not limited to the indlized nations

1994

Mid term elections: env not much of an issue

1994

First Rep Congress in 60 yrs:
Gingrich’s Rep Rev

1995

Clinton is backing off, seeking more moderate positions
Allows “sufficiency language” in salvage logging
Allows simplification / speedup of wetlands regs
in relation to private home building

2000

Gore does not make env an issue, contra Earth in the Balance
GB Jr advocates "moderate" rollbacks & "wins"

2001

Bush begins env rollback

The Table on American Public Opinion on the Environment shows that views on the env swings widely depending on the availability of energy & spectacular env crises

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Concept of Nature in the Future

External
Links

12. THE FUTURE: ENVL ISSUES

THE BUSH JR ADMIN WAS EXPECTED TO NOT SEE THE ENV AS A PRIORITY

As GW Bush is re-elected President in 2004 & taps Am's religious sentiment to mobilize his constituency & to frame the issues, religion slightly increased its relevance to the env debate

The general trend w/ relationship to the env remains toward one that is relatively secular & instrumental

People's concern & conception of nature probably will not change radically until major events encourage such a change

However, our conception of nature & our relationship to it are a function of both real events in the physical world as well as a function of our ideology or world view

The forces for envl & the forces for development will continue to attempt to shape our ideology & our conception of nature, & if one dominates, then a significant in our conception of nature & our relationship to it may occur

The present political, social, & cultural trends in physical development & ideology are toward development & away from envl

THE OBAMA ADMIN WAS EXPECTED TO SEE THE ENV AS A PRIORITY, BUT W/ HIS OWN FORM OF PRAGMATISM

The Obama admin was expected to move ahead on energy & global warming policy using mkt mechanisms based previously advocated by Republicans

The twin issues left for the Obama admin by the Bush Jr admin, i.e. the wars in Iraq & Afghan, & the recession, have left other issues in a secondary position & have dried up funding & political will

The American public is experiencing what social scientists call issue fatigue meaning that they just turn off when confronted w/ too many, too complex policy issues

IN THE LONG TERM, EXCEPT FOR PERIODS EXPERIENCING PARTICULARLY EGREGIOUS ENVL DISASTERS, THE ENV WILL REMAIN A SECOND TIER PRIORITY BEHIND THE ECON, NATL SECURITY, SOCIAL ISSUES, ET AL

Historically, the env as a public issue has manifested itself primarily after an envl disaster such as the Santa Barbara oil spill (1969), or when a powerful leader such as Teddy Roosevelt campaigns to make it an issue

It is not clear whether even 'secondary' envl crises such as Hurricane Katrina (2005) or the BP Gulf of Mexico oil spill (2010) have a significant impact on public opinion much less public policy related to the env

Envlists have long maintained that env problems are long term & behaviors today will have an env impact in the future which will prove to be devastating

Perhaps the oldest env issue is the population explosion as first analyzed by Malthus in the 1800s; he maintained that civilization as we know it would soon collapse because of rampant population growth which would outpace our ability to feed it & supply other resources

The threat of the population explosion was repackaged as the population bomb by Erlich in the 1960s, but again to most casual observers, this problem has not reached crisis point even though hunger & starvation plague over 1/6th of the world's population

Other 'classic' env issues such as the extinction of species, deforestation, pollution, toxic waste, etc.

These issues have had success, envlly speaking, only to the extent that they could be accomplished w/o getting in the way of the priorities of the econ & security

The biggest envl issue for the future is global warming & it too has not received much relief due to its conflict w/ the econ & security

Global warming is manifesting itself over a long period of time, which for humans means incremental change, but for the planet, it means radical change

The question for the future becomes, can humanity compromise its econ goals, achieve security, & have the vision to address global warming?

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Religion & Nature

External
Links

- Project: Religion & Nature

Link

INTRODUCTION

The 'economy,' i.e. the development of nature by humankind, the dev of society, & the dev of religious ideas all followed a similar path, w/ each impacting the other

The econ dev was parallel by the dev of religious ideas, & both social structures impacted & in turn were impacted by our knowledge & beliefs

The relationship btwn the physical use of nature, i.e. econ dev. & the dev of religious ideas is an example of the more general relationship btwn social structure & culture

There are TEN social structures, including peer grps, the family, religion, economy, govt, military, charity, ed, media, & leisure ( PF REG M CEML )

There are FOUR components of culture including knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN )

Each social structure is material & each component of culture is non material or idealistic

As any one soc struc changes, it creates changes in the other nine soc strucs & in our understanding of the world as embodied in our culture

Most people accept that our ideas change the way we act because that seems self apparent to us, but we must also realize that what we do, as represented by the social science concept of social structure, also changes the way we think

In the earlier stages of humanity, i.e. in the pre historical eras & early histl eras we had little control over nature since our physical dev, i.e. the econ was very limited, & thus our view of nature was that of 'the wild' & our religious views were animistic, w/ many warring nature forces

In time, animal husbandry, horticulture, construction, & other skills developed giving us some limited control of nature, & thus our religious ideas turned first to polytheism, & then to monotheism

3. THE HUNTER GATHERER ERA ( circa 1.5 mm BC to 10 K BC )

Hunter gatherers had matriarchal gender relationships & viewed nature itself as god/gods

Animism is the doctrine of soul/spiritual body existing in material universe
Animate & inanimate objects have a spirit
Nature cannot be separated from supernatural
Human are extensions of this spirit
Humans cannot be separated from nature
Sense of kinship btwn humans & nature

The first god is thought to be the female moon (told of coming of seasons, cycle of months), then the male sun (as significance of agriculture grew), then earth (trees, streams, rivers, plants, mountains, etc. all became endowed w/ god hood)

Gaea: earth Raa: sun

PAGANISM is the worship of a pantheon of personified gods
Paganism is the personification of animistic powers
The ancient "hearth" societies of Egypt, Greek, Rome, etc., were pagan
Some traditional societies are still paganistic, or polytheistic today

Examples of Paganism
Examples: Greek & Roman gods
Poseidon: god of ocean
Thor: god of thunder, etc.

The pagan gods had human qualities of pride, empathy, jealousy, pettiness, etc.

Under paganism, people & gods & nature are all alike conflict, struggle among all, e.g. struggle btwn people nature gods

Each pagan god has emotions, desires, histories: jealous gods acted out in an angry storm....

The environmental effects of animism & paganism were positive & negative

Anthropologists believe these religious beliefs had beneficial ecological effects on humanity & ecology

Pagan religious beliefs regulated the harvesting of plants & animals to reduce over exploitation

Pagan religious beliefs regulated consumption, e.g. pork prohibition prevented trichinosis

Many tribes used fire to develop land

Ecological destruction under paganism included:
a. deforestation
b. desertification
c. fire used to significantly change landscapes
d. extinctions of the woolly mammoth & other species

Animism & polytheism continued into the civilizations of early Egypt, Greece, Syria, China, India, etc.

4. THE PRE EMPIRES ERA circa 10 K BC to 3 K BC

Animism & polytheism continued to evolve in the hearth societies of early Egypt, Greece, Syria, China, India, et al

Early monotheism develops, esp Judaism

The 1st know monotheism was the worship of Raa: the Egyptian sun god
The monotheist religion of Raa was very controversial & so the Pharaoh "cleansed" society of pagan gods / symbols
After this Raa dominated dynasty, it was "cleansed," again, & polytheism returned

Around the time after Raa:
- Judaism developed
- Abraham left Mesopotamia btwn 1800 & 1500 BC
- Moses received 10 Commandments circa 1200 BC
- The Torah ( Old Testament ) written circa 1000 BC

Under the Judeo Christian view of nature the Greeks & Western civilization 1st viewed people as separate from nature

God is above nature, & thus god is separate from nature
Nature was created by god
Many early people came to believe that we were created by god in his image
Humans are also above nature, separate from it, & charged w/ ruling over nature

Under the Judeo Christian view of nature people have dominion over nature
But what is the meaning of ‘dominion?’

Many believed that we should exploit / control nature as we would an animal while others believe that we should care for / nurture nature as we would a child

The idea of "wilderness" develops & nature is seen as being 'out there' while simultaneously being 'in us' as in sexuality, desires, etc.

Both the wilderness & our inner wildness are to be conquered/ controlled

Nature is seen as “the other,” as evil, immature, unsocialized & so must be tamed/socialized

	5. THE EARLY EMPIRES ERA circa 3 K BC to 200 BC
	Taoism is oe of 3 major religions of China, w/ Confucianism & Buddhism being the others
	Taoism is founded on doctrines of Lao tsze who was born in 604 BC
	Taoists value nature for its own sake
	For Taoists, we are not separate from nature
	For Taoists, we are not above nature
	Buddhism
	Buddha is aka "The Enlightened One" & was named Siddhartha Gautama
	Buddhism emerged in India, in the 500s BC
	For Buddhists, life is an evil / illusion
	For Buddhists, Nirvana is the end to the cycle of reincarnation
	Buddhism on nature:
	For Buddhists, everything is connected; there is mutual interdependence
	For Buddhists, when we harm / exploit nature & we harm / exploit ourselves
	We have a higher level of consciousness than nature
	Because we have a higher level of consciousness than nature, it is therefore our responsibility to care for Nature
	6. THE ROMAN ERA circa 200 BC to 500 AD
	Around 200 BC Christianity emerges & becomes a world religion
	As Christianity emerges in the Roman Era, there is little change in relationship w/ nature
	Around 300 AD, during the Roman Era, the Bible is written, esp the New Test
	During the Roman Era, there is little change in relationship w/ nature
	For Christians & Romans in the Roman Era, nature & human nature are wild, and, or evil & must be conquered
	7. THE MIDDLE AGES circa 500 to 1300
	Islam emerges as a major religion around 800 AD & becomes a world religion
	The Koran was written around 800
	Islam resulted in little in peoples' relationship w/ nature
	Islam means, roughly, submission to the will of god
	Islam is based on the prophet Mohammed who lived from 570 to 632 AD
	Islam's view on nature is close to the Judeo Christian view on nature
	Allah created Heaven & Earth to serve humanity but humans are sovereign over nature
	The abuse of Earth is opposed & some believe that people should show stewardship & respect, but as in Christianity, this dictum is interpreted in many ways
	8. THE EARLY INDUSTRIAL AGE aka Colonial Period circa 1300 - 1700
	During the early industrial age, the doctrine of manifest destiny held that it is the duty of humanity to domesticate both nature & "savages"
	The doctrine of manifest destiny combines components of both imperialism & religion
	Religion used as justification for imperialism against both people & nature
	9. THE INDUSTRIAL AGE Progressive reforms & conservationism circa 1700 - present
	Peoples' concept of nature is separated from religious views as the concept of ecology develops
	The Romantics view of nature, e.g. Thoreau, is in a certain sense, spiritual
	10. GLOBAL CAPITALISM circa 1910 - present
	The role of religion in humanity's relationship to the env is diffuse & relegated to a general spirituality, & has little link w/ organized religion
	Some branches of mainstream religion espouse views rooted in their religious texts that support an environmentalist view
	Leaders such as James Watt, the Secretary of the Interior under Reagan, voice manifest destiny views that nature was put under man's command (sic) for man's benefit
	11. POST INDUSTRIAL AGE circa 1970 - present
	In general during the post indl age, religion is not an important determinant force in humanity's conception of nature though some grps are trying to revive our understanding btwn the natural & the spiritual
	12. THE FUTURE
	As GW Bush is elected President in 2004 & taps Am's religious sentiment to mobilize his constituency & to frame the issues, religion may increase its relevance to the env debate

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature

External
Links

- Project: Your Impact on Nature

Link

- Project: Env Solutions

Link

I = PATE Humans' Impact on the environment is a function of Population, their Affluence/wealth, Technology & Environmental values

Before the hunter-gatherer era, as early as 6 mm bp, pre-human hominids inhabited the Earth, & they had little impact on the Earth, as much as any single species

Ancient humans' impact on nature was significant

In general, single species who do manage to impact the env, "crash" in that they literally eat themselves out of house & home

Species, including humans, may over-populate & harm the env, & even affect it permanently, but these changes are seen as part of the natural order

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Hunter-Gatherer Era

External
Links

3. Hunter-Gatherer Era circa 1.5 mm BC - 10 K BC

The first humans lived in H-G society

Paleolithic peoples' impact on environment
aka Early Stone Age

a. Paleolithic people's impact on nature was significant
Early humans' biggest & first technological impact on the environment was fire
11,000 bp: Over 2/3s of NA megafauna disappeared: Probably hunted out mastodon, mammoth, cave bear, woolly rhino, giant deer

b. Neolithic peoples impact continues: Tech changes that impact the environment include the first Domestication of Animals & the Beginning of Farming: 1st agricultural revolution
Both these result in desertification

(Late Stone Age) 10,000 bp
Coincides w/ end of last ice age
Impacts of Early Stone Age continue/increase
Grassy plain of No Africa becomes Sahara Desert which continues to grow today for the same reasons
Began the simplification of ecosystems: Monoculture: growing one species
People worshipped Earth, Sun, Rain

Biggest impact on environment:
fire: attract game,
herd & hunt,
deflect predators,
warmth,
encourage growth,
clear vegetation
Fire encourages growth of some species, discourage others

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Pre Empires Era

External
Links

4. Pre Empires Era circa 10 K BC - 3 K BC

Hearth societies & early settlements increased human impacts on nature

During the Pre-Empire Era,

- the production of surplus product became possible, i.e. for the first time people moved beyond subsistence living

- people began to settle in one place instead of being nomadic

- people developed tools such as the sickle, plow, yoke, wheel, pottery, irrigation

Early empires depended on irrigation

Early irrigation empires of Egypt, Mesopotamia & China experienced salinization of the ground

Mesopotamia: collapsed 4,000 bp: irrigation problems

Mayan (Central Am) & Anasazi (AZ) also affected by irrigation

Lands became deforested & farmed out

Early Mideast (Israel, Jordan, etc.) were lush plains & farm lands

Today: deserts

Early settlements ( hearth societies ) increased human's impact on nature because of increased population, affluence & technology related to urbanization & the spread of "civilization" i.e. agriculture

A Surplus product became possible

The primary new technology was irrigation:
Early irrigation empires experienced salinization of the ground

Deforestation & land depletion begins in hearth areas

Top

Table on the Proportion of Types of Energy Use in the US

Type of fuel

% used

oil

coal

nat gas

biomass

hydro-electric

nuclear fission

other (solar, geothermal, etc.)

< 1

The Table on the Proportion of Types of Energy Use in the US that over one third of US energy is in the form of oil and just under one quarter is in the form of coal

Top

Table on the Costs & benefits of energy production

Coal

Nuclear

Hydroelectric

Solar

Tidal

Oil

Biomass

Geothermal

Wind

Nat gas

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Early Empires Era

External
Links

5. Early Empires Era circa 3 K BC - 200 BC

During the Early Empire Era, there was an increase in population, affluence, & technology

During the Early Empire Era, there was a big quantitative change in environmental impact as the population increased & ag technology increased

During the early empire era, there was little qualitative change in environmental impact; the changes were incremental

The qualitative changes in technologies such as irrigation, road building, farming, & an increase in urbanization had impacts on nature

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Roman Era

External
Links

6. The Roman Era circa 200 BC - 500 AD

During the Roman era there was an increase in population, affluence, & technology

During the Roman era, there was a big quantitative change in environmental impact as the population increased & ag technology increased

During the Roman era, there was little qualitative change in environmental impact; the changes were incremental

As a result of the quantitative changes, many regions experience deforestation & depletion of farmland

Example: After the Italian peninsula was deforested, most farmland was suitable only for grazing or raising olives

Archeological ecologists believe a similar deforestation occurred in the area of modern Israel, Syria, etc. & thus these areas are mostly deforested & suitable only for grazing or crops such as grapes or olive

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Middle Ages

External
Links

7. THE MIDDLE AGES circa 500 - 1300

EUROPE EXPERIENCED 'THE DARK AGES' AS A RESULT OF THE FALL OF ROME; ENVL IMPACT IS LOW UNTIL THE END OF THE MID AGES WHEN AG TECHNIQUES, TRADE, & INDUSTRY EMERGE

During the early middle ages, the population, affluence & technology decreased in Europe & so environmental impact does not grow that much

However, around the yr. 1000, population, technology, & affluence all take a big leap

Europeans' early impact on nature increases greatly at end of Middle Ages because of new ag tech, the growth of urbanization, & the beginning of merchant craft production

Europeans' impact on nature increases greatly at the end of Mid Ages

During this era, population increased from 36 mm in 1000 AD to 80 mm by 1300 AD

During this era, deforestation in Euro & the mideast reduced forest coverage from 90% to 20%

During this era, farmers had developed crop rotation which increases production & allows ag & population to expand

A common envl impact was sewage polluting rivers & streams & air pollution from many wood burning fire places & stoves

THE MIDEAST CONTINUED STEADY GROWTH & THE ENVL IMPACT IS STEADILY GREATER

The mideast under Islamic rule continues it's growth & environmental impact at a steady compared to the stagnation in Euro, often called the 'Dark Ages'

Population, affluence, & tech continue growth in Mid Ages in the mideast

Many Islamic countries economies were based on low impact herding & grazing & so did not exploit env to the extent that Roman Empire did

But the Roman demand for tribute & goods from its provinces, which tapered off during this era as Rome lost influence, resulted in a high envl impacts

See Also the Next Era: The Early Industrial Era aka Colonial Period circa 1300 - 1700

Link

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Early Industrial Age

External
Links

8. EARLY INDUSTRIAL AGE aka Colonial Period circa 1300 - 1700

Disease & colonization combined to create virgin soil epidemics especially via Colombian Exchange, i.e. the Old & New World

Flora & fauna were both intentionally & accidentally spread resulting in, from the human perspective, both fruitful & destructive species expansions

DISEASE ACCOMPANIED COLONIZATION RESULTING IN THE DECIMATION OF NEW WORLD PEOPLES

Virgin soil epidemics, esp via the Colombian Exchange include:

smallpox
measles
chicken pox
whooping cough
typhus

typhoid fever
bubonic plague
cholera
scarlet fever

malaria
yellow fever
diphtheria
influenza

Due to virgin soil epidemics, the population was cut by 50 % in many cases, mostly in the Americas

Disease killed more Am Indians than did the wars; 20 mm : compared to 2 mm

To the extent that some disease, such as small pox, was intentionally spread, this constitutes genocide

PLANT & ANIMAL INVASIONS RESULTED IN SOME SPECIES DESTROYING OTHERS, & WHILE SOME SPECIES PRODUCTIVELY EXPANDED THEIR NICHE

Flora & fauna that were transported to the new world included wheat, sugarcane, horses, cattle, pigs
Rats, dandelions, thistle, starlings
Kudzu, thistle, starlings

Flora & fauna that was transported from the new world included corn, potatoes, tobacco, cocoa, tomatoes, cotton

See Also the Next Era: The Industrial Age circa 1700 - present

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Industrial Age

External
Links

9. INDUSTRIAL ERA circa 1700 - present

THE INDUSTRIAL ERA HERALDS QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE EXPANSION OF THE EFFECTS OF EXPONENTIALLY EXPANDING HUMAN INFLUENCE ON THE ENV, BUT ALSO HERALDS THE FIRST MAJOR ENVIRONMENTALISM

During the industrial era the quantum leap in industrial population, affluence & technology increases humanity's environmental impact & env values emerge

Parallel to industrialization, environmental values emerge in a manner that is distinct from the early religious values of environmentalism

Hazardous waste production expands polluting the air, water & land

Workers become increasingly exposed to hazardous materials & toxic chemicals, polluted workplaces, etc.

Entire communities & regions are significantly defoliated as seen in the toxic fogs in London

Entire regions around the world are logged out

Entire regions have their soil depleted or become susceptible to mono cultural problems such as the potato famine

Air, water, & soil pollution in the world's major cities & industrial regions portends decades of such human destruction

Extinctions of flora & fauna expands as industry & urban development expand

Rapid population expansion & migration results in major changes in eco regions due to human development

See Also the Next Era: Global Capitalism circa 1910 - present

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Era of Global Capitalism

External
Links

- Project: Your Energy Consumption

Link

10. THE ERA OF GLOBAL CAPITALISM circa 1910 - present

RESOURCE USAGE

During the era of global cap, modern energy use skyrockets
The core countries technologies uses the most energy overall, & the most energy per capita
The Industrialized world has    25 % of the population & uses   90 % of the resources
The US has                             5 % of the population & uses    25 % of the resources
China has                              25 % of the population & uses      6 % of the resources

Most of the core nations use mostly nonrenewable resources such as fossil fuels, & nuclear fission

Renewable energy sources include hydroelectric, solar, wind, geothermal, & theoretically nuclear fusion

1.3 bb tons of coal took 1 mm yrs. for nature to create

Energy use today is 4x 1950 level & 20 x 1850 level

Peripheral nations have 4x the population but uses only 1/3 the energy as the core nations

Energy use in the periphery is expected to surpass the core nations by 2020

Link

The Table on the Proportion of Types of Energy Use in the US that over one third of US energy is in the form of oil and just under one quarter is in the form of coal

Link

What are Costs & benefits of energy production?

LAND CONVERSION

Land use change: how do we use lands differently today?

Land Use Changes have occurred on Forests Cultivated Land Grassland Wetlands Settlement Areas Remote Areas (e.g. the Arctic)

There are FIVE types of land conversion:
Urbanization, Rural Development, Desertification, Deforestation, Wetland Loss, Degradation

Land conversion is occurring at an unprecedented rate since in this era humankind has the ability to affect tremendous swaths of land

We have modified most of the land in the world

We have urbanized ever larger areas, paving over a large % of the land

We have deforestation: large tracts of land w/ the permanent clearing & destruction of forests

Rain Forests from have been reduced from 7 % to 3 % of the Earth's surface

Through land modification, urbanization, rural development, deforestation, desertification, wetland drainage, etc. there is a large loss of biological diversity which is equivalent to 'great extinctions' of the past

We are experiencing a loss of O2 & an increase of CO2

Desertification is the degradation of land cover & damage to soil resulting in conversion to desert conditions

We are experiencing wetland loss in that of 3.3 mm square mi, 1.5 mm have been converted

GLOBAL CHANGE

Many people fear global changes in the env, such as a shrinkage of glaciers, because they seem to represent the parakeet in the coal mine syndrome

The combination of political, econ, soc, historical, & envl problems are now clearly occurring on a world scale

The concept of 'environmental justice' denotes the understanding that the poor are more susceptible to envl degradation than better off people

As the semi peripheral & the peripheral nations grow, i.e. industrialize, their environmental quality rapidly decreased

Thus, major conflict over environment btwn "North & South" is developing because we are all competing over scarce resources & we recognize that pollution & other forms of envl degradation affect the entire planet

Top

Table on the Proportion of Types of Energy Use in the US

Type of fuel

% used

oil

coal

nat gas

biomass

hydro-electric

nuclear fission

other (solar, geothermal, etc.)

< 1

The Table on the Proportion of Types of Energy Use in the US that over one third of US energy is in the form of oil and just under one quarter is in the form of coal

Top

Table on the Costs & Benefits of Types of Energy Use

Coal

Nuclear

Hydroelectric

Solar

Tidal

Oil

Fusion

Geothermal

Wind

Biomass

Nat gas

Hydrogen Cell

Ethanol

Top

Internal
Links

Outline on the Human Impact on Nature during the Post Industrial Era

External
Links

11. THE POST INDUSTRIAL ERA 1970 - present

Core countries begin transition to service & hi-tech industry

During the post-ind age, there is a beginning of improvement in environmental quality in core countries

Env'lism creates a mvmt of toward cleaner technology

The traditional smokestack industries are "deindustrialized," i.e., moved to foreign countries

Peripheral & semi-peripheral nations begin a period of rapid industrialization

As peripheral & semi-peripheral nations industrialize, their level of pollution & env'l degradation increases dramatically

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Future & Human Impact on Nature

External
Links

12. THE FUTURE

As is clear from the env'l debate among politicians, industry oriented people, recreationists, the media, the govt, the env'ists, & the general public, the direction of the environment is uncertain

Some envl trends are clear

Core nations are using less energy per capita than in the past, but the increase in their population means that they use more energy overall

Urban sprawl, development, etc. all continue to increase

Clearly env'l technologies such as mass transit, ultra insulation, total conservation & recycling, etc. are not being developed

The peripheral & semi-peripheral nations are experiencing industrial revolutions that are having a greater impact on the env than did the core nations ind rev

While the per capita energy use in the peripheral & semi peripheral nations is less than half of that in the core nations, their energy use is increasing dramatically

Urban sprawl & development in general continue to explode in the peripheral & semi peripheral nations

Envl impact may be decreasing in particular ways as seen as core nations developing less polluting technologies for basic industries

Envl impact may be decreasing because current population predictions, while dire, are running at the lowest level out of a three level analysis of worst, middle, & least case growth scenarios

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Technology

External
Links

Technology includes the mechanical, industrial or applied sciences & their instruments, including their methods & procedures

Tech includes mechanical, industrial or applied sciences & their instruments

Tech includes methods & procedures

Tech includes physical apparatus & knowledge used to produce & solve problems

Tech includes physical objects, such as computers, activities such as email, & knowledge such as how to email texts & images

Tech & organizational structure are two sides of the same coin in that the social relations of production determine the type of, & the utilization of a particular technology in an environment of particular labor mgt relations

Tech & the org structure of labor mgt relations in which it is embedded may discussed separately but it must be noted that many theorists disagree on whether technology determines org structure & the social relations of production, or whether the social relations of production determine technology

Techl determinism is often misused as a justification for particular social relations of production that are to the advantage of mgt & the disadvantage of Labor

See Also: The Mode of Production & the Forces of Production & the Social Relations of Production

TECHNOLOGY & THE ENVIRONMENT

I = PATE
Humans' Impact on the environment is a function of a Population, their Affluence/wealth, Technology & Environmental values

Technological systems are specialized: info, transportation, manufacturing, agriculture, etc.

The Core Countries technologies uses the most energy:
The Industrialized world has 25 % of the population & uses 90 % of the resources
The US has world has has 5 % of the population & uses 25 % of the resources
China has world has has 25 % of the population & uses 6 % of the resources

Core countries use more resources

Core countries pollute less partially because they export toxic industrial processes & waste

The U.S. consumes 42% of the hydrocarbons (oil, gas, oil, coal), 38% of the molybdenum, 21% of the lead, 19% of the copper, & 15% of the zinc produced globally

Technology now changes the global environment through the harvesting of resources, waste in manufacturing, waste in consumption ( waste includes pollution )

How does the coal commodity chain affect the environment?

Corporations can now move mountains, affecting 10s of square miles all the while using less labor than in the mines of the early 1900s

Today's mines make less water pollution via catching ponds & settling ponds, per ton of coal mined

Burning coal today makes less air pollution per ton of coal because of scrubbers & other technologies

	Key natural resources are shaped by technology as is seen in cultivated land vs. natural landscape, energy development as a forest of well heads, mineral mining & strip mines, mountain top removal, deep mines, etc.
blank	Natural resources & technology do not guarantee wealth nor does a shortage of them relegate a nation to poverty as seen in the natural wealth of South Africa & Russia, & the lack of natural wealth in Japan & England
blank	There are THREE fundamental types of technology including operations, materials, & knowledge technology
blank	a. Operations technology includes the people & machines that produce & the set of rules that governs their operations
blank	b. Materials technology is any thing used in production
	Materials may be natural or human made & may be new or old, but used in a new way
	Materials used in one workplace affects others in that they may be subcomponents for another process of production: e.g. plastic to microchips
blank	c. Knowledge technology is the body of truths, facts, or information accumulated by humanity in the course of time as based in production
blank	There are FOUR technology stages including simple tool, craft, mass production, & high technology
blank	1. Simple tool technology includes the use of no tools, i.e. only operations & knowledge tech, to the use of stone & bone, to the use of baskets & other early technologies
	The division of labor w/ simple tool technology was stratified primarily & only by gender & age
blank	2. Craft technology includes the use of more advanced tools which require greater materials & knowledge to manufacture
	Craft tech includes clay fired pots, porcelain, bronze, wheels & gears, etc. as well as the tech to produce such tech such as mining of iron, copper & tin to make bronze
	The division of labor w/ craft technology was stratified primarily by skill & craft as in apprentice, journeyman, & craftsman in masonry or silver smithing
blank	3. Mass production technology includes the utilization of highly specialized tools & services integrated into mechanized production operation
	With mass production tech, knowledge is advanced via the crafts as well as universities
	The division of labor w/ mass production technology was stratified primarily by the wage system into workers & mgt., but also by industry
	4. High technology is knowledge based tech that today is based in computer & biotech technology
	High tech allows for the refinement & exact control of mass production & service industries
	Daniel Bell (1976) argues in the Coming of Post-Industrial Society that new knowledge based technology is transforming the nature of society as knowledge becomes the central resource in society
	Bell believes that the economy is becoming knowledge intensive rather than capital intensive
	For Bell, knowledge replaces capital as central resource in society
	For Bell, in post industrial society, there is a shift from goods production to services production
	But the services have remained labor intensive & low paying
	The epitome of the high tech business is Microsoft whose power comes from a pattern of zeros & ones
	While the core has indeed shifted to high tech & service industries, production has not decreased at all, it has merely shifted to the semi periphery & the periphery
	With high tech, mass production industry, workers in the late 20th C produce more goods, & a greater variety of goods, than was ever before possible
	With high tech, mass production industry comes the possibility of shorter hours, increased safety, greater employment security, & material abundance for all of society; yet none of this has come to pass
	The organization of the economic social structure of society, & society itself have shaped the implementation of technology & the distribution of rewards in such a way that some people are excluded from the benefits of increase productivity
	There is the widespread misconception that technology dictates the organization of work
	While tech could bring an end to alienated labor, technology can deskill or increase the skill required, or routinize or provide variety on the job
Link	The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

Top

The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

                     | Machine                  *         Assembly
                     | Tending              *        *     Line
                     |                        *                *
                     |                  *                            *
                     |               *                                    *
Level of         | Craft   *                                          *       Continuous
Alienation      |         *                                                  *    Process
                     |     *                                                           *
                     | *                                                                    *
                     |*________________________________________*_
                      Printing      Textiles         Autos        Chemicals

The End

Top