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The Environment & the Social Sciences | ||||
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Nature |
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Human Nature | ||||
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Species Being | ||||
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Society | ||||
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Development of the Human Conception of Nature | ||||
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- The Hunter-Gatherer Era circa 1.5 mm BC - 10 K BC | ||||
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- The Pre-Empires Era circa 10 K BC - 3 K BC | ||||
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- The Early Empires Era circa 3 K BC - 200 BC | ||||
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- The Roman Era circa 200 BC - 500 AD | ||||
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- The Middle Ages circa 500 AD - 1300 AD | ||||
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- Early Industrial Age aka the Colonial Period circa 1300 - 1700 | ||||
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- The Industrial Age circa 1700 - present | ||||
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- The Era of Global Capitalism circa 1910 - present | ||||
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- The Post-Industrial Age circa 1970 - present | ||||
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- The Future | ||||
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Religion & Nature | ||||
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The Human Impact on Nature | ||||
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- The Hunter-Gatherer Era | ||||
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- The Pre-Empire Era | ||||
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- The Early Empire Era | ||||
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- The Roman Era | ||||
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- The Middle Ages | ||||
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- The Early Industrial Age | ||||
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- The Industrial Age | ||||
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- The Era of Global Capitalism | ||||
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- The Post-Industrial Age | ||||
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- The Future | ||||
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Technology |
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- Project: Your Philosophy of Nature |
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Nature is the physical universe & the forces that change it |
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The physical aspects of nature include the earth, wind, fire, space, plants, animals, etc. |
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From a holistic view of nature, people are a part of nature |
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Wonderful diversity of flora, fauna, geography, weather, etc. |
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Nature has physical aspects |
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Nature has social aspects |
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From a social perspective, the qualities of an object always depend on the "location" of the observer |
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Surprisingly, this is now also a principle of quantum physics |
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The qualities of nature depend on your relationship to it such as seen
in a tree being:
- wood to a carpenter - beauty to a poet - shade to a traveler - habitat to a bird lover |
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Wilderness is waste, beauty, solitude, habitat |
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Social ideas about nature shape the kinds of questions we ask about it |
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Environmental crises are social problems, as much as physical |
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Our understanding of nature is a product of our world view and our relationship to it (needs) |
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There are TWO types of human relationships w/ nature |
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1. Our "natural" relationship: We are part of nature because we are
just another Species
"Good" caretaker "Bad" utilizer |
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Human culture should not be seen as a separate category from genetic behaviors, in that culture to a part of our species being |
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However we have many parts of our culture that are unique to us as humans |
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Our culture, just as any other capacity, is our set of capacities which enable us to make sense of our natural and social world, and our places within it |
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2. Our reciprocal relationship: We relate in a reciprocal way
to our environment:
It acts on & changes us and we act on & change it |
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We relate in a reciprocal way to our environment: It acts on & changes us and we act on & change it |
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A large part of the problem of the nature/human dualism comes from our view of value/culture free science as being able to determine objective facts |
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SOCIETY IS A GROUP W/ IDENTITY, W/ SHARED AUTHORITY, W/ COMMON AREA, IN AN ENVIRONMENT | ||||||||||||
Society is the people & sum of inventions, institutions, relationships, created & reproduced by humans |
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SOCIETY HAS THE EIGHT QUALITIES OF GILAGECS | ||||||||||||
1. SOCIETY IS MADE OF GROUPS | ||||||||||||
We will see the menagerie of social institutions, made up of groups....
And yet we see our culture as ONE In some respects, we are groups of groups of groups... a group is its own society |
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2. SOCIETY HAS A DISTINCT IDENTITY | ||||||||||||
Self awareness is an important part of consciousness | ||||||||||||
A society, a culture must recognize itself before anyone else can recognize it | ||||||||||||
3. SOCIETY HAS A COMMON LANGUAGE | ||||||||||||
Language once was one of the most powerful indicators of what society someone belonged to, but today, language is less & less important | ||||||||||||
The globe is experiencing a 'concentration of languages,' i.e. many languages are disappearing & a few are coming to dominate | ||||||||||||
4. A SOCIETY HAS A SHARED AUTHORITY | ||||||||||||
Most societies rely on political authority, & there is a general transition from violent / authoritarian authority to rule of law / democracy & bureaucracy | ||||||||||||
5. SOCIETY HAS A COMMON GEOGRAPHIC AREA | ||||||||||||
Today, most societies have an identity w/ national borders, but nations & societies are socially permeable, i.e. not exact | ||||||||||||
Geography & location is becoming less of a factor on societies as technology & transportation expand | ||||||||||||
We now have a "world society" in that some parts of society are known the world over | ||||||||||||
6. SOCIETY IS IN, AS WELL AS SHAPED BY, THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT | ||||||||||||
While all species are shaped by the environment, there is wide debate on how much our environment shapes us | ||||||||||||
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7. SOCIETY HAS CULTURE WHICH IS THE MANIFESTATION OF KBVN | |||||||||||
Society has culture which is the content of society & culture is made up of a society's shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN ) | ||||||||||||
8. SOCIETY HAS SOCIAL STRUCTURE WHICH IS THE FORM OF SOCIETY AS MANIFESTED IN PF REG M CEML | ||||||||||||
The physical environment influences the nature of social structures
in society ( PF REG M CEML )
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Below are three examples of how various social structures are located
in particular geographic areas & are actually shaped by the physical
environment
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THE PRIMARY DIFFERENCE BTWN MODERN & NON MODERN SOCIETY IS RATIONAL & TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY, RESPECTIVELY | ||||||||||||
Modern society:
- is relatively self contained - is aware of it's identity - has a common geographic area - has a shared authority, which is primarily rational authority |
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Non modern society is essentially the same as modern society except it is smaller, more ethnocentric, & has traditional authority | ||||||||||||
The concept of society is an abstraction in that society is not something you can see or touch because is is not just people, but their relationships |
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In everyday life, nature seems to be a nearly immutable force; i.e. a presence that is ever present & unchangin | |||||
From the perspective of the social sciences, nature has changed radically over the centuries of human development | |||||
From the perspective of the social sciences, the human conception of nature have change radically over the centuries of human development | |||||
The development of the human conception of nature has paralleled the physical changes that humans have made upon nature | |||||
Humanities conception of nature has embraced a variety of widely divergent understandings, ideologies of nature | |||||
The human conception of nature ranges from one of being part of nature, to one of seeing nature as a thing to be exploited, to one of seeing nature as a child to be protected to one of a secret garden to be preserved |
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3. THE HUNTER GATHERER ERA circa 1.5 mm BC to 10 K BC | |||||
Hunter Gatherers...
- had matriarchal gender relationships & viewed nature itself as a god or gods - had diverse views on god & nature - believed nature was to be respected or even feared - believed nature was the source of all life - had people who saw themselves in nature |
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Animism is the doctrine which holds that the soul or spiritual body exists in a material universe |
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For Animists...
- animate & inanimate objects have a spirit - nature cannot be separated from supernatural - human are extensions of this spirit - humans cannot be separated from nature - a sense of kinship existed btwn humans & nature |
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Today anthropologists believe that the first god was the female moon who was powerful because she told of coming of seasons, the cycle of months, & more | |||||
Anthropologists believe after the female moon, the god of the male sun was predominant, then the earth, & then a series of human gods & goddesses | |||||
The male sun gained significance as the importance of agriculture grew | |||||
The earth gained significance & the trees, streams, rivers, plants, mountains, etc. all became endowed w/ god-hood | |||||
The earth god was known as Gaea & the sun god was known as Raa | |||||
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PAGANISM | ||||
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Paganism is the worship of a pantheon of personified gods | ||||
Paganists often believed in the personification of animistic powers | |||||
The ancient "hearth" societies of Egypt, Greek, Rome, etc., were pagan | |||||
Some traditional societies are still paganistic, poly-theistic, today | |||||
Examples of Paganism
Examples: Greek & Roman gods Poseidon: god of ocean Thor: god of thunder, etc. |
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The Gods had human qualities | ||||
People & gods & nature are all alike conflict, struggle among all, e.g. struggle btwn people-nature-gods | |||||
Each pagan god has emotions, desires, histories such as seen in the idea of jealous gods, or an angry storm.... | |||||
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The envl effects of animism & paganism were good & bad | ||||
THE ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS & COSTS OF H-G SOCIETY & PAGANISM | |||||
Anthropologists believe these religious beliefs had beneficial ecological effects on humanity & ecology | |||||
The ecological benefits of H-G society & paganism include the:
- regulation of harvesting plants & animals to reduce over exploitation - regulation of consumption such as pork & trichinosis - use of fire to develop land |
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The ecological costs of H-G society & paganism include:
- desertification - the extinction plants & animals such as the woolly mammoth |
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Animism & polytheism continued in early Egypt, Greece, Syria, China, India |
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4. THE PRE EMPIRES ERA circa 10 K BC to 3 K BC | |||||
Agriculture develops & ...
- supplants H & G as the major means of subsistence - patriarchy supplants matriarchy - creates the first surplus of products - dev the idea that nature is to be conquered which continues through modern western culture |
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During the Pre Emps Era,
- there is the first separation of people from nature - there is the belief that some people and/or societies are inferior - the idea of progress is conceived |
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The relationships Pre Emps societies have w/ nature are parallel to, i.e. mutually interdependent w/ the relationships that they have w/ other societies & w/ people as individuals | |||||
In general, if a society is exploitative toward nature, it is exploitative toward societies & people; & vice versa | |||||
In general, if a society lives in harmony w/ & respects nature, it also has just relations w/ other societies & people; & vice versa | |||||
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Animism & polytheism continue to evolve in the hearth societies of early Egypt, Greece, Syria, China, India, et al | ||||
EARLY MONOTHEISM | |||||
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Early monotheism develops, esp Judaism | ||||
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The 1st know monotheism was the worship of Raa, the Egyptian sun god | ||||
The monotheistic worship of one god over all was very controversial & the Pharaoh had to "cleanse" society of pagan gods & symbols | |||||
After the dynasty which advocated the monotheistic worship of Raa, even though it was "cleansed," polytheism return | |||||
Judaism develops in the Pre Empires Era & eventually develop the monotheism which eventually evolves into the Judaism, Christianity, & Islam as we know them today | |||||
Abraham left Mesopotamia btwn 1800 & 1500 BC | |||||
Moses received 10 Commandments circa 1200 BC | |||||
The Torah, i.e. the Old Testament, is written circa 1000 BC | |||||
THE ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS & COSTS OF MONOTHEISM | |||||
Judeo Christianity & nature: | |||||
Contrary to the pagan tradition, Greeks & Western civilization 1st viewed people as separate from nature | |||||
For early monotheists, god is above nature, & separate separate from it | |||||
For early monotheists, nature was created by god | |||||
For early monotheists, people were created by god in his image | |||||
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For early monotheists, humans are also above nature, separate from it, & charged w/ ruling over nature |
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Under Judeo Christianity, people have 'dominion' over nature | |||||
The meaning of ‘dominion?’ in the Judeo Christian tradition is disputed in that some believe it means exploitation, while others believe it means care taking | |||||
Some monotheists exploit / control nature as we would an animal | |||||
Some monotheists care for / nurture nat as we would a child | |||||
Because we are seen as separate from nature, the idea of "wilderness" develops to denote the difference btwn humanized civilization, & that unconquered area | |||||
In the Post Indl Era, the concept of wilderness comes to mean largely, a preserve, or isolated natural area | |||||
In the previous H G Era, people had largely been in nature, & their religion reflected oneness w/ nature, while people in the Pre Emps Era, nature is ' out there;' i.e. we are separate from it | |||||
In the Pre Emps Era, nature is also in us in the form of emotions, sexuality, etc. | |||||
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The idea of nature being in us continues today, though w/ variations |
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Both nature 'out there' & 'deep w/in' are to be conquered / controlled |
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Nature is seen as “the other,” as evil, immature, unsocialized & so must be tamed / socialized |
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5. THE EARLY EMPIRES ERA 3 K BC to 200 BC | ||||
Taoism is one of the three primary religions of China, w/ Confucianism & Buddhism being the other two | |||||
Taoism...
- was founded on the doctrines of Lao-tsze (b. 604 BC) - values nature for its own sake - holds that we are not separate from nature, we are not above it |
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Buddhism follows the teaching of Buddha, aka "The Enlightened One" who was Siddhartha Gautama | |||||
Gautama lived in India in the 6th C BC | |||||
Buddhism holds that life is an evil or at the least, an illusion | |||||
For Buddhists, nirvana is the end to the cycle of reincarnation, something akin to Christianity's heaven | |||||
BUDDHISM & NATURE | |||||
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Buddhism holds that |
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- in nature, & life in general, everything is connected & thus exists in a state of mutual interdependence | |||||
- if we harm or exploit nature & we harm or exploit ourselves | |||||
- we have a higher level of consciousness than nature | |||||
- because harm to nature is harm to ourselves & because we have a higher level of consciousness than nature, it is therefore our responsibility to care for nature |
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6. The Roman Era circa 200 BC to 500 AD | |||||
Christianity emerges & becomes a world religion | |||||
As Christianity emerges in the Roman Era, there is little change in relationship w/ nature | |||||
Circa 300 AD, during the Roman Era, the Bible is written, esp the New Test | |||||
During the Roman Era, there is little change in relationship w/ nature | |||||
For Christians & Romans in the Roman Era, nature & human nature are wild, and, or evil & must be conquered |
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7. The Middle Ages circa 500 to 1300 | ||||
During the Middle Ages, there is little change in the relationship of societies & people w/ nature | |||||
Islam emerges circa 800 AD & becomes a world religion
Islam is the religious system of Mohammed (570-632 AD) The Koran was written circa 800 AD The word Islam connotes the "submission to the will of Allah (god)" Islam is compatible w/, & builds on the doctrines of Judeo-Christianity |
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Islam's view on nature is close to the Judeo-Christian view on nature | |||||
For Islamists, Allah created Heaven & Earth to serve humanity but humans are sovereign over nature | |||||
The abuse of Earth is opposed & some believe that people should show stewardship & respect, but as in Christianity, this dictum is interpreted in many ways |
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8. The Early Industrial Age is aka the Colonial Period which occurred circa 1300 - 1700 | |||||
During the early industrial age, the concept of manifest destiny is developed | |||||
Manifest Destiny is the doctrine that humans should explore & conquer nature | |||||
During the early industrial age, the doctrine of manifest destiny held that it is the duty of humanity to domesticate both nature & "savages" | |||||
The doctrine of manifest destiny combines components of both imperialism & religion | |||||
Religion used as justification for imperialism against both people & nature |
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9. The Industrial Age experienced progressive reforms & conservationism circa 1700 - present | |||||
a. Early environmentalism developed & the manifest destiny philosophy lost ground | |||||
Peoples' concept of nature is separated from religious views as the concept of ecology develops | |||||
During the industrial age, ...
- the first movement of what we might recognize as environmentalism develops - sports & outdoors magazines bring public attention to the environment - there is rapid urban population growth - women became key actors in cleaning up the urban environment - women were also social force in race & gender relations |
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In 1866, the German scientist & philosopher Ernst Haeckel coins the term ecology, & it becomes a discipline | |||||
George Catlin first proposed idea of national parks in 1832 | |||||
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Henry David Thoreau
( 1817 - 1862 ) ...
- wrote Walden after he spent about 2 yrs in solitude on Walden Pond - is credited as the originator of American ecological philosophy - believed the natural world is an antidote to negative effects of modern life on our character - contributed to the school of Romanticism which was a reaction to materialist, empiricist views |
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The Romantics view of nature, e.g. Thoreau, et al, is in a certain sense, spiritual | |||||
On Civil Disobedience
What are you doing in there, What are you doing out there? |
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Frederick Law Olmstead: father of Central Park | |||||
First Arbor Day on April 10, 1872 | |||||
Sierra Club founded by John Muir in 1892 | |||||
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Theodore Roosevelt empowers the USFS, creates many National
Forests:
most of these were lands already decimated by development or thought to be too low quality or remote to be developed |
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TR had a strong sense that the natural resources of US were limited
TR was a hunter, an outdoors man, & a conservationist, not a preservationist |
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b. Progressive Reforms & Conservationism
( 1900 - 1945 )
1st national park Yellowstone: 1905 |
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Conservation: a doctrine of planned and efficient progress/use
of the environment
Splits into preservationists and conservationists |
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Preservationism: a doctrine advocating keeping areas preserved from human influence of all types: no use/development | |||||
John Muir: Preservationist: Advocates saving Yosemite, eventually become Nat. Park | |||||
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Gifford Pinchot:
Conservationist:
Convinced Roosevelt to establish National Forest System which became the USFS 1898: first FS chief: friend of Teddy Roosevelt |
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Influenced by European forest management
Attended Yale: managed forest of Vanderbilt in North Carolina |
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The Public Lands Question: Should there be public land
or should all land be privatized?
This question still very alive today |
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10. THE AGE OF GLOBAL CAPITALISM circa 1910 - present | |||||
a. THE AGE OF RECREATION & ECOLOGY Post - WW 2 to 1969 | |||||
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During the Age of Recreation & Ecology the public recognition of major envl issues began w/ air & water pollution, & the population explosion | ||||
NPS Director Conrad Wirth advocates a wish list of national park needs called Mission 66 which included a 10 year improvement plan | |||||
In the 1960s the battle btwn industrialists & "environmentalists" begins | |||||
Silent Spring is written by Rachel Carson, & The Population Bomb is written by Paul Ehrlich, & they become important books advancing the causes of the env mvmt | |||||
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During the Age of Global Capitalism, the US passes major envl legislation under Nixon which establishes the EPA |
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The 1960s experienced a flurry of activity around the env |
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The major theme around the env in the Age of Global Cap it that the fed govt must take major role in solving what was beginning to be called the envl crisis | |||||
The limited partnerships btwn feds & the states were recognized as insufficient to deal w/ the env because the envl crisis was a global issue | |||||
See Also: Env Law & Regs | |||||
b. EARTH DAYS & THE INDUSTRIAL RESPONSE circa 1970s & later | |||||
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'Earth days' & the "Environmental Movement" empowered a counter response: the soc mvmt of Industrial & Commercial Interests as a "check & balance" | ||||
When an issue becomes important enough to create a soc mvmt to address it, it is inevitable that a counter mvmt will arise | |||||
An example of the mvmt / counter mvmt phenomenon is MADD & DAMM | |||||
See Also: Social Mvmts | |||||
See Also: Counter Mvmts | |||||
Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson saw the Vietnam teach-ins & pledged $15,000 of his own $$ for an envl teach-in | |||||
The Stanford student body president Denis Hays was natl coordinator for the very 1st Earth Day, April 22, 1970 | |||||
Business & ind mobilized to slow pace of envl reg | |||||
Envl orgs were no longer the only game in town | |||||
The env mvmt covered a range of issues so broad that no one grp could deal w/ it all | |||||
For the 1st time issues had become matters not for public debate & legislation, but for admin choice | |||||
Politics became dominated by tech issues, placing a premium on the monetary resources necessary to command expertise | |||||
Admin & private corp institutes employed more tech people than did the envlists | |||||
RELIGION & NATURE IN THE AGE OF GLOBAL CAPITALISM | |||||
The role of religion in humanity's relationship to the env is diffuse & relegated to a general spirituality, & has little link w/ organized religion | |||||
Some branches of mainstream religion espouse views rooted in their religious texts that support an envlist view | |||||
Leaders such as James Watt, the Secretary of the Interior under Reagan, voice manifest destiny views that nature was put under man's command (sic) for man's benefit |
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12. THE FUTURE: ENVL ISSUES |
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THE BUSH JR ADMIN WAS EXPECTED TO NOT SEE THE ENV AS A PRIORITY | |||||
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As GW Bush is re-elected President in 2004 & taps Am's religious sentiment to mobilize his constituency & to frame the issues, religion slightly increased its relevance to the env debate |
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The general trend w/ relationship to the env remains toward one that is relatively secular & instrumental |
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People's concern & conception of nature probably will not change radically until major events encourage such a change |
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However, our conception of nature & our relationship to it are a function of both real events in the physical world as well as a function of our ideology or world view |
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The forces for envl & the forces for development will continue to attempt to shape our ideology & our conception of nature, & if one dominates, then a significant in our conception of nature & our relationship to it may occur |
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The present political, social, & cultural trends in physical development & ideology are toward development & away from envl |
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THE OBAMA ADMIN WAS EXPECTED TO SEE THE ENV AS A PRIORITY, BUT W/ HIS OWN FORM OF PRAGMATISM | |||||
The Obama admin was expected to move ahead on energy & global warming policy using mkt mechanisms based previously advocated by Republicans | |||||
The twin issues left for the Obama admin by the Bush Jr admin, i.e. the wars in Iraq & Afghan, & the recession, have left other issues in a secondary position & have dried up funding & political will | |||||
The American public is experiencing what social scientists call issue fatigue meaning that they just turn off when confronted w/ too many, too complex policy issues | |||||
IN THE LONG TERM, EXCEPT FOR PERIODS EXPERIENCING PARTICULARLY EGREGIOUS ENVL DISASTERS, THE ENV WILL REMAIN A SECOND TIER PRIORITY BEHIND THE ECON, NATL SECURITY, SOCIAL ISSUES, ET AL | |||||
Historically, the env as a public issue has manifested itself primarily after an envl disaster such as the Santa Barbara oil spill (1969), or when a powerful leader such as Teddy Roosevelt campaigns to make it an issue | |||||
It is not clear whether even 'secondary' envl crises such as Hurricane Katrina (2005) or the BP Gulf of Mexico oil spill (2010) have a significant impact on public opinion much less public policy related to the env | |||||
Envlists have long maintained that env problems are long term & behaviors today will have an env impact in the future which will prove to be devastating | |||||
Perhaps the oldest env issue is the population explosion as first analyzed by Malthus in the 1800s; he maintained that civilization as we know it would soon collapse because of rampant population growth which would outpace our ability to feed it & supply other resources | |||||
The threat of the population explosion was repackaged as the population bomb by Erlich in the 1960s, but again to most casual observers, this problem has not reached crisis point even though hunger & starvation plague over 1/6th of the world's population | |||||
Other 'classic' env issues such as the extinction of species, deforestation, pollution, toxic waste, etc. | |||||
These issues have had success, envlly speaking, only to the extent that they could be accomplished w/o getting in the way of the priorities of the econ & security | |||||
The biggest envl issue for the future is global warming & it too has not received much relief due to its conflict w/ the econ & security | |||||
Global warming is manifesting itself over a long period of time, which for humans means incremental change, but for the planet, it means radical change | |||||
The question for the future becomes, can humanity compromise its econ goals, achieve security, & have the vision to address global warming? |
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- Project: Your Impact on Nature |
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- Project: Env Solutions |
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I = PATE Humans' Impact on the environment is a function of Population, their Affluence/wealth, Technology & Environmental values |
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Before the hunter-gatherer era, as early as 6 mm bp, pre-human hominids inhabited the Earth, & they had little impact on the Earth, as much as any single species | ||||
Ancient humans' impact on nature was significant | |||||
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In general, single species who do manage to impact the env, "crash" in that they literally eat themselves out of house & home |
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Species, including humans, may over-populate & harm the env, & even affect it permanently, but these changes are seen as part of the natural order |
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3. Hunter-Gatherer Era circa 1.5 mm BC - 10 K BC | ||||
The first humans lived in H-G society | |||||
Paleolithic peoples' impact on environment
aka Early Stone Age |
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a. Paleolithic people's impact on nature was significant
Early humans' biggest & first technological impact on the environment was fire 11,000 bp: Over 2/3s of NA megafauna disappeared: Probably hunted out mastodon, mammoth, cave bear, woolly rhino, giant deer |
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b. Neolithic peoples impact continues: Tech changes that impact
the environment include the first Domestication of Animals & the Beginning
of Farming: 1st agricultural revolution
Both these result in desertification |
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(Late Stone Age) 10,000 bp
Coincides w/ end of last ice age Impacts of Early Stone Age continue/increase Grassy plain of No Africa becomes Sahara Desert which continues to grow today for the same reasons Began the simplification of ecosystems: Monoculture: growing one species People worshipped Earth, Sun, Rain |
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Biggest impact on environment:
fire: attract game, herd & hunt, deflect predators, warmth, encourage growth, clear vegetation Fire encourages growth of some species, discourage others |
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5. Early Empires Era circa 3 K BC - 200 BC | |||||
During the Early Empire Era, there was an increase in population, affluence, & technology | |||||
During the Early Empire Era, there was a big quantitative change in environmental impact as the population increased & ag technology increased | |||||
During the early empire era, there was little qualitative change in environmental impact; the changes were incremental | |||||
The qualitative changes in technologies such as irrigation, road building, farming, & an increase in urbanization had impacts on nature |
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6. The Roman Era circa 200 BC - 500 AD | ||||
During the Roman era there was an increase in population, affluence, & technology | |||||
During the Roman era, there was a big quantitative change in environmental impact as the population increased & ag technology increased | |||||
During the Roman era, there was little qualitative change in environmental impact; the changes were incremental | |||||
As a result of the quantitative changes, many regions experience deforestation & depletion of farmland | |||||
Example: After the Italian peninsula was deforested, most farmland was suitable only for grazing or raising olives | |||||
Archeological ecologists believe a similar deforestation occurred in the area of modern Israel, Syria, etc. & thus these areas are mostly deforested & suitable only for grazing or crops such as grapes or olive |
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7. THE MIDDLE AGES circa 500 - 1300 | ||||
EUROPE EXPERIENCED 'THE DARK AGES' AS A RESULT OF THE FALL OF ROME; ENVL IMPACT IS LOW UNTIL THE END OF THE MID AGES WHEN AG TECHNIQUES, TRADE, & INDUSTRY EMERGE | |||||
During the early middle ages, the population, affluence & technology decreased in Europe & so environmental impact does not grow that much | |||||
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However, around the yr. 1000, population, technology, & affluence all take a big leap | ||||
Europeans' early impact on nature increases greatly at end of Middle Ages because of new ag tech, the growth of urbanization, & the beginning of merchant craft production | |||||
Europeans' impact on nature increases greatly at the end of Mid Ages | |||||
During this era, population increased from 36 mm in 1000 AD to 80 mm by 1300 AD | |||||
During this era, deforestation in Euro & the mideast reduced forest coverage from 90% to 20% | |||||
During this era, farmers had developed crop rotation which increases production & allows ag & population to expand | |||||
A common envl impact was sewage polluting rivers & streams & air pollution from many wood burning fire places & stoves | |||||
THE MIDEAST CONTINUED STEADY GROWTH & THE ENVL IMPACT IS STEADILY GREATER | |||||
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The mideast under Islamic rule continues it's growth & environmental impact at a steady compared to the stagnation in Euro, often called the 'Dark Ages' |
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Population, affluence, & tech continue growth in Mid Ages in the mideast | |||||
Many Islamic countries economies were based on low impact herding & grazing & so did not exploit env to the extent that Roman Empire did | |||||
But the Roman demand for tribute & goods from its provinces, which tapered off during this era as Rome lost influence, resulted in a high envl impacts | |||||
See Also the Next Era: The Early Industrial Era aka Colonial Period circa 1300 - 1700 |
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8. EARLY INDUSTRIAL AGE aka Colonial Period circa 1300 - 1700 | |||||
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Disease & colonization combined to create virgin soil epidemics especially via Colombian Exchange, i.e. the Old & New World | ||||
Flora & fauna were both intentionally & accidentally spread resulting in, from the human perspective, both fruitful & destructive species expansions | |||||
DISEASE ACCOMPANIED COLONIZATION RESULTING IN THE DECIMATION OF NEW WORLD PEOPLES | |||||
Virgin soil epidemics, esp via the Colombian Exchange include:
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Due to virgin soil epidemics, the population was cut by 50 % in many cases, mostly in the Americas | |||||
Disease killed more Am Indians than did the wars; 20 mm : compared to 2 mm | |||||
To the extent that some disease, such as small pox, was intentionally spread, this constitutes genocide | |||||
PLANT & ANIMAL INVASIONS RESULTED IN SOME SPECIES DESTROYING OTHERS, & WHILE SOME SPECIES PRODUCTIVELY EXPANDED THEIR NICHE |
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Flora & fauna that were transported to the new world included wheat,
sugarcane, horses, cattle, pigs
Rats, dandelions, thistle, starlings Kudzu, thistle, starlings |
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Flora & fauna that was transported from the new world included corn, potatoes, tobacco, cocoa, tomatoes, cotton | |||||
See Also the Next Era: The Industrial Age circa 1700 - present |
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9. INDUSTRIAL ERA circa 1700 - present | |||||
THE INDUSTRIAL ERA HERALDS QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE EXPANSION OF THE EFFECTS OF EXPONENTIALLY EXPANDING HUMAN INFLUENCE ON THE ENV, BUT ALSO HERALDS THE FIRST MAJOR ENVIRONMENTALISM | |||||
During the industrial era the quantum leap in industrial population, affluence & technology increases humanity's environmental impact & env values emerge | |||||
Parallel to industrialization, environmental values emerge in a manner that is distinct from the early religious values of environmentalism | |||||
Hazardous waste production expands polluting the air, water & land | |||||
Workers become increasingly exposed to hazardous materials & toxic chemicals, polluted workplaces, etc. | |||||
Entire communities & regions are significantly defoliated as seen in the toxic fogs in London | |||||
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Entire regions around the world are logged out |
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Entire regions have their soil depleted or become susceptible to mono cultural problems such as the potato famine |
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Air, water, & soil pollution in the world's major cities & industrial regions portends decades of such human destruction | |||||
Extinctions of flora & fauna expands as industry & urban development expand | |||||
Rapid population expansion & migration results in major changes in eco regions due to human development | |||||
See Also the Next Era: Global Capitalism circa 1910 - present |
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11. THE POST INDUSTRIAL ERA 1970 - present | |||||
Core countries begin transition to service & hi-tech industry | |||||
During the post-ind age, there is a beginning of improvement in environmental quality in core countries | |||||
Env'lism creates a mvmt of toward cleaner technology | |||||
The traditional smokestack industries are "deindustrialized," i.e., moved to foreign countries | |||||
Peripheral & semi-peripheral nations begin a period of rapid industrialization | |||||
As peripheral & semi-peripheral nations industrialize, their level of pollution & env'l degradation increases dramatically |
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12. THE FUTURE |
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As is clear from the env'l debate among politicians, industry oriented people, recreationists, the media, the govt, the env'ists, & the general public, the direction of the environment is uncertain |
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Some envl trends are clear |
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Core nations are using less energy per capita than in the past, but the increase in their population means that they use more energy overall |
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Urban sprawl, development, etc. all continue to increase |
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Clearly env'l technologies such as mass transit, ultra insulation, total conservation & recycling, etc. are not being developed |
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The peripheral & semi-peripheral nations are experiencing industrial revolutions that are having a greater impact on the env than did the core nations ind rev |
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While the per capita energy use in the peripheral & semi peripheral nations is less than half of that in the core nations, their energy use is increasing dramatically |
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Urban sprawl & development in general continue to explode in the peripheral & semi peripheral nations |
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Envl impact may be decreasing in particular ways as seen as core nations developing less polluting technologies for basic industries |
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Envl impact may be decreasing because current population predictions, while dire, are running at the lowest level out of a three level analysis of worst, middle, & least case growth scenarios |
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The End
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