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 Review Notes on   TM 10:  Social Exchange, Network, & Rational Choice Theories
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  INTRODUCTION   
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           Positivism   
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           Behaviorism   
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           Social Psychology   
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 SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY   
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           Homans on Exchange Theory   
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           Homans' Methodology   
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           Blau on Exchange Theory   
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           Emerson on Exchange Theory   
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           Power Dependency Theory   
  NETWORK THEORY   
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           Networks   
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           Network Theory   
  RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY   
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           Philosophy of Rationality   
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           Rationality   
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           Rational / Classic Model of Decision Making   
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           Rational Choice Theory   
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           Communications Networks  
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           Rationalization   
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           Granovetter on the Strength of Weak Ties   
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           Mizruchi on Organizational Cohesion   
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           Burt's Structural Theory of Action   
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           Coleman on Rational Choice Theory   

 
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 Outline on  Positivism
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 Positivism is the belief that all knowledge consists of hard scientific laws of cause & effect in the material world 
 
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 Positivism is a variation of the philosophical theory called empiricism  
  Empiricism & positivism state that all knowledge is based on experience  
  There are two forms of positivism  
  Auguste Comte, a French philosopher, developed the first form of positivism in the 1800s  
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 The second form, known as logical positivism, originated during the 1920's in a group of philosophers called the Vienna Circle  
 
 Positivism was first popularized by Saint Simon   (1760-1825)  
 
 Saint-Simon believed the study of social phenomena should employ the same scientific techniques as the natural sciences
 
 
 August Comte (1787-1857) followed Saint-Simon (was his "secretary")  
 
 Mainstreamed idea of positivism aka positive philosophy to combat negative or critical view of French Enlightenment
 
 
 But Positivism was still synonymous w/ science
 
  Comte's positivism is based on his three stage evolutionary account of history  
  According to Comte, human thought goes through three stages: (1) theological, (2) metaphysical, & (3) positive or scientific  
  In the theological stage, people explain existence in terms of the actions of divine beings  
  In the metaphysical stage, explanations are sought in terms of basic causes &  principles  
  In the positive stage, people use the positive method to explain existence  
  This positive method consists of reasoning by reference to observation alone  
  Comte urged that the positive method be used for all scientific study, including the study of humanity  
  He argued that humanity should be studied through biology & sociology, a term he originated  
  Comte taught that progress should aim for sociocracy, a social state based on science & a new religion of humanity  
  Philosophers would govern this state according to the principles of positivism  
 
 There are FOUR principles of positivism including the belief in objectivity, the scientific method, that knowledge is neutral, & that all activity is natural  
  OBJECTIVITY  
  Objective, value free science & social science is possible  
  Knowledge is out there to be discovered  
  SCIENTIFIC METHOD  
  Positivism holds that a single scientific method is applicable to all fields of study
 
  Positivism takes the physical sciences as a standard of certainty & exactness for all schools
 
  According to positivism, the scientific method allows one to practice objective, value free science & social science  
  KNOWLEDGE IS NEUTRAL
 
  Belief that knowledge is inherently neutral
 
  Human values can be kept out of scientific work & research
 
  Scientists have no responsibility & no guilt
 
  Science does not advocate any specific form of social action
 
  THE "NATURAL" WORLD
 
  Positivism sees all activity, social, physical, natural, etc. as "natural"
 
  Example:  for Parsons & other functionalists, any behavior that exists is "functional" for society
 
  Positivist's view that all activity is "natural," does not mean it is "good" or "bad;" simply that it serves a purpose for society
 
  In relation to positivism's view that "natural" not implying "good" or "bad," Merton later developed the concept of the dysfunction which also does not imply "good" or "bad"  
  CRITIQUES  
  -  Positivism absolutizes facts  
  -  Positivism makes science appear infallible  
  -  Reifies the existing order   
  Reification is making something appear natural which is really the result of human action  
  -  Positivism begs question, "What is the purpose of society?" & the purpose of society must be known in order to decide if something is functional or not  
  - the general laws of science cannot be applied w/o question to humanity  
  - Positivism is content to judge the adequacy of means, but does nothing to judge ends making Positivism inherently conservative & incapable of challenging the status quo  
  -  we must judge both theory & practice, & positivism judges only theory  
  Logical positivism was developed by the Vienna Circle under the leadership of the German physicist & philosopher Moritz Schlick
 
  The Vienna Circle included the German philosopher Rudolf Carnap & several other leading philosophers & scientists
 
  The main doctrine of the logical positivists was a controversial idea called the verifiability criterion of meaning
 
 
 According to the verifiability criterion of meaning doctrine, all statements that cannot be verified by sense perception, except for provable statements of mathematics or logic, are meaningless nonsense  
  The Vienna Circle aimed to eliminate such unverifiable statements & ideas from science & philosophy
 
 
 Empiricism is a philosophical approach that views experience as the most important source of knowledge
 
 
 Empiricism is the philosophical outlook of most scientists
 
 
 Empiricists try to answer as many questions as possible by using information gathered by the senses
 
 
 Empiricists reject attempts to decide issues on the basis of pure reason or religious or political authority
 
 
 Empiricists disagree sharply about how experience is employed in the growth of knowledge
 
 
 One group of empiricists believes that experience gained through the senses is the source of all knowledge & that all legitimate knowledge must be verifiable by sense experience
 
 
 The view that knowledge must be verified developed from the philosophies of George Berkeley, David Hume, John Locke, & Bertrand Russell of Great Britain; & Ernst Mach & philosophers called the logical positivists in Austria
 
 
 Such empiricists rely on several presuppositions (assumptions) that have been challenged by critics
 
 
 One presupposition of logical positivism is that all legitimate statements must be derivable from sense experience
 
 
 However, critics of logical positivism have pointed out that science includes many laws that cannot be verified by experience alone
 
 
 A second presupposition of logical positivism states that sense observations are conclusive & free from theory so that theories can reliably be built on them
 
 
 However, critics say that all observations are influenced by scientific theory & so cannot provide a theory free basis for knowledge
 
 
 A third presupposition of logical positivism identifies what is real with what can be experienced through the senses
 
 
 The idea that reality can be experienced through the senses has led many empiricists to deny the existence of a world outside our perceptions
 
  Many scientists criticize the position of denying the existence of a world outside our perceptions because they think it runs counter to the spirit of science  
 
 Another group of empiricists believe that the role of sense experience & experimentation is not to justify, verify, or defend knowledge, instead, their role is to expose theories to sharp criticism
 
 
 Philosophers in this group include William Whewell of Great Britain, Charles Sanders Peirce of the United States, & Ludwig Boltzmann & Karl Popper of Austria
 
 
 Empiricists in this group concentrate on proving theories false, rather than true  
 
 Their approach enables them to distinguish between what is real & what can be experienced  
  As a result, scientific discussion is not limited to what can be observed  
  These empiricists say that many important theories in the history of science have been based on factors that, at least at first, could not be perceived  
  The theory of the atom is one example  
  See Also:   
  - Habermas on Positivism  
  The following theories are all known to have strong roots in positivism:  
  -  Behaviorism  
  -  Functionalism  
  -  Exchange Theory  
  -  Network Theory  
  -  Rational Choice Theory  

 
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 Outline on the Behaviorism
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  Behaviorism is the psychological school holding that objectively observable organismic behavior constitutes the essential or exclusive scientific basis of psycholigcal data & investigation & stressing the role of the environment as a determinent of human & animal behavior   
  Behaviorism explains human behavior entirely as a physiological response to environmental stimuli 
 
  One of the earliest theorists in behaviorism was Pavlov who trained his dog to salivate at the sound of a bell 
 
 
 Pavlov & Bekhterev developed the behavioristic concepts of the conditioned reflex 
 
  Pavlov's experiments with animals proved that certain reflex actions can become conditioned responses to entirely new stimuli   
  EARLY BEHAVIORISM:  PAVLOV & WATSON  
  Pavlov noticed that a dog's mouth begins to water as a reflex when the animal smells meat   
  Pavlov rang a bell each time he was about to give meat to a dog   
  Eventually, the dog's mouth began to water when Pavlov merely rang the bell   
  The flow of saliva had become a conditioned response to the ringing of the bell   
 
 As a major branch of psychology, behaviorism developed from research on learning 
 
 
 Today behavioral theories continue to emphasize the effects of learning on behavior 
 
 
 Behaviorism was introduced in 1913 by the American psychologist John B. Watson, who felt psychologists should study only observable behavior rather than states of consciousness or thought processes 
 
  Watson's approach to behaviorism was strongly influenced by the research of the Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov during the early 1900's   
 
 Watson developed behaviorism based on the mechanistic concepts of Democritus, Epicurus, & Hobbes 
 
 
 Watson believed changes in behavior result from conditioning, a learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a certain stimulus 
 
 
 Watson denied the value of introspection & consciousness as unscientific concepts 
 
 
 Watson saw all mental processes as bodily movements, even when those movements could not be observed 
 
 
 For Watson, verbal thinking is subvocal speech 
 
  Watson demonstrated that responses of human beings could be conditioned in a similar manner to the methodology of Pavlov's Dog   
  In one study, Watson struck a metal bar loudly each time an infant touched a furry animal   
  The sound of a metal bar which was struck as an infant touched an animal scared the child, who in time became frightened by just the sight of the animal   
  Watson felt he could produce almost any response in a child if he could control the child's environment   
  Watson is an advocate of what today is called Radical Behaviorism that is only concerned w/ observable behavior   
  RADICAL BEHAVIORISM:  BF SKINNER & OTHERS   
  Radical behaviorism focuses only on stimuli & responses & the resulting behavior   
  For radical behaviorism, mental processes were an unexamined black box   
  During the mid 1900's, the American behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner became known for his studies of how rewards and punishments can influence behavior   
  B.F. Skinner was an important behaviorist of the 1950s until the present who may also be considered a radical behaviorist   
  Skinner believed that rewards, or positive reinforcements, cause behavior to be repeated   
  Positive reinforcements might include praise, food, or simply a person's satisfaction with his or her own skill   
  Punishments discourage the behavior they follow but punishment also encourages people to avoid situations in which they might be punished   
  Skinner concluded that positive reinforcement is more effective in teaching new and better behaviors   
  Skinner's work led to the development of teaching machines, which are based on positive reinforcement   
 
 Behaviorists considered all emotions except fear, love, & rage as learned by conditioning, & thus they can be unlearned 
 
 
 Behaviorism was very influential in the US btwn the world wars 
 
 
 Behaviorists hold that ALL behavior is conditioned by the environment 
 
 
 The environment, which includes other people, gives people rewards & punishments, which are the stimulus 
 
 
 An operant conditioning schedule of rewards & punishment determines behavior 
 
 
 The behavior, that is elicited by a stimulus, is a response 
 
 
 In an operant conditioning schedule, 
 
 
 - rewards are the supplying of something valuable, or the removing of something unpleasant 
 
 
 - punishments are the supplying of something unpleasant, or the removing of something valuable 
 
 
 For behaviorism, consciousness is an artifact, meaning that it is not necessary to study it in order to understand behavior 
 
 
 In many ways, behaviorism is a 100% socialization theory in that genetics, & will power / consciousness have a minimal role 
 
 
 Behaviorists use a learning process called conditioning to change abnormal behavior 
 
 
 In this process, behaviorists treat disturbed people by teaching them acceptable behavior patterns and reinforcing desired behavior by rewards and punishments 
 
  SOCIAL BEHAVIORISM:  MEAD & COOLEY   
 
 Social behaviorism, as developed by Mead, the exchange theorists, network theorists, & rational choice theorist  diverges from strict or radical behaviorism in that mental process are seen as important 
 
 
 For the social behaviorists, radical behaviorism was too simplistic because it ignored the social context in which a given behavior occurred 
 
 
 For the social behaviorists, social theorists need to understand mental process to interpret behavior 
 
 
 Actors are not stimulus & response puppets, but dynamic, reactive actors 
 
 
 Social behaviorism (as for Mead) is concerned w/ operant conditioning 
 
 
 Social behaviorism has a strong influence on 
 
 
    Mead   
 
    Exchange Theory   
 
    Network Theory   
 
    Exchange Theory   
 
 Social behaviorism sees stimuli as reward & punishment schedules from the environment, from other actors, and from the actor themself 
 
 
 Social behaviorism examines the relationship btwn behavior and its effect on the environment and the actor's later behavior 
 
 
 Social behaviorism examines the learning process by which behavior is modified by its consequences 
 
 
 The social & physical environments are affected by an actor's behavior and act back:  i.e. give feedback 
 
 
 Feedback affects the actor's later behavior 
 
 
 Social behaviorism is concerned w/ the history of env feedback or consequences and the nature of present behavior 
 
 
 Past consequences of a behavior govern its present state 
 
 
 Social rewards have ability to strengthen or reinforce behavior 
 
 
 Social costs reduce the likelihood of behavior 
 
  Most psychologists agree with the behaviorists that environment influences behavior and that they should study chiefly observable actions   
  However, many psychologists object to pure behaviorism because they believe that it pays too little attention to such processes as reasoning and personality development   

 
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 Outline on  Social Psychology
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 Social psychology is an important subfield of both sociology & psychology that is concerned with the interaction of the individualw/ larger societal forces
 
  Social psychology is concerned w/ the interaction btwn the individual & society, w/ a particular emphasis on the influences of society & social grps on the thought & behavior of the individual  
  Social psychology is the study of the psychological basis of people's relationships w/ one another  
  Soc psych studies the social behavior of individuals & grps, w/ special emphasis on how behavior is affected by the presence or influence of other people  
  The units of analysis of soc psych include both the individual & the group  
  Soc psych differs from soc or psych in their respective goals, perspectives, methods & terminology  
  Social psychologists investigate such processes as communication, cooperation, competition, decision making, leadership, political behavior, & the formation of attitudes  
 
 In social psychology, sociology, psychology, experimental psychology, anthropology, & psychiatry meet
 
 
 Social psychology is concerned w/ the influence of family, school, church, & economic & political background on the individual
 
 
 Social psychology examines behavior patterns, the nature & forming of attitudes & ways of measuring & changing them
 
  Soc psych researchers tend to be very empirical & are often centered around laboratory experiments, while other researchers conduct research in both the lab & the field using both qualitative & quantitative research designs  
 
 Analyses of the effects of interracial & international relationships on the individual are also common
 
 
 Attempts are made in social psychology to adapt the techniques of the physical & biological laboratory to the measuring & describing of human behavior
 
  The first textbooks on social psychology were published in the early 1900s  
  Modern soc psych owes much to the behavioral psychologists of the 1930s, who called for the scientific study of observable behavior  
  Mead, an Am psychologist & philosopher, argued that people's ideas about themselves are developed through social contact  
  Kurt Lewin, a German born psychologist, investigated how individuals in groups are affected by other members  
  Both Mead & Lewin claimed that behavior depends primarily on how people interpret the social world  
  CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY  
In it's focus on the individual, soc psych examines how the thoughts, feelings, & behaviors of individuals are influenced by other people & by groups of people
  Soc psych emphasizes the immediate social situation, & the interaction btwn personal & situational variables  
  In it's focus on the individual, soc psych examines the behavior of the group, & thus examines such phenomena as interactions & exchanges at the micro level, & phenomena such as group dynamics & crowds at middle level  
  While there is a focus on the individual w/in the context of social structures & processes, such as social roles, race, class, socialization, etc.   
 
 Social psychologists have found that a dyadic relationship will be more likely to be established: when
 
 
 a.  the behavior is more rewarding to each
 
 
 b.  the behavior can be produced at a lower cost to each
 
 
 For social psychologists, power is central to any dyad
 
 
 In a dyad, one can affect the quality of the relationship of the other
 
 
 In a dyad, there is fate control, meaning that person A can affect outcomes for person B regardless of what person B does
 
 
 In a relationship, each person has a comparison level, where the individuals establish an absolute comparison of outcomes in the relationship to determine whether the relationship is worth it or not
 
 
 In a relationship, each person has a comparison level for alternatives where the individuals establish an relative comparison of outcomes in the relationship to determine whether the relationship is better than an alternative
 
 
 Social psychologists believe they can construct an outcome matrix that depicts all possible events in a dyad  
  American social psychologist Leon Festinger developed the theory that people become uneasy when they learn new information that conflicts with what they already believe  
  Festinger suggested that people would do much to avoid this uneasiness, which he called cognitive dissonance  
  To demonstrate Festinger's theory, researchers collected data showing that people who believe they are failures often avoid success, even when they can easily achieve it  
  For Festinger, success would conflict with their belief in themselves as failures  

 
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 Outline on  Social Exchange Theory
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  SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY EXAMINES THE METHODS OF, & THE INFLUENCING FACTORS IN THE EXCHANGE OF STATUS, PRESTIGE, SOCIAL REWARDS, & OTHER 'SOCIAL GOODS'  
 
 Social exchange theory ( SET ) has its roots in psychology, especially behaviorism, as well as economics, but builds on individual psychological relationships to develop & show the connection btwn the micro level, the group level, & the institutional level
 
  See Also:  Behaviorism  
 
"Social behavior is an exchange of goods, material goods but also non material ones, such as the symbols of approval or prestige. Persons that give much to others try to get much from them, and persons that get much from others are under pressure to give much to them. This process of influence tends to work out at equilibrium to a balance in the exchanges. For a person in an exchange, what he gives may be a cost to him, just as what he gets may be a reward, and his behavior changes less as the difference of the two, profit, tends to a maximum"
Homans, "Theories Used in Research"
  
  SET HOLDS THAT ACTORS ARE RATIONAL, EXPERIENCE DIMINISHING UTILITY, SEEK SOCIAL PROFIT, & MONITOR SOCIAL EXCHANGES  
  The basic tenets of SET include
 
  a.  actors, for whom events are beneficial, act rationally
 
  b.  actors become satiated & thus experience diminishing utility
 
  c.  actors seek "profitable relationships" which are those relationships where what the actor obtains has less value than what the actor gave to get it
 
  d.  there is a focus on the flows of exchanges
 
  A subfield of exchange theory is social dilemma theory which holds that:
 
  a.  if all members cooperate, all gain something, but some members may gain more than others
 
  b.  in a social dilemma, it may be beneficial for a particular member to not cooperate
 
  c.  it may be beneficial for the group for a particular member to not cooperate
 
 
 Example:  a slow or violent person
 
 
 The subfields of exchange theory include decision theory, cognitive science, social dilemma theory, & more
 
  SET explains social change & stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties  
  All human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost benefit analysis & the comparison of alternatives  
  When a person perceives the costs of a relationship as outweighing the perceived benefits, then the theory predicts that the person will choose to leave the relationship  
  When the costs & benefits are equal in a relationship, then that relationship is defined as equitable  
  The notion of equity is a core part of SET in that actors behave in such a manner as to estb either equity or superiority  
  A limited number of people may attempt to achieve inferiority in order to satisfy some dysfunctional / neurotic / need  
  SET also examines relational development & maintenance rules  
  In his work Social Intercourse: From Greeting to Goodbye, Mark Knapp defines the stages of relationship development, including initiation, experimentation & bonding  
  Gerald Miller and Mark Steinburg’s book, Between People, notes the differences in the types of cultural, sociological & psychological info we have about one another which we use to make exchanges  
  Harumi Befu discusses exchange in relation to cultural & social ideas & norms such as gift giving & marriage  
  Feminists have long examined gender relationships as exchanges, noting that men dominate & distort this exchange so that women often end up in an inferior position  
  HISTORY: SET GREW FROM THEORY DEALING W/ RECIPROCITY & THE REFLEXIVENESS, OR ABILITY OF PEOPLE TO REACT TO SITUATIONS   
  SET evolved from social penetration theory as the focus shifted to the examination of the motivations & processes by which relationships grow or dissolve  
  The early variations of SET stem from Gouldner's (1960) norm of reciprocity, which simply argues that people ought to return benefits given to them in a relationship  
  CRITIQUE:  SET OVER RATIONALIZES HUMAN EXCHANGES, IS DANGEROUSLY OPEN, FOCUSES TOO MUCH IN INTIMACY, & VIEWS RELATIONSHIPS AS LINEAR  
  Katherine Miller criticizes SET by stating that it:   
  -  reduces human interaction to a purely rational process that arise from economic theory  
  -  favors openness as it was developed in the 1970s when ideas of freedom & openness were preferred, but there may be times when openness isn't the best option in a relationship.   
  -  assumes that the ultimate goal of a relationship is intimacy when this might not always be the case  
  -  places relationships in a linear structure, when some relationships might skip steps or go backwards in terms of intimacy  

 
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 Outline on  George Homans   1910  -  1989
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  -  Supplement:  Karl A. Castellanos "What is the role of self interest in group life? from: the perspective of Homans" 
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 -  Biography & Major Works   
 
 FOR HOMANS, ALL SOC RELATIONS ARE EXCHANGES BASED ON OUR PERSONAL CALCULATION OF VALUES 
 
  Homans respected Parsons but held that his work was not a theory, but a vast system of intellectual categories into which most aspects of the social world fit   
  Homans is perhaps best known, outside the academic discipline of sociology, for his model of wk grp behavior where the "emergent behavior," in the form of informal orgs, comes btwn the requirements & plans of mgt, derived from technological, social & economic env, & wk productivity & satisfaction   
  For Homans, theory should be built from the ground up on the basis of observation of the social world   
  Parsons work started at the general theoretical level & worked its way down to the empirical level   
  HOMANS USED BEHAVIORIST / EMPIRICALLY BASED METHODS   
  Homans amassed a large number of empirical observations   
  In the 1950s, Homans developed a theory in line w/ psychological behaviorism closely allied w/ the behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner which he called Exchange Theory   
  Homans eschewed Parsons' deductive methodology of theory building & instead used an inductive, empirical method 
 
  Homans stayed away from the cultural & structural foci of Parsonian theory & concentrated on people & their observable behavior 
 
  Homans applied the behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner's ideas of reward & punishment schedules to small groups & anthropological studies of primitive societies 
 
  Homans first published this work in an article entitled "Social Behavior as Exchange" (1958) & then in a book, Social Behavior:  Its Elementary Forms  (1961) 
 
  Like a psychological behaviorist, Homans was interested in individual behavior & interaction & had little interest in consciousness, beliefs, etc. nor in large scale structures & institutions 
 
  PEOPLE ARE RATIONAL CALCULATORS OF REWARDS & COSTS   
  Homans examined how reinforcement patterns of punishment & reward, & the history of rewards & costs shape social behavior 
 
  Homans' primary thesis is that actors may be viewed as rational profit seekers when profit is viewed in terms of money & social gain   
  People continue to do what they have been rewarded for in the past 
 
  People cease to do what has been costly in the past 
 
  In order to understand behavior, we need to understand a person's history of rewards & costs 
 
  Homans expanded the psychological behaviorist position, which at this time had focused mostly on animals, to people & to interaction btwn people involving the exchange of rewards & costs 
 
 
 Social interactions are likely to continue when there are rewards, or conversely, cease when there are costs 
 
  Exchange theory, & Homans' exchange theory are psychological in that it deals w/ individuals   
  Homans believes that reductionism is a positive quality & thus the fundamental principles of sociology should be based in psychology   
  EXCHANGE THEORY HOLDS THAT PSYCHL FACTORS EMERGE IN A SOC CONTEXT WHICH MAKES THEM QUALITATIVELY SOCIOLOGICAL   
  Homans agrees w/ Durkheim that social activity does emerge & it is different than psychological activity, but still sociology's basic principles are psychological   
  Social behavior is an exchange of activity, tangible or intangible, more or less rewarding or costly, btwn at least two people   
  All behavior can be explained in terms of rewards & costs   
  Homans’ ET is based on behaviorist psychology & economics   
  When a pigeon pecks target, it is rewarded w/ grain & the operand has been reinforced   
  The grain is the reinforcement & the pigeon has undergone operant conditioning   
  When a pigeon undergoes operant conditioning, it has learned to peck the target by being rewarded for doing so   
  But human exchanges are always at least two sided, otherwise they are just individual behavior   
  Homans sought to develop propositions to explain social exchanges   
 
 THE SUCCESS PROPOSITION HOLDS THAT WE REPEAT SUCCESSFUL ACTIONS 
 
  The success proposition holds that the more often an action is rewarded, the more likely the person is to repeat that action   
  The sequence of events for a success proposition is action reward repetition   
  But the success proposition cannot go on forever because one becomes satisfied, or bored   
  Examples:  Eating cake:  I get full   Playing a video game:  I get bored   
  The shorter the interval btwn the behavior & the reward, the more likely the subject is to repeat   
  Intermittent rewards are best because they limit boredom & satiation   
 
 THE STIMULUS PROPOSITION HOLDS THAT WE EXHIBIT SIMILAR BEHAVIORS FOR SIMILAR STIMULI 
 
  Similar stimuli are more likely to elicit similar behavior than are dissimilar stimuli   
  The generalization of stimuli holds that people behave similarly in similar situations   
  The stimulus proposition holds that stimuli discrimination is the tendency to not behave similarly in similar situations   
 
 THE VALUE PROPOSITION HOLDS THAT THE HIGHER THE VALUE, THE MORE LIKELY WE ARE TO PURSUE IT 
 
  Homans' value proposition is that the more valuable the result, the more likely one is to perform the action creating the result   
 
 THE DEPRIVATION / SATIATION PROPOSITION HOLDS THAT AS WE EXPERIENCE A STIMULUS, THE VALUE GOES DOWN 
 
  The more a person has received a reward, the less valuable that reward becomes   
  A cost may be a rewards that is lost in forgoing an alternative line of action   
  Homans does not discuss opportunity cost as the cost incurred in gaining rewards as do Behaviorists   
  Profit is the greater amount of a reward over the cost incurred; i.e. rewards minus costs equal profits   
 
 THE AGGRESSION / APPROVAL PROPOSITION HOLDS THAT WE BECOME ANGRY / AGGRESSIVE WHEN EXPECTED REWARDS ARE W/HELD
 
  When one does not receive an expected reward, one is more likely to become angry;  -is more likely to become aggressive   
  When one receives the expected or greater reward, then one is pleased & is more likely to perform the approving behavior   
 
 THE RATIONALITY PROPOSITION HOLDS THAT WE CALCULATE REWARDS, COSTS, & PROBABILITIES 
 
  People will choose the alternative that they believe has the greatest result as calculated by multiplying value times probability   
  The most desirable rewards are those that are both very valuable & highly attainable   
  Perceptions of values & probabilities are determined by past experience   
 
 A CRITIQUE OF EXCHANGE THEORY IS THAT REWARDS & COSTS ARE SOCIALLY DETERMINED 
 
  Exchange theory is weak on it's examination of mental states & large scale structures   
  Exchange theory is boiler plating behaviorism w/ an expansion to include social factors as stimulus & response, reward & punishment   
  Exchange theory depersonalizes relationships & reduces all human behavior to cold calculation   
  Homans holds that the most desirable rewards are those that are valuable & attainable; however, it is clear that in many cases the desirability of a reward is related to the fact that it is not easily attainable by others   

 
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George Homans   1910  -  1989

A wealthy Bostonian
B.S. Harvard, 1932
Unemployed during the Great Depression
Homans was drawn to the views of Pareto because they were anti Marxist

Homans entered Harvard College in 1928 w/ an area of concentration in English & American literature. From 1934 to 1939 he was a Junior Fellow of the newly formed Society of Fellows at Harvard, undertaking a variety of studies in various areas, including sociology, psychology & history. He attended a special faculty student seminar on the general sociology of Vilfredo Pareto. In 1939 he became a Harvard faculty member, a lifelong affiliation in which he taught both sociology & medieval history. By virtue of his later theoretical writings (discussed below), he became a major theorist & in 1964 was elected President of the American Sociological Association.

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Major Works of Homans

An Introduction to Pareto.  Homans & Curtis.  1934
English Villagers of the Thirteenth Century. (1941) 
The Human Group. (1950) 
"Social Behavior as Exchange." American Journal of Sociology 63:597-606. (1958) 
Social Behavior:  Its Elementary Forms.  (1961, rev ed. 1974)
Coming to My Senses: The Autobiography of a Sociologist. (1984)


 
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 Outline on  Homans' Methodology
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  Homans theory rests upon two meta theoretical claims, including that
 
  -  the basic principles of social science must be true of individuals as members of the human species, not as members of particular groups or cultures
 
  -  all generalizations or facts about human social life will be derivable from these principles that are applicable to both individuals & as members of human society
 
  Homans' theory & methods strive to explain spontaneous social order, a point developed in detail by Fararo (2001)
 
  Homans employs methodological individualism as utilized by some of rational choice theorists such as Coleman that enables greater deductive reasoning in theorizing, often w/ a cost in terms of some loss of realism
 
  Homans, like Durkheim, Parsons, & many others, sought to create a more unified social science based on a firm theoretical / methodological basis
 
  In The Human Group (1950), Homans proposes that social reality should be described at three levels: social events, customs, & analytical hypotheses that describe the processes by which customs arise & are maintained or changed
 
  Utilizing a more inductive method, hypotheses were formulated in terms of relationships among variables such as frequency of interaction, similarity of activities, intensity of sentiment, & conformity to norms, i.e. based on empirical data
 
  Grounding this empirical, deductive work in notable sociological & anthropological field studies as the grounding for such general ideas, The Human Group makes a  case for treating groups as social systems that can be analyzed in terms of a verbal analogue of the mathematical method of studying equilibrium & stability of systems
 
  Homans developed the sociological concepts of reinforcement & exchange, new uses of social control, authority, reciprocity, & ritual in social exchange
 
  In 1958, in "Social Behavior as Exchange," Homans had come to the view that theory should be expressed as a deductive system, following the ideas of the logical empiricist philosophers of that period
 
  Homans argued that a satisfactory explanation in the social sciences to be based upon "propositions," principles, about individual behavior that are drawn from the behavioral psychology of the time
 
  The choice of a behavior is a matter of its likelihood of leading to a more favorable net reward (i.e., reward less cost) than alternatives available
 
  Social behavior as exchange means that a plurality of individuals, each postulated to behave according to the stated behavioral principles, form a system of interaction
 
  Social approval is the basic reward that people can given to one another  

 
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 Outline on   Peter Blau
External
Links
  -  Project:  Generalized Credit
Link
  -  Project:  Blau on Values
Link
Link
 -  Biography & Major Works  
  BLAU EXAMINED SOCIAL EXCHANGES AT THE STRUCTURAL & CULTURAL LEVELS   
  Blau adopted Homans' perspectives, but extended it to exchange at the macro level  
  While Homans dealt w/ exchange w/in elementary forms of social behavior, Blau wanted to integrate this w/ exchange at the structural & cultural levels  
  Blau began w/ analyzing exchanges among actors, & extended his analysis to the larger structures that emerge out of this exchange  
 
 Blau examined exchanges among large scale structures, organizational & social structures, in particular bureaucracy
 
  Blau examined many social phenomena, including upward mobility, occupational opportunity, heterogeneity, & how population structures can influence human behavior  
  Blau was the first to map out the wide variety of social forces, dubbed "Blau space" by Miller McPherson  
 
 Blau's work returns to large scale structure examination as did Parsonianism
 
 
 Blau asked, 'How does social life become organized into increasingly complex structures?'
 
  SOCIAL EXCHANGE OCCURS IN STAGES, INCLUDING PERSONAL EXCHANGE, DIFFERENTIATION, LEGITIMATIZATION & ORGANIZATION, & OPPOSITION & CHANGE   
 
 Social life is organized into complex structures through a FOUR stage sequence from interpersonal exchange to social structure to social change including a. personal exchange;  b. differentiation of status & power;  c. legitimation & organization;  d. opposition & change
 
  a.  personal exchange transactions between people give rise to
 
  Personal exchange transactions are routine social interactions  
  b.  differentiation of status & power, which leads to
 
  The differentiation of status & power occurs in each & every social interaction, & thus transactions may be viewed as equal exchanges (mutually rewarding); unbalanced (one actor is rewarded or punished more that the other); or in rare cases, mutual losses  
  c.  legitimatization & organization, which sew the seeds of
 
  Legitimation & organization is the critical step where routine social interactions become institutionalized in customs, rules, laws, organizations etc.   
  d.  opposition & change
 
  The stage of opposition & change denotes that social change is a constant social phenomenon, & that equilibrium is the exception rather than the rule
 
  Personal exchanges may continue after rewards quit coming
 
  Social exchanges end if rewards quit coming
 
  Rewards in social exchanges can be intrinsic rewards such as love, affection, respect
 
  EXCHANGES FUNCTION AS REWARDS, PUNISHMENTS, STIMULI, RESPONSE, & MORE   
  The social, intrinsic nature of rewards, punishments, stimuli, response, etc. is the major factor that distinguishes exchange theory from behaviorism
 
  Rewards in social exchanges can be extrinsic rewards such as money, physical labor, etc.
 
  Exchanges are not always equal & a power relationship develops w/ routinized inequality
 
  If an actor needs something from another, but has nothing to exchange, one can:
 
  a.  force another to help
 
  b.  find another source to obtain their need
 
  c.  attempt to get along w/o what they need  
  d.  subordinate one's self to other, thereby giving the other “generalized credit” in their relationship  
  For Blau, social scientists cannot analyze social interaction apart from the structure  
  Structure emerges from social interaction, but once this occurs, structures have a separate existence that affect the process of interaction  
  Social interaction exists first w/in groups  
  One is attracted to a group that offers a profit (more reward than cost)  
  To be accepted in a group, one must offer rewards to the group members   
  A newcomer tries to impress the group by showing that associating w/ them will be rewarding  
  A relationship is solidified when members have received the rewards they expected  
  IMPRESSIVENESS IS THE STRENGTH OF THE FEELING, STATUS, REWARD, LOSS, ETC. ONE IS GIVING OR RECEIVING IN AN EXCHANGE   
  Newcomers' efforts to impress generally leads to cohesion, but competition & differentiation can occur when too many people try to impress each other   
  Impressiveness may also create fear of dependence  
  Early on, competition for social recognition among group members acts as a screen for potential leaders  
  Impressing leads to differentiation, so group integration is needed  
 
 A DISPLAY OF WEAKNESS CAN ACHIEVE PARTICULAR GOALS IN AN EXCHANGE 
 
  People may "choose" to display their weaknesses  
  The display of weakness can mean one does not want to be leader  
  The display of weakness can be an attempt to disarm one's impressiveness  
  The display of weakness can be, in an individual interaction, an attempt to display openness  
  For Blau, a display of weakness leads to sympathy & social acceptance  
  Blau does not discuss the display of strength.  What are parallel displays of strength?  
 
 EMERGENCE IS A PRIMARY CHARACTERISTIC OF SOCIAL EXCHANGE IN THAT THE PERCEPTION OF REWARDS, VICTORY, LOSS, WEAKNESS, IMPRESSIVENESS, ETC. ALL COME OUT OF, OR A RESULT OF THE EXCHANGE   
  Blau differentiated between properties that emerge from social groups & explicitly established properties of organizations (formal organizations)  
  Opposition groups & leaders emerge in both social groups & formal organizations  
  For Blau, in informal organizations both opposition groups & leaders are emergent  
 
 STRUCTURATION IS THE EMERGENCE OF REGULAR PATTERNS IN SOCIAL EXCHANGE 
 
  In formal organizations both opposition groups and leaders are structured into the organization & so do not emerge  
  Moving to societal structures, Blau recognized that since there is no social interaction btwn members of a society (while there is interaction in groups), some other mechanism must mediate the structure of social relations  
  Norms & values, i.e. a value consensus, mediate among the complex structures in society  
        See Also:  Values  
  Norms & values make indirect social exchange possible; they substitute indirect exchange for direct exchange  
  Via norms, the collectivity engages in an exchange w/ the individual  
  An example of the collectivity exchanging w/ the individual can be seen in the general respect from the community one receives when one dresses professionally & achieves a good job  
  Values mediate the exchanges btwn the largest collectivities  
  THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF VALUES INCLUDING PARTICULARISTIC VALUES, UNIVERSALISTIC VALUES, LEGITIMIZATION VALUES, & OPPOSITION VALUES   
  A.  PARTICULARISTIC VALUES FUNCTION AS A MEDIA OF INTEGRATION & SOLIDARITY   
  Particularistic values unite people on such things as patriotism, or the good of the college  
  While particularistic values exist on the societal level, on the individual level they are expressed in terms of integrative bonds such as friendship, personal attraction etc.  
  Particularistic values also differentiate the in group from the out group  
  B.  UNIVERSALISTIC VALUES FUNCTION AS A MEDIA OF INDIRECT EXCHANGE   
  Universalistic values make a contribution to the community & the actor who practices them receives the indirect reward of honor, status, etc.  
  An example of universalistic values includes heading a Girl Scout Troop  
  On the individual level, the reciprocal of a universalistic value for volunteering as a Girl Scout Leader might be the direct personal reward the actor receives from the Girl Scouts, the girls & the parents  
  C.  LEGITIMIZATION VALUES FUNCTION AS THE MEDIA OF POWER OR AUTHORITY   
  Blau pursues a decidedly different path than Weber's discussion of the relationship btwn legitimacy, power, & authority and his differentiation of them  
  A legitimization value system accords bosses, presidents, etc. more power than others  
  Actors inside & outside an organization recognize the legitimacy of all bosses  
  On the individual level, the reciprocal value to a legitimization value, i.e. a particularistic value, is the worker's recognition of their boss' authority  
 
 D.  OPPOSITION VALUES FUNCTION AS THE MEDIA OF CHANGE   
  Opposition values legitimize opposition to those whose power is legitimized  
  Opposition values allow for the spread of a feeling for change  
  Opposition values, by their very nature, often conflict w/ the other three values  

 
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Peter Blau           1918  -  2002

Peter Michael Blau was a sociologist who was born in Vienna, Austria,  He emigrated to the United States in 1939. He received his PhD at Columbia University in 1952 before moving on to teach at the University of Chicago from 1953 to 1970. In 1970 he returned to Columbia, where he continued to teach until 1988. In 1974 Blau served as president of the American Sociological Association.  He died of acute respiratory distress syndrome.

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Major Works of Blau

Exchange and Power in Social Life.  1964
The American Occupational Structure.  1967
A Formal Theory of Differentiation in Organizations.  1970


 
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 Outline on   Emerson on Exchange Theory
External
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  -  Project:  A Personal Exchange 
Link
  THE EXCHANGE OF SOCIAL & MATERIAL RESOURCES IS A FUNDAMENTAL FORM OF HUMAN INTERACTION   
  For Emerson, social exchange theory (SET) is based on a central premise that the exchange of social & material resources is a fundamental form of human interaction   
  Emerson wanted to move beyond the basics of exchange theory to examine more complex situations 
 
  Emerson examined what he called exchange networks 
 
  NETWORKS: 
A.  ARE SETS OF INDIVIDUALS OR COLLECTIVES 
B.  POSSESS RESOURCES 
C.  EXCHANGE OPPORTUNITIES 
D.  PARTICIPATE IN A STRUCTURE 		  
  The qualities of exchange networks include
 
  a.  that they are sets of individuals or collective actors
 
  b.  that they have vital resources distributed amongst them
 
  c.  that they exchange opportunities
 
  d.  that exchange relationships are connected to one another in a single structure
 
  Example: A social work organization may have access to a grant that will support potential workers w/ daycare, training, and housing.  The social work organizations has none of these capacities, but establishes a network, & organizes all four organizations to meet the goals of the grant
 
  Example:  Persons 1 & 2 want to buy blue BMWs.  They have no link:  don't know each other.  If they see that the other has the car, their utility is diminished because they have the value of uniqueness.  Thus, the 2 people & the dealer comprise a network
 
  PEOPLE EXCHANGE POWER, & ALL EXCHANGES ARE FRAMED BY POWER   
  In Emerson's exchange theory, power may be defined as a level of potential cost which one can induce another to accept
 
  Power is often defined as the ability to get someone to do what they wouldn't have done
 
     See Also:  Power
Link
  In Emerson's exchange theory, dependence may be defined as a level of potential cost an actor will accept w/in a relationship
 
  Emerson, in his work w/ others, is interested in exchange theory as broader frame for power dependence relationships
 
  EMERSON DEVELOPED AN EX TH THAT ACCTED FOR LESS THAN RATIONAL PARTICIPANTS & LINKED INDIVIDUAL & COLLECTIVE LEVELS OF ACTION   
  Emerson & others use behaviorism (operand psych) as the foundation of exchange theory but avoid Homan's assumption that people are entirely rational
 
  Emerson, et al, wanted to deal w/ structure & social change using social relations & social networks as building blocks that spanned different levels of analysis
 
 
 Emerson, et al, wanted to close the gap between dyads & aggregates
 
 
 With roots in earlier theories developed in cultural anthropology, neoclassical econ, & psych, Emerson focused on how interaction patterns are shaped by power relationships btwn individuals, & the resulting efforts to achieve balance in exchange relations
 
 
 In relation to social power & equity in exchange networks, Emerson, et al shows that a variety of factors & constraints affect the use of power in negotiated trade agreements
 
 
 In one simulation, Emerson, et al involved 112 male & female participants in a specially developed computerized laboratory & communication network
 
  In the simulation, each of eight subjects was connected to three others as bargaining partners, forming two separate four person networks  
  In the simulation, subjects sought to increase their profits by entering into "trade agreements" for "resource units"  
  In the simulation, subjects could pursue either formal or informal negotiating procedures before a "transaction" was completed  
  The experimental design allowed the researchers to study power, equity, & the creation of commitment during these bargaining processes  

 
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 Outline on  Power Dependency Theory
External
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  Power dependency theory ( PDT ) as ELEVEN tenets
 
  1. Power is inverse to dependency
 
  2. Power & dependency are two sides of a relationship
 
  3. Power & dependency are built into all relationships
 
  4. In balanced relationships, power & dependency are in equilibrium
 
  5. Unequal power or dependency leads to imbalanced relationships
 
  6. Unequal power or dependency creates it's inverse in that if an actor is dependent on someone, they will seek or develop tactics to have over that actor
 
  7.  Over time, power & dependency relationships move toward balance
 
  8. One is dependent to the extent they are invested in goals mediated (controlled) by the other
 
  9. One is dependent to the extent that the independent availability of goals does not exist
 
  10. Power is based on dependency in the entire structure encompassing a relationship
 
  11. Systemic dependency will be a function of both structural centrality of a position & the nature of power - dependency (micro) relationships
 
  The fact that power cannot be studied only at the dyad level because it is a structural phenomenon links exchange theory to network theory
 
  POWER DEPENDENCY:  THEORY IN PRACTICE  
  The problem for PDT arose when it was recognized that econ growth in the advanced industrialized countries did not necessarily lead to growth in the poorer countries  
  Economic activity in the richer countries often led to serious econ problems in the poorer countries  
  Economic failure in developing countries was not predicted by neoclassical theory, which had assumed that economic growth was beneficial to all even if the benefits were not always equally shared based on the Pareto optimal dictum  
  The traditional neoclassical econ approach said that the poorer countries were late in coming to solid econ practices & that as soon as they learned the techniques of modern econ, then the poverty would begin to subside  
  Prebisch's initial explanation for econ failure in developing countries was that countries exported primary commodities to the rich countries who then manufactured products out of those commodities and sold them back to the poorer countries  
  Because the "value added" by manufacturing a usable product always cost more than the primary products used to create those products, poorer countries would never be earning enough from their export earnings to pay for their imports  
  Prebisch's solution was that countries should develop programs of import substitution so that they need not purchase the manufactured products from the richer nations  
  The poorer countries would still sell their primary products on the world mkt, but their foreign exchange reserves would not be used to purchase mfr goods from abroad  
  Import substitution did not work because:  
  -   the internal mkts of the poorer countries were not large enough to support the economies of scale used by the richer countries to keep their prices low  
  -  the political economic will of the poorer countries to transform the econ from primary products production to secondary production was often weak because the status quo is secure, & change is risky  
  -  the poorer nations did not often have control of their primary products meaning that they had no choice but to export them, making it impossible for them to transform them into useable products through the mfr process  
  Marxists theorists viewed the persistent poverty as a consequence of capitalist exploitation, & PDT demonstrates this to be true at some level  
  World systems theory (WST) argued that the poverty was a direct consequence of the evolution of the international political economy into a fairly rigid division of labor which favored the rich and penalized the poor, & again PDT is harmonious w/ this argument
 
 
 DEFINING DEPENDENCY THEORY IN ECON DEV
 
 
 There is not only one unified theory of dependency nonetheless, there are some core propositions which seem to underlie the analyses of most dependency theorists. 
 
 
 Osvaldo & Sunkel views dependency as the result of the economic development of a state in terms of the political, economic, & cultural external influences which impacts national development policies
 
 
 For Santos, dependency is a historical condition which shapes a certain structure of the world econ such that it favors some countries to the detriment of others & limits the development possibilities of the subordinate economics
 
  In a dependency relationship, the econ of a certain group of countries is conditioned by the development & expansion of another econ, to which their own is subjected  
  Dependency characterizes the intl system as comprised of two sets of states, variously described as dominant/dependent, center/periphery or metropolitan/satellite  
  The dominant states are the advanced industrial nations in the Organization of Economic Co-operation & Development (OECD)  
  The dependent states are those states of Latin Am, Asia, & Africa which have low per capita GNPs & which rely heavily on the export of a single commodity for foreign exchange earnings  
  For power dependency theory, external forces are of singular importance to the economic activities within the dependent states  
  External forces include multinational corps, intl commodity mkts, foreign assistance, communications, & any other means by which the advanced industrialized countries can represent their econ interests abroad  
  The definitions of dependency all indicate that the relations btwn dominant & dependent states are dynamic because the interactions btwn the two sets of states tend to not only reinforce but also intensify the unequal pattern  
  Dependency is a very deep seated historical process, rooted in the internationalization of capitalism  
  Latin America is today, & has been since the sixteenth century, part of an international system dominated by the now developed nations  
  Latin Am underdevelopment is the outcome of a particular series of relationships of the intl system  
  Dependency theory attempts to explain the present underdeveloped state of many nations in the world by examining the patterns of interactions among nations & by arguing that inequality among nations is an intrinsic part of those interactions  

 
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 Outline on  Networks
External
Links
 
 INTRODUCTION:  NETWORKS ARE LOOSE LINKING OF A NUMBER OF ORGS TO PURSUE COMMON INTERESTS 
 
 
 Networks are a human formation which consists of any combination of the other human formations in a relatively organized, unified system   
 
 Networks may be considered as operating on two levels:  the org level, & the individual level
 
 
 Orgl networks are often called business connections
 
  DIFFERENT TYPES OF ORGS HAVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NETWORKS VARYING ON THE CONNECTIVITY OF LINKS, GOALS, BOUNDARIES, COSTS & BENEFITS, ETC.   
 
 Orgs have ties / linkages
 
 
 Org boundaries are not always clear, so network boundaries are not always clear
 
 
 Orgs are always linked to other orgs sometimes formally, sometimes informally
 
 
 Because orgs are always linked to other orgs, org theorists say that all orgs are in networks
 
 
 The level of autonomy of any node in a network depends on many factors
 
 
 Collegiate Network:
 
 
    - MECC & Radford are a formal network
 
 
    - UVW & UVa are a formal network
 
 
    - Many local colleges belong to the SAC ( informal network )
 
Link
    - Other Nodes in in the Collegiate Network?
 
  A SOCIAL NETWORK IS A SOCIAL STRUCTURE MADE OF NODES WHICH ARE GENERALLY INDIVIDUALS OR ORGS   
  Individual networks are often called social networks, friends, contacts, circle of friends etc.  
  Networks may be formally or informally organized, but most networks are informally organized  
  The line btwn org & social networks is never clear because a friend may be a work related friend, & a work associate may also be a friend  
  The type of reward that an actor perceives they may receive from a network delineates the org network from a social network  
  A network reward may be perceived to be primarily career oriented or a reward may be perceived to be socially or personally oriented, or a reward may be perceived to be both career & socially or personally oriented  
  Individuals may be offended or flattered if they perceive that what was an org connection is now being pursued as a social connection, & vice versa  
  Soc nets are connected through various social familiarities ranging from casual acquaintance to close familial bonds  
  The term soc net was first coined in 1954 by JA Barnes (in: Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish, "Human Relations")  
  For many soc theorists, the maximum size of social networks tends to be around 150 people (Dunbar's number) & the average size around 124 (Hill & Dunbar, 2002)   
  Soc nets operate on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, & play a critical role in determining the way problems are solved, orgs are run, & the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals  
  Recently, the term social networking also refers to a category of internet applications to help connect friends, business partners, or other individuals together using a variety of tools  
  A UTILITARIAN NETWORK IS THE LOOSE LINKAGE OF CORPS & OTHER PRODUCTION / MONETARY ORIENTED ORGS   
 
 Utilitarian orgs, e.g. businesses have their networks of suppliers, customers, govt agencies
 
  A GOVERNMENTAL NETWORK MAY BE LOOSELY LINKED, OR MORE TIGHTLY LINK, IF COOPERATION IS REQUIRED BY LAW   
 
 Most govt agencies have mutual support agreements, & thus are in networks
 
  A NORMATIVE NETWORK IS THE LOOSELY LINKED SET OF ORGS PURSING INTEREST / VALUE BASED GOALS   
 
 Almost any org w/ "association" in it's title is a normative network 
 
 
 Normative orgs, e.g. charities, unions, interest groups, NGOs, etc. are very dependent on their networks
 
  NETWORKS CREATE POWER BY ACHIEVING SCALE, PROVIDING ACCESS TO RESOURCES, SUPPLEMENTING MISSIONS, ETC.  
 
 A network creates power for an organization or an individual
 
 
 Associations of similar orgs creates power for the association as well as for the individual orgs
 
 
    Suppliers
 
 
    Users of output
 
 
    Regulatory agencies
 
  SOCIAL / INDIVIDUAL NETWORKS WHICH COMBINE W/ ORGL NETWORKS ARE THE MOST POWERFUL TYPE OF NETWORK   
 
 Individuals have networks that operate w/ the same dynamics as organizational networks
 
 
 Individual & org networks both may have individuals & other orgs in their networks
 
 
 Networks continue to function based on the perceived possibilities of rewards (one assumes everyone has something to offer) as well as actual rewards accumulated in the past
 
 
 Often individual or org networks are unbalanced in that one actor perceives more rewards than the other
 
 
 Orgs may network based on org priorities, but they often network more effectively when combined w/ individual networks
 
 
 An example of individual networks enhancing org networks is interlocking directorates
 
 
 An individual & org networking example of interlock directorates is if Steven Forbes is a tennis partner w/ Henry Ford the 4th, they both have children in the same private prep school, & they are buddies, then they end up on the Board of Directors of Time Warner
 
 
 A fruitful org network will also serve to build fruitful individual networks
 

 
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Other Nodes in in the Collegiate Network

State Legislature
City of Wise
Students
AAUP
VA Dept of Ed
High Schools
Grad Schools


 
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 Outline on  Network Theory
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your Network 
Link
  Network theory is highly psychological but avoids an atomistic micro view which views actors as making decisions in isolation from others  
  Network theory counters the atomistic point of view by focusing on the social, networked, context of decision making 
 
  Network theory focuses on the personal attributes that exist w/in networks 
 
  Network theory counters a normative or prescriptive approach by it's focus on culture, the socialization processes, the internalization of norms & values, & on the consensus of norms & values in society
 
  Network theory focuses on objective pattern of ties linking members of the network including individuals, groups, & organizations
 
  Network theory focuses networks qualities in micro & macro structures
 
  In networks, members have differential access to resources, rewards, etc.
 
  In networks, all members or actors are stratified
 
  In network theory, as in power dependency theory, some members are dependent on others
 
  DEEP STRUCTURES 
 
  In network theory, there is a search for deep structures:   
  The concept of deep structure was developed by post modern theorists  
       See Also:  Post Modernism   
  Deep structures are differentiated from the traditional social structures as developed by Marx, Parsons, et al, which include PF REG M CEML  
  Where Marx might examine at the economic base, & Parsons might examine the family, post modernists might examine the deep structure of punishment which would include the socio historical development of the prison system & other institutions of punishment as a reflection of the development of cultural norms & values around punishment, evil, confession, rehabilitation, etc.  
  Other deep structures include sex & pleasure, consumerism, war, etc.  
  Deep structures are more fundamental & controlling than organizations, institutions, or social structures
 
  Deep structures are regular network patterns beneath the surface of social systems
 
  Example:
 
  Action is embedded in concrete personal relations, structures, & networks
 
  Most ties are symmetrical in content & intensity
 
  Networks are nonrandom (patterned) & transitive (action oriented & moveable)
 
  An example, of the patterning & transitiveness of networks is seen in the relationship btwn BMW Owner 1 & BMW Owner 2 & the BMW Dealer, where one owner was unlikely to buy a BMW like another.  This example is easily transferred to another relationship
 
  There are limits to the number of links in networks, based on the power, dependency, resources, etc. of members in the network  
  Clusters exist in all networks in that there are stronger ties among particular members  
  There can be links among individuals, groups, structures, networks, clusters  
  There may be asymmetrical ties among orgs in a network, which result in resources being differentially distributed  
 
 Stratification among orgs in a network leads to both collaboration & competition
 
  In network theory, social relationships are seen in terms of nodes & ties  
  Nodes are the individual actors w/in the networks, & ties are the relationships between the actors  
  There can be many kinds of ties btwn the nodes  
  In its most simple form, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties btwn the nodes being studied  
  The network can also be used to determine the social capital of individual actors  
  These concepts are often displayed in a social network diagram, where nodes are the points & ties are the lines  
  The shape of the social network helps determine a network's usefulness to its individuals  
  Smaller, tighter networks can be less useful to their members than networks w/ lots of loose connections (weak ties) to individuals outside the main network  
  More "open" networks, with many weak ties & social connections, are more likely to introduce new ideas & opportunities to their members than closed networks w/ many redundant ties  
  In other words, a group of friends who only do things with each other already share the same knowledge & opportunities  
  A group of individuals w/ connections to other social worlds is likely to have access to a wider range of information  
  It is better for individual success to have connections to a variety of networks rather than many connections within a single network  
  Similarly, individuals "fill structural holes" when they can exercise influence or act as brokers within their social networks by bridging two networks that are not directly linked  
  The power of social network theory stems from its difference from traditional sociological studies, which assume that it is the attributes of individual actors, whether they are friendly or unfriendly, smart or dumb, etc., that matter  
  Social network theory produces an alternate view, where the attributes of individuals are less important than their relationships & ties w/ other actors w/in the network  
  Network theory explains many real world phenomena, but leaves less room for individual agency, the ability for individuals to influence their success, because so much of it rests within the structure of their network  
  Social networks have also been used to examine how companies interact with each other, characterizing the many informal connections that link executives together, as well as associations & connections between individual employees at different companies  
  Networks provide ways for companies to gather information, deter competition, & even collude in setting prices or policies  
  Evolution of social networks can be modeled by the use of agent based models, where, for example the interplay btwn communication rules, rumor spreading & social structure is examined  

 
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 Outline on the   Philosophy of Rationality
External
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  It is important to make a distinction btwn the truth of knowledge & beliefs & their rationality
 
  Rationality refers to the grounds or basis on which beliefs are held  
  Beliefs are shared truth based on tradition, religion, instinct, emotion, common sense  
  Knowledge is shared truth based on science  
  Knowledge & beliefs are like two intersecting circles w/ mutual & exclusive content  
  Beliefs which are coherent, not contradictory, & compatible w/ experience are said to be rational
 
  Knowledge that is arrived at via the (rational) scientific method, & that is held to be valid (true) by a "majority or super majority" of scientists in the field is said to be rational  
  It is irrational to hold beliefs which are known to be false, incoherent & contradictory, yet contradictory beliefs are not uncommon
 
  It is often suggested that science, which involves the systematic testing of propositions by observation, experiment & logical reasoning, all through the scientific method, is the example of rationality par excellence
 
  The concept of rationality, especially in anthropology & comparative sociology, does raise considerable problems, but it is the core of the criticism of these sciences from the point of view of structuralism, post structuralism, post modernism, et al
 
  In the 19th C, anthropologists typically regarded magic & religion as irrational & as the product of a pre logical mentality
 
  It is difficult, however, to concede that a society could exist in which irrational beliefs were widespread, since the existence of language itself implies the presence of logical norms (of negation, identity & non contradiction)
 
  There has to be some public agreement that certain terms refer consistently to specific objects & that, for example, 'up' is the opposite of 'down'
 
  Modern anthropology argues that:
 
  1.  beliefs which appear absurd, such as 'all twins are birds', are in fact reasonable once located in their appropriate cultural context
 
  2.  understanding other beliefs is thus a matter of correct translation
 
  3.  religious beliefs are expressive & symbolic, not informative & literal       (See: Gellner; Rationalism; Understanding Alien Belief Systems)
 
  Religious & other beliefs are thus considered to be non rational rather than irrational
 
  Critics of this view have argued that by these three criteria no belief could ever be shown to be irrational
 
  THE RATIONAL PERSON  
  Many of the social scientists use some model of a rational person as the basis for their science  
  For example, at the center of many econ models is the assumption that people have perfect info & make rational decisions  
  For this & other soc science models, the individual is a highly rational entity having computer like characteristics  
  Whenever faced w/ a decision, a person will gather all available info about the subject, analyze it, evaluate every course of action, determine the cost benefit ratio of each alternative, & then choose the one that offers the greatest benefit  
 
 The rational model presents human beings as deliberative, serious & computational
 
  THE EMOTIONAL PERSON  
  Adjacent to the rational person model is the emotional person model  
  Freudian scholars & other psychologist, for example, place great faith in this model  
  The emotional person model sees people as primarily controlled by their emotions, many of which are unconscious responses.  
  The emotional person model is usually tied to what some model of a dynamic or competitive model of the mind where part of consciousness is dominated by rationality & part by irrationality, making each person a compromise btwn rationality & irrationality  
  Some social scientists believe we are mostly irrational because we are dominated by emotions, while other social scientists believe that rationality dominates the emotions  
  BEHAVIORISTIC MODELS  
  Behaviorists believe that we make rational decisions based on environmental cues, where the env consists of both physical & social elements  
  Thus, behavior is rational, but may appear irrational if a person is subjected to a set of cues that results in what is judged to be negative or destructive behavior  
  HUMANISTIC MODELS  
  Humanists believe that the person is capable of surmounting irrational impulses through conscious reasoning  
  People control their own destiny & their potential cannot be underestimated  
  People are not motivated only by emotions, or econ or material desires, but rather by the opportunity to grow, mature, & become all they are capable of becoming  
  The ultimate goal of rational behavior becomes personal growth, competence, & self fulfillment  

 
Internal
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Outline on  Rationality
External
Links
  -  Project:  What is rational? 
Link
  RATIONALITY IS A MODEL OF CHOICE BASED ON WHO / WHAT WORKS BEST IN ACHIEVING A GIVEN OBJECTIVE   
  A SOCIO HISTL ANALYSIS OF RATIONALITY DEMONSTRATES THAT THE RAT / SCIENTIFIC WAY OF THINKING IS A NEW / MODERN PHENOMENON   
  A form of scholarship known as antiquarianism spread across Europe beginning in the 1500s   
  Antiquarian scholars gathered, preserved, recorded, edited, and cataloged the basic materials for history   
  Examples of antiquarian research   
  Without the research of the antiquarians, the primary sources for many fields of history throughout Europe might have been lost   
  THE ENLIGHTENMENT, AKA THE AGE OF REASON, IS THE LATE MID AGES ERA WHERE RAT / SCIENCE CAME TO THE FOREFRONT, DISPLACING TRADL KNOWLEDGE   
  During the Age of Reason, aka the Enlightenment, which lasted from the late 1600s to the late 1700s, a group of French philosophers called the philosophes became prominent   
  See Also:  The Enlightenment   
  Writers during the Age of Reason preferred to write broad historical narratives to proclaim large scale theories of the progress and decline of civilization   
  In general, the works of the philosophes reflected the respect for rationality, critical thought, secular values, and scholarship that characterized the Age of Reason   
 
 Leading philosophes included the Marquis de Condorcet, Montesquieu, and Voltaire   
 
 The philosophers of the Age of Reason believed that each person has a rational will, which makes it possible to make and carry out plans 
 
  The Enlightenment thinkers declared that animals are slaves of their emotions; when an animal is afraid of something, it tries to escape; when an animal is angry, it fights   
  However for the Enlightenment thinkers, people can figure out the best course of action when they are afraid, angry, or in trouble   
  In addition, people can make themselves do the right thing, instead of doing only what may seem easier or more appealing   
  The Enlightenment thinkers realized that people do not always plan ahead but often act on impulse, which they attributed to inadequate education   
  All people, the Enlightenment thinkers believed, are born with the capacity to reason   
  RENE DESCARTE PHILOSOPHIZED THAT RATIONALITY WAS A NATURAL QUALITY OF HUMAN KIND   
  Descartes wrote that "the power of forming a good judgment and of distinguishing the true from the false, which is properly speaking what is called good sense or reason, is by nature equal in all men."   
  Descartes therefore thought that to become rational, a person need only acquire an education that teaches a good method of reasoning   
  JOHN LOCKE PHILOSOPHIZED THAT GOD GAVE US THE CAPACITY FOR RATIONALITY   
  Locke wrote that reason is "the candle of the Lord set up by Himself in men's minds" and "must be our last judge and guide in everything."  
  See Also:  Locke   
  Locke believed reason teaches that people must unite and form a state to protect their "lives and liberty and property."   
  Locke noted that although people must give up some rights when they form a state, they gain more in protection than they lose   
  Locke believed that anyone can reason, providing the capacity is allowed to develop   
  He therefore emphasized the importance of education and insisted on the right of free speech and on toleration for conflicting ideas   
  WEBER HELD RATIONALITY WAS THE CENTRAL & SUPRA POWERFUL FEATURE OF MODERNITY   
 
 Rationalization in Weberian sociology, is the process by which decisions are made on basis of what is expected to work best   
  Weber sees rational authority as displacing charismatic & traditional authority   
  Rationality is inherent in modernization, urbanization, & the Industrial Revolution   
  For Weber, bureaucracy is the primary means by which rationality occurs in modern society   
  Weber's forms of rationality parallel his forms of authority which are based on technical mastery of a area or subject   
  1.  SUBSTANTIVE RAT IS THE DOMINANCE OF NORMS & VALUES IN THE RATIONAL CHOICE OF MEANS TO ENDS   
  Substantive rationality creates the ability to draw on norms & values to motivate people to behave in a rational manner   
  Substantive rationality requires that people strive to master a situation & adapt it to their conscious ends   
Link
 Examples of Substantive Rationality   
  2.  THEORETICAL / INTELLECTUAL RAT IS THE ABILITY TO UTILIZE PEOPLE'S RATL PROBLEM SOLVING CAPACITIES   
  Theoretical rationality is also known as the rational cognitive process   
  Examples of theoretical rationality, which use a mental schema to make a decision, include:   
  -  the scientific method   
  -  risk management process   
  3.  PRACTICAL RAT IS DAY TO DAY RAT AS SEEN IN THE ABILITY TO FIND PRACTICALLY RAT WAYS OF HANDLING MUNDANE SITUATIONS   
  Examples of practical rationality include:   
  -  Pragmatism   
  -  What works best in the short run   
  -  Common sense   
Link
 Examples of Practical Rationality   
  4.  FORMAL RAT IS THE USE OF ORGL STRUCTURES WHICH CONSTRAIN PEOPLE TO ACT IN A RAT MANNER IN THEIR CHOICE OF MEANS TO ENDS   
  Bureaucracy is the primary orgl structure used to implement formal rat   
  Functional, aka formal rationality requires of the subordination of one's mind & self to a thing or mechanical process   
 
 Examples of formal rationality include   
  -  the typical top down bureaucracy today which is the organizational hierarchy as first devised in religion, govt, & then refined in the mideval military   
  -  the division of labor & the assembly line   
  -  Fordism   
 
 -  McDonaldization   
  Weber's thesis is that formal rationality & bureaucracy is the distinctive development in the modern world & displaces both:   
  a.  Charismatic authority   
  b.  Traditional authority   
  For Weber, formal rationality is vastly superior to earlier forms of organization   
  THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF FORMAL RAT ARE EFFICIENCY, PREDICTABILITY, QUANTITY, & NONHUMAN TECH   
Link
 a.  Efficiency is the search for the best means to the end   
Link
 b.  Predictability is being able to determine future events, thus creating a world of no surprises   
Link
 c.  Quantity is the gaining benefits from the economies of scale, the opposite of which is quality   
Link
 d.  Nonhuman technology is the substitution of machines, computers,  biotech, etc. for human labor   
  There are inherent strengths & weaknesses w/ each form of rationality   
  A common weakness of rationality is called the irrationality of rationality which is the obsession w/ only one form of rationalization   
  As formal rationality develops, it draws less & less upon the other forms of rationality   
  Formal rationality downplays & ignores contributions of the three other forms or rationality   
  Dehumanization & demystification are often associated w/ progress & formal rationality   
  In Weberian Sociology, the process by which tradition, faith, and personal relationship are set aside in the conduct of business, with decisions being made on the basis of what is expected to work best is defined as rationality   
  HYPERRATIONALITY COMBINES EFFICIENCY, PREDICTABILITY, QUANTITY, & NONHUMAN TECH IN A FORMAL RAT PROCESS   
  Ritzer developed the concept of hyperrationality, which is a process that combines all of Weber's forms of rationality   
  There are THREE advantages of hyperrationality   
  a.  Hyperrationality mitigates individual rationalization weakness & emphasizes individual rationalization strengths   
  b.  Hyperrationality combines all forms of rationality to mitigate the weaknesses of each   
  c.  Hyperrationality can emphasize any of the forms of rationality, given the particulars of the situation   
 Link
 Examples of Hyperrationality   
  Weber viewed the development of the modern era as increasingly dominated by the "iron cage of rationality"   
  Weber analyzes the role of professionals in bureaucracy & concludes that they have the best chance of breaking out of the "iron cage of rationality"   

 
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Examples of Substantive Rationality: 
      Letting your values & goals dictate how you do something 
     Belief in democracy / equality:  involve the whole family in making decisions 
     Belief in patriarchy:  head male makes the decisions 

 
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Examples of Practical Rationality: 
      How to build a garden shed: 
      Buy the lumber, hand saw it up, nail it up 
      Buy a kit (wood is already cut), buy nail gun & compressor 

 
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Examples of Efficiency 
A drive through window is a good example of increased efficiency in fast food delivery

 
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Examples of Predictability 
Example:  Big Mac in NYC is the same as in Paris 
[ standardization ] 
Knowing how many people to put on each shift because of good analysis of demand 

Knowing where a store can profitably exist 


 
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Examples of the Economies of Scale 
Fast food gives you a healthy portion rather than a unique dining experience 

 
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Examples of Nonhuman Technologies 

McDonalds' assembly line production w/ detailed instructions for preparing all the food


 
Top
  
Examples of Hyperrationality: 
US & Japanese Auto Industries 
McDonalds is becoming so 
Walmart 

 
Internal
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 Outline on the Rational / Classic Model of Decision Making
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your Rational Decision 
Link
  THE RATIONAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS IS FORMALIZED & THUS HAS SPECIFIC STEPS   
  The rational approach to decision making stresses the need for systematic analysis followed by choice & implementation in a logical step by step sequence 
 
 
There are TEN steps in the the rational decision making process, including: 
     Problem Identification      Problem Solution 
1.  Monitor the Environment  5.  Develop Alternatives 
2.  Define the Problem  6.  Evaluate Alternatives 
3.  Specify Objective  7.  Choose the Best Alternative 
4.  Diagnose the Problem  8.  Implement the Chosen Alternative 
9.  Monitor / Assess 
10.  Modify / Make a new decision 
 
  THE RAT DEC MODEL HAS FEATURES OF LINEARITY, PARALLELISM, PRESCRIPTIVENESS, & IS PROGRAMMATIC; & ASSUMES INFO, CHOICE & TIME ARE ADEQUATE   
 
 While the steps of the rational model of decision making are presented in a linear fashion, in practice, several iterations usually occur before a decision is made & a program is implemented   
 
 Several has the feature of parallelism in that several of the steps in the rational decision making process may advance at the same time, taking cues & direction from other steps   
  The rational decision making model is prescriptive or procedural in that it describes how people should make decisions   
  The rational decision making process works best w/ programmed decisions & does not work well w/ non programmed decisions   
  THREE assumptions of the rational decision making model are that   
  i.   People have access to all the info they need   
  ii.  People have the ability to choose the best solution   
  iii.  People have time for an orderly, thoughtful process   
 
 1.  MONITOR THE ENV
 
  The decision maker monitors internal & external environments 
 
  The decision maker should focus on those areas of the env that may cause deviations from planned or acceptable behavior 
 
  The decision maker should talk to colleagues, review finances, performance evaluations, industry indices, competitors, etc. 
 
  A SWOT analysis is a useful tool to monitor the env 
 
  Complex orgs may have sophisticated systems to monitor the env on a local, national, & global scale 
 
  Monitoring the env may be very difficult for the individual or small org 
 
  In envl monitoring, info overload can often be a problem 
 
  2.  DEFINE THE PROBLEM
 
  The decision maker responds to SWOT by identifying the essential details of the problem 
 
  The "problem" may be a deviation or dysfunction of the org, or it may be an opportunity or new program.... 
 
  In identifying the problem, it is useful to identify where, when, who, how.... 
 
  For a business (utilitarian org), low profits or loss of mkt share are often problems 
 
  For a voluntary org (normative org), loss of funding or grants are ineffectiveness are often the problem 
 
  For a coercive organization, control is often the problem 
 
  3.  SPECIFY OBJECTIVES / DEVELOP CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION   
  The decision maker determines what performance outcomes should be achieved by the decision   
  The decision maker must develop as specific criteria as possible for evaluating alternatives & the final outcomes of the chosen alternative   
  Example:  Specify the amount of market share the org wishes to obtain   
  Example:  Specify the assessment outcomes for a new General Education Curriculum   
  Example:  Specify the amount of new jobs created from an Economic Development Program   
  4.  DIAGNOSE THE PROBLEM   
  The decision maker analyzes the cause of the problem or the nature of the opportunity   
  Additional data may be gathered to facilitate the diagnosis   
  Diagnosis enables appropriate action   
  5.  DEVELOP ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS   
  Before the decision maker can move ahead w/ an action plan, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the various options available to achieve the desire objectives, i.e. meet the criteria for evaluation   
  There is always more than one alternative for a given set of objectives   
  When the many govt orgs are developing alternatives, the law requires that they include "no action" as one of the alternatives; i.e. preserve the status quo   
  The decision maker may seek alternatives from other peers, customers, the public, etc.   
  The rational dec mking process is sometimes called the multiple attribute model, because it compares various qualities or attributes of various options or alternatives   
Link
 See the Rat Dec Mking Matrix   
  The Rational Decision Making Matrix demonstrates that to make a rational decision objectives for the decisions are set, various courses of actions, i.e. decision alternatives are mapped out, & then analyzed in light of the objectives   
Link
 See the Rat Dec Mking Weighted Matrix   
  The Rational Decision Making Weighted Matrix demonstrates that to make a rational decision objectives for the decisions are set, various courses of actions, i.e. decision alternatives are mapped out, & then analyzed in light of the objectives then a weight of importance is assigned to each objective & a value is assigned to how each alternative fulfills that objective, yielding a total score for each alt  
  6.  EVALUATE ALTERNATIVES   
  Using the objectives / criteria for evaluation, the decision maker determines the merits, weaknesses, & chance of success of each alternative  
  Evaluation of alternatives may involve such techniques as statistical analysis, judging nominal criteria, personal judgment, etc.  
  7.  CHOOSE THE BEST ALTERNATIVE   
  The decision maker uses the analysis above to select a single alternative that has the best chance for success
 
  Some decision makers will construct an alternative out of various components of all the alternatives & thus make a new alternative  
  8.  IMPLEMENT THE CHOSEN ALTERNATIVE 
 
 
 Using managerial, administrative, & persuasive abilities, the decision maker either implements or has another give directions to ensure that the decision is carried out 
 
  Many decisions fail at the implementation stage because   
  - the decision was not sufficiently planned   
  - the decision was not accepted by the org   
  9.  MONITOR / ASSESS   
  As decisions / programs are implemented, they must be evaluated to determine whether they are achieving their objectives & goals   
  10.  MODIFY / MAKE NEW DECISION   
 
 If the decision / program is not meeting objectives, the decision maker must decide whether to modify implementation or make a new decision w/ an essentially new program   
  The rational model of decision making is unrealistic in suggesting that following these steps will always lead to optimal decision making   
  THE WEAKNESSES OF THE RAT DEC MKING MODEL ARE THAT YOU NEVER HAVE ENOUGH INFO, CANNOT DETERMINE VALUES, & THE SITUATION IS ALWAYS CHANGING, & MORE   
  The model of rational decision making is weak because it wrongly assumes that people:   
  1.  have all the info they need   
  2.  often do not know all the alternatives  
  3.  do not know all the consequences that result from an alternative   
  4.  may not be able to rank the alternative in any meaningful way   
  5.  may see the situation change so rapidly that it is impossible to use the rational model's steps   
  6.  have the time to collect all the info they need   
  7.  the time & cost to collect this info may be greater than any benefit from the decision   
  Problems w/ the rational model stimulated James March & Herbert Simon to develop their administrative model of decision making   

 
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Rational Decision Making Matrix 
 
Various Goals, Objectives, or Attributes 
Objective 1: 
Objective 2: 
Objective 3: 
Objective 4: 
Various 
Alternative 
Decisions 		 Alternative 
Decision 1: 		        
Alternative 
Decision 2: 		        
Alternative 
Decision 3: 		        
Alternative 
Decision 4: 		        
The Rational Decision Making Matrix demonstrates that to make a rational decision objectives for the decisions are set, various courses of actions, i.e. decision alternatives are mapped out, & then analyzed in light of the objectives 

 
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Rational Decision Making Weighted Matrix 
 
Various Goals, Objectives, or Attributes 
Objective 1: 
Objective 2: 
Objective 3: 
Objective 4: 
Total 
Score: 
Various 
Alternative 
Decisions 		 Alternative 
Decision 1: 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
  
Alternative 
Decision 2: 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
  
Alternative 
Decision 3: 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
  
Alternative 
Decision 4: 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
Obj Value x Weight = Score 
  
The Rational Decision Making Weighted Matrix demonstrates that to make a rational decision objectives for the decisions are set, various courses of actions, i.e. decision alternatives are mapped out, & then analyzed in light of the objectives then a weight of importance is assigned to each objective & a value is assigned to how each alternative fulfills that objective, yielding a total score for each alt 

 
Internal
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 Outline on  Rational Choice Theory
External
Links
 
 -  Project:  What is rational?
Link
  -  Project:  Rational Choice Theory, Rationalization, & Society 
Link
  Rational choice theory (RCT) has it's roots in:
 
  -  neoclassical economics
 
  -  utilitarianism
 
  -  and game theory
 
  For RCT, actors are purposive, i.e., they have intentionality
 
  For RCT, actors have preferences / values / utilities that are clearly discernible
 
  RCT's believe that it is possible to construct an individual's preference hierarchy, which is a clear ordering of an individual preferences / values / utilities
 
  For RCT, the nature of values is a moral question & not a concern of the social sciences
 
  Merton had a similar position to rational choice theory when he stated that sociology cannot decide moral questions or set moral goals; however, the social sciences can clearly delineate the functions & dysfunctions of any particular moral stance  
  Actors try to maximize their benefits materially, but also in terms of their preference hierarchy
 
  For RCTs, there are THREE major constraints on action: 
 
  1.  the scarcity of resources dictates that there are not enough resources around to satisfy all people all the time
 
  An important quality of the scarcity of resources is opportunity cost
 
  Opportunity costs are costs that are incurred when an actor pursues one preference, resulting in the inability to pursue another because of the scarcity of time & resources
 
  2.  Social institutions award positive & negative sanctions to encourage/discourage behavior
 
  RCT's recognize an aggregation mechanism operating in social institutions
 
  Through social institutions & the aggregation mechanism, individual & institutional actions actions combine to produce a social outcome in a manner similar to Adam Smith's invisible hand mechanism
 
 
 3.  The quantity & quality of information is highly variable & has a profound effect on an actor's choices
 
 
 Classical econ assumed that people had perfect information, while RCT does not
 
  RCT assumes human behavior is guided by instrumental reason  
  Individuals always choose what they believe to be the best means to achieve their given ends  
  Under normal conditions, people maximize utility, which may be understood at the "currency" for everything one cherishes including such things as concrete as money or as abstract as moral standards, or as ephemeral as a long life  
  RCT adopts methodological individualism in that it conceives of social situations or collective behaviors as the exclusive result of individual actions  
  RCT is not only applied to individual human actors  
  Often, the same pursuit of cherished values is assumed for individuals or for collective entities such as corps or govts  
  For a choice to be considered "rational", a number of assumptions are ordinarily stated  
  A key component of rationality is preference, which implies a preference ranking  
  A preference ranking for a set of items is considered rational if preferences are 
1.  complete, in that every item is ranked
2.  transitive (if A is preferred to B, and B to C, then A is preferred to C)		  
  The rational decision maker must always choose the item he or she prefers  
  If the decision maker is able to compare all of the alternatives, & all comparisons are consistent then the decision is rational  
  If uncertainty is involved, then the independence axiom is often assumed in addition to rational preferences  
  If decision making over time is involved, time consistency is generally assumed as well  
  Often, to simplify calculation and ease prediction, some rather unrealistic assumptions are made about the world including precise info, sufficient cognitive ability, & the awareness of all choices  
  Typically the rational decision maker must have precise information about exactly what will occur under any choice made or a reliable probability distribution describing what will happen under any choice made  
  For a rational decision, the decision maker must have the cognitive ability to weigh every choice against every other choice  
  For a rational decision, the decision maker must  be aware of all possible choices  
  Simon's model of bounded rationality recognizes that precise info, sufficient cognitive ability, & the awareness of all choices is highly unlikely to occur in most real world decision situation  
  Bounded rationality develops a minimalist rationality without completely abandoning the idea that reason underlies decision making processes  
  For a long time, a popular strain of critique was a lack of empirical basis, but it is now widely recognized that a simple lack of info or date is not the only weakness of much theory on rationality  
  Economics & game theory added other critiques by demonstrating some human behavior that consistently deviates from rationality by for example, noting that people make choices based not only on instrumentality, but also on such factors as the probability of success  
  RCT is important for all of the social sciences because:   
  - much of modernist theory is based on concepts such as "reason", "preferences", & what is implied by them: free will bounded by socio historical forces  
  - many social models see people as "rational" beings  
  - individualistic methodology allow for an easier understanding of complex social phenomena.  
  - the mathematical formalization allow for an easier understanding of complex social phenomena  

 
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 Outline on Communications Networks
External
Links
  NETWORK COMMO PATTERNS INCLUDE THE WHEEL, CIRCLE, ALL CHANNEL, & UNORGANIZED   
  THREE primary communications networks btwn members of work groups have been studied 
 
  a.  THE WHEEL PATTERN OF COMMO HAS A CENTRAL INFO PROCESSOR WHICH ALL UNITS COMMO W/   
  The wheel pattern of network communications is where people at the periphery send their communications to the hub 
 
  The wheel pattern is a relatively flat hierarchy, & those at the periphery generally cannot send messages to each other 
 
  b.  THE CIRCLE PATTERN OF COMMO OCCURS WHEN ALL UNITS COMMO W/ EACH OTHER IN A LINEAR MANNER   
  The circle pattern of network communications permits each member to talk to those on either side, w/ no priorities
 
  c.  THE CHANNEL PATTERN OF COMMO FOLLOWS PARTICULAR PATHS OF COMMO, WHICH ARE WELL ESTB   
  The all channel system of network communications allows every to communicate freely
 
  Research has found (surprise!) that the wheel is the most effective in the typical org structure today
 
  The circle & all channel patterns can become just as effective if they are developed in a hierarchy
 
  Katz & Kahn, 1978, & Blau & Scott, 1962, note that the more complex the task, the more time required for communications to become structured
 
  Whether communications is vertical or horizontal, hierarchical patterns emerge
 
  In the vertical situation, the hierarchy is already there, although a formal hierarchy can be modified through power or expertise or personal considerations
 
  In horizontal communications, a hierarchy will spontaneously emerge
 
  d.  UNORGANIZED COMMO OCCURS WHEN CHANNELS OF COMMO ARE UNORGANIZED OR EVEN RANDOM   
  Networks are more susceptible to unorganized commo because networks themselves are characterized by loose ties & all connections btwn them may be unorganized   

 
Internal
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 Outline on  Rationalization
External
Links
  The term rationalization (from Latin word ratio which means 'reckoning') has two separate meanings, including justification & the use of rationality
 
  The term rationalization was used by Pareto (1848 - 1923) to refer to the justification of an act, seeking to present it in a favorable light after it has been carried out
 
  Pareto believed that rationalization involved the use of less than genuine explanations in order to justify actions
 
  Pareto considered that most social accounts, including most social & political theorizing, involved rationalization in this sense
 
  In its second usage in sociology, rationalization refers to the organization of social & econ life according to principles of efficiency on the basis of tech knowledge
 
  Rationalization as the application of rationality to social life was a concept first used by Max Weber in his analysis of modern capitalism
 
  For Weber, whole societies could be characterized by the typical forms of action they contained within them
 
  See Also:  Weber
 
  Weber believed that there was a general tendency in modern capitalist society for all institutions & most areas of life to become subject to calculation, measurement & control: that is, rationalization
 
  Weber maintained that progressive rationalization had in fact been occurring throughout history & that once the process had occurred it was irreversible
 
  For Weber, rationalization was a master process which underlay the transformation of the economic, political & legal institutions of Western societies
 
  Rationalization would restrict individuality & create an 'iron cage' which would ultimately separate the individual from the community
 
  See Also:  The Iron Cage of Rationality  
 
 See Also:  The Dysfunctions of Bureaucracy  
  Weber argued that the process of rationalization would affect all areas of social life & would be manifested in a number of ways
 
  For Weber one of the manners in which rationalization is manifested in the modern era is in:  
  a.  science where there is the decline of the individual innovator & replacement by the development of research teams, coordinated experiments & state directed science policies
 
  b.  law where there is the replacement of ad hoc law making & case law w/ the application of universal laws
 
  c.  society where as a whole there is the spread of bureaucracy, state control & administration
 
  d.  spiritual life where there is a waning of the influence of religion
 
  For Weber, the development of the form of social org known as the bureaucracy was the essence of the spirit of rationality
 
 
 Histl developments in the labor process, namely the system of assembly line production associated with Henry Ford, illustrate the extent to which processes of rationalization can be pushed
 
  See Also:  The Division of Labor
 
  Ford rationalized the production process by producing a standardized product (the Model T Ford), which enabled the purchase of specialized machinery
 
  Work was subdivided into routine constituent parts via one of the most famous innovations, the assembly line  
  Workers are tied to their position & the rate & pace of the work were dictated by a machine  
  Although Ford maximized his production, he soon found that control over the productive process did not mean control over the wrks  
  Rationalization of work processes to this degree resulted in problems of absenteeism & high levels of wkr turnover  

 
Internal
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 Outline on  Granovetter on the Strength of Weak Ties
External
Links
  -  Project:  Networks, Network Theory, & the Strength of Weak Ties 
Link
  INTRODUCTION:  INTERPERSONAL TIES ARE CONNECTIONS AMONG PEOPLE & MAY BE STRONG, WEAK, OR ABSENT  
  Interpersonal ties are defined as info carrying connections btwn people   
  Interpersonal ties, generally, come in three varieties: strong, weak, or absent   
  Weak social ties, it is argued, are responsible for the majority of  the structure of social networks in society as well as the transmission of info through these networks   
  Weak ties are said to embed social qualities into a network, i.e. structure the network  
  The embeddedness of networks, of social structures, of society is created by the innumerable weak social relations that define our daily reality   
  The concept of embeddedness ties network theory to classic symbolic interactionism through the idea that embeddedness may be defined as the innumerable messages that we get daily, moment by moment, that define our role, our self, our society  
  Embeddedness is similar to the sym int concept of the over determination of social reality that we get via messages from others & the self  
  Granovetter's article, "The strength of weak ties" is now considered a classic in sociological theory because of its exploration of the nature of human relationships  
  A HISTL ANALYSIS OF INTERPERSONAL CONNECTIONS SHOWS THAT TIES ARE FUNDAMENTAL FOR THE FUNCTIONING OF SOCIETY   
  One the of the earliest writers to discuss the effects of ties btwn people was the German scientist & philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe  
  In his classic 1809 novella, Elective Affinities, Goethe speaks of the marriage tie which shows how strong marriage unions are similar in character to that by which the particles of quicksilver find a unity together though the process of chemical affinity   
  Starting in the late 1940s, Anatol Rapoport & others developed a probabilistic approach to the characterization of large social networks in which the nodes are persons & the links are acquaintanceships or ties   
  During these years, formulas were derived that connected local parameters such as closure of contacts, & the supposed existence of a tie to the global network via a property called connectivity   
  In 1954, the Russian mathematical psychologist Anatol Rapoport commented that:  [The] "well known fact that the likely contacts of two individuals who are closely acquainted tend to be more overlapping than those of two arbitrarily selected individuals"   
  Rapoport's argument that acquaintances have more overlapping other acquaintances became one of the corner stones of the probabilistic approach to network theory  
  Granovetter is best known for his work in social network theory & in econ sociology, particularly his theory on the spread of info in a community known as "The Strength of Weak Ties" in 1973  
  In the early 1990s, American social economist James Montgomery contributed to economic theories of network structures in labor mkt  
  Montgomery explored the role of weak ties, which he defined as non frequent & transitory social relations, in labor mkts demonstrating that weak ties are positively related to higher wages & higher aggregate employment rates  
  FACTORS IN THE RELATIONSHIP OR THE ENV MAY IMPACT WHETHER SOCIAL TIES ARE STRONG, WEAK, OR ABSENT   
 
 For Granovetter & most social scientists, the linkages or social ties that make up society are of central importance in understanding social life
 
 
 Granovetter is unique in that he examines social ties & finds that there are several types of social connections
 
 
 Strong ties are those among, for example, friends
 
 
 W/ strong ties, actors have a greater motivation to help one another & are more readily available to one another
 
 
 Weak ties are those among, for example, acquaintances
 
 
 Social scientists have tended to focus on strong ties or social groups
 
 
 Strong ties were thought to be crucial while weak ties were thought to be trivial, but for Granovetter weak ties can be equally important
 
 
 A weak tie of acquaintances can serve as a link btwn two groups which have strong internal ties
 
 
 W/out weak ties, an individual would find themselves isolated in a tight knit group & would lack contacts w/ the rest of society
 
 
 Weak ties prevent isolation, & allow individuals to be integrated into larger society
 
  Absent ties are those relationships (or ties) w/o substantial significance, such as "nodding" relationships between people living on the same street, or the "tie", for example, to a frequent vendor one would buy from  
  The fact that two people may know each other by name does not necessarily qualify the existence of a weak tie  
  If the interaction btwn two or more people or social units is negligible, the tie may be absent  
  The strength of an interpersonal tie is a linear combination of the amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy (or mutual confiding), & the reciprocal services which characterize each tie  
  Granovetter's basic argument is that your strong tie relationship to family members & close friends will not supply you w/ as much diversity of knowledge as your weak ties relationship to acquaintances, distant friends, & the like  
  More novel info flows to individuals through weak rather than strong ties  
  Because our close friends tend to move in the same circles that we do, the info they receive overlaps considerably w/ what we already know  
  Acquaintances, by contrast, know people that we do not, & thus receive more novel info  
  SOCIAL TIES HAVE VARIED ORGANIZATION W/IN THE VARIED SOCIAL STRUCTURES OF SOCIETY   
 
 For Granovetter, most of society is made up of small orgs
 
 
 Granovetter's view that most of society is made up of small orgs is true in a limited sense in that we all live everyday life in small groups, but these groups have strong, structural links to larger groups & networks
 
 
 Many ties reduces the likelihood of each of the ties being strong, so that a greater proportion of linkages in a large network, would be more superficial than in a smaller network
 
 
 For Granovetter, economic transactions are embedded in social relationship
 
 
 In modern societies, economic transactions are linked to trust, that is, in turn, linked to social relationships, rather than economic relationships
 
 
 Thus, economic transactions are often backed up, reinforced, supplemented, etc. by weak ties, i.e. social relationships
 
 
 This line of argument has several implications
 
 
 That, contrary to the transaction cost approach, which states that orgs & networks would benefit from transforming as many of their transactions to external economic transactions as possible (i.e. subcontract out labor, supplies, etc.), people engage in a transaction on the basis of trust, not pure economics
 
 
 This means that economic transactions have more of the characteristics of strong ties
 
  A person or an org may be able to enhance exposure or influence by creating or maintaining contacts w/ weak ties  
 
 With regard to social ties, marketers have recognized that for the mass consumer, trust is one factor, economics is another, peer buying is a another, etc.
 
 
 Thus, we make our purchases  in a social network, constructed of strong & weak ties
 
  In marketing or politics, the weak ties enable reaching populations & audiences that are not accessible via strong ties  
 
 Granovetter did not clearly delineate the difference btwn a strong & weak tie, or the factors that create the strength of ties
 
 
 Granovetter needs a theory that would allow for the development of a measure of the strength of ties
 
  THE WEAK TIE HYPOTHESIS IS THAT IF I KNOW TWO PEOPLE, IT IS LIKELY THAT THOSE TWO PEOPLE ALSO KNOW EACH OTHER   
  The weak tie hypothesis argues that if A is linked to both B & C, then there is a greater than chance probability that B & C are linked to each other  
 
 
  Of any two randomly selected individuals, such as A & B, from the set S = A, B, C, D, E, ...,  if A is strongly tied to both B & C, then according to probability arguments, the B - C tie is always present  
  The absence of the B - C tie, in this situation, would create, according to Granovetter, what is called the forbidden triad  
  The B - C tie, according to this logic, is always present, whether weak or strong, given the other two strong ties  
  The weak tie hypothesis postulates that clumps or cliques of social structure will form, being bound predominately by strong ties  
  The weak tie hypothesis postulates that weak ties will function as the crucial bridge btwn any two densely knit clumps of close friends  
  Individuals w/ few weak ties will be deprived of info from distant parts of the social system & will be confined to the provincial news & views of their close friends  
  On the basis of the weak tie hypothesis, other theories can be formulated & tested, e.g. that the diffusion of info, such as rumors, may tend to be dampened by strong ties, & thus flow more easily through weak ties  
  TIES ARE POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE AS DETERMINED ALONG INNUMERABLE CRITERIA BY THE PEOPLE IN THE RELATIONSHIP  
  Acquaintanceships are usually a positive tie  
  There are also negative ties such as animosity among persons  
  If a network of interrelated positive & negative ties is balanced, then it consists of two subnetworks such that each has positive ties among its nodes & negative ties btwn nodes in distinct subnetworks  
  The notion that positive & negative ties may exist as subnetworks w/in networks, is supported by the aphorism that "my friend's enemy is my enemy"  
  Positive & negative ties creates a social system that splits into two cliques  
  There is a special case where one of the two subnetworks may be empty, which might occur in very small networks.  

 
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 Outline on  Mizruchi on Organizational Cohesion
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 COHESION IS MEMBER'S FEELINGS OF IDENTIFICATION W/ A GROUP   
  Mizruchi has a subjective view of cohesion in his definition of cohesion as members' feelings of identification w/ a group 
 
  Mizruchi's subjective view begs the question of, 'What are the feelings of identification w/ a group?' 
 
  Mizruchi's position is similar to that of Granovetter's strong ties 
 
  Mizruchi's view mirrors the traditional sociological view of cohesion & individual, grp, & network ties through a norm based, psychological approach 
 
  Mizruchi also examines cohesion as a variable that can be examined independent of the sentiments of individuals 
 
  We can compare cohesion among actors who have structural equivalence, ie are in a similar position is a social group, org, network, etc. 
 
  Many actors have identical relations w/ other actors in the social structure 
 
 
 Mizruchi believes that structural equality is at least as powerful as cohesion 
 
 
 The factors contributing to an actor's cohesion, or identification w/ the group, should be able to be dissected by examining actors who have structural equivalence 
 
  INTERLOCKING DIRECTORATES BUILD COHESION AMONG CORPORATIONS  
  One of the main forms of orgl cohesion is through corp interlocking directorates   
  Mirzuchi's The American Corporate Network, 1904-1974, (1982) is a historical examination of the changing structure of the American corporate elite   
  Mizruchi uses network analysis to find significant patterns in corp interlock data on 167 major U.S. corps through the first three quarters of the twentieth century   
  Interlocks have major implications for wider society because they effect the econ social structure which has direct links to many other social structures or spheres of society   
  In Intercorporate Relations: The Structural Analysis of Business (1987) Mizruchi & Schwartz demonstrate that corporate behavior cannot be explained in terms of the actions of individual firms alone   
 
 In order to understand how businesses operate, it is necessary to explore the relationships among them 
 
 
 Mizruchi & Schwartz's employ a structural approach to the study of business, taking relations among firms as the fundamental unit of analysis, & examining the behavior of individual firms w/in that framework 
 
  THE FACTORS OF PROXIMITY, MEMBERSHIP STOCK OWNERSHIP, INTERLOCKS, & INTERFIRM RELATIONS,  MAKE CORPS SIMILAR, & SIMILARITY MAKES THEM SUCCESSFUL  
  Because the business community is characterized by both unity & conflict, the key issue is not whether business is unified but the conditions under which unity or conflict occurs   
  Using a structural model of social action, Mizruchi determines that factors such as geographic proximity, common industry membership, stock ownership, interlocking directorates, &  interfirm mkt relations impacts the extent to which firms behave similarly or differently   
  Through an analysis of the data on the campaign contributions of corp political action committees & corp testimony before Congress, Mizruchi finds that both orgl &  social network factors contribute to similar behavior   
  Similar behavior increases a corp's, or any group's likelihood of political success   
  Rather than making their political decisions in a vacuum, firms are influenced by the social structures w/in which they are embedded   
  The nature of relations btwn firms has real political consequences   

 
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 Outline on  Burt's Structural Theory of Action
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 ACTORS INITIATE ACTION & SOCIAL STRUCTURES EXIST ONLY AS A CONTEXT & THUS ARE LESS DETERMINATIVE THAN MICRO LEVEL PHENOMENON   
  Ronald Burt notes that there are multiple approaches to network analysis 
 
  Burt notes that there is a schism w/in action theory btwn the "atomistic" & "normative" orientations 
 
  The atomistic orientation assumes that alternative actions are evaluated independently by the separate actors so that decisions are made w/o reference to the other actors 
 
  The normative orientation views separate actors w/in a system as having interdependent interests as social norms generated by actors socializing one another 
 
  Burt develops a third approach that attempts to bridge this schism which he calls the structural perspective 
 
  The marginal evaluation, the criterion assumed by the structural perspective, is an actor's status or role set as generated by the division of labor 
 
  An actor evaluates the utility of alternative actions partly in regard to his personal conditions and partly in regard to the conditions of others 
 
  For Burt, actors are purposive under social structural constraints 
 
  Burt's position that actors are purposive under social structural constraints is similar to Marx's when he says, 'actors make history, but not under conditions of their own choosing'   
  Actors find themselves in a social structure 
 
  The social structure defines actors' social similarities 
 
  Thus, the social structure defines social similarities which pattern their perspective of the advantages & disadvantages of each alternative 
 
  Thus, the interaction of the social structure, social similarities, perspectives, & alternatives each constrain the actor's decision or action 
 
  In relation to Burt & structural theory, actions are a joint function of actor's pursuing their interests to the limit of their ability where both interests & abilities are patterned by social structure which is primarily structured by the actor's perception of how significant coactors will react to the decision 
 
  Actions taken under social structural constraint can modify the social structure itself 
 
  The modification of the social structure by the actors' actions can create new constraints 
 
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 See the Figure on Burt's Integrative Model of Action   

 
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Figure		 Burt's Integrative Model of Action holds that:

1.  Social Structure defines the Actors social similarities, which in turn pattern their perceptions of the advantages to be had by taking any of several alternative actions and differentially constrains Actor's ability to take actions
 

3.  Actor's Interests themselves are patterned by Social Structure (2.), psychological factors, other people, etc.
 

5.  Actions are a joint function of Actor's Interests (4.) & the Social Structure's constraining oe enabling features (6.)
 

7.  Action itself may have an impact on the Social Structure
 

Much of social theory only considers Actor's Interests as impacting Action & does not include that they may also impact social structure, the interests themselves, & future actions:  3. -->  4.  -->  5. 

 
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 Outline on Coleman on Rational Choice Theory
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 -  Biography & Major Works   
  RCT HOLDS THAT MICRO LEVEL SOCIAL LIFE, I.E. RATIONAL, INDIVIDUAL DECISIONS ARE THE BASIS OF MICRO & MACRO LEVEL SOCIAL LIFE   
  James S. Coleman is considered the father & major contributor to the development of rational choice theory ( RCT ) 
 
  RCT is based in methodological individualism which uses micro level social life to explain macro level social life 
 
  FOUNDATIONS OF RCT 
 
  For RCT, the micro level is more important than the macro level because 
 
  a.  this is where data is gathered 
 
  RCT is building up the micro level analysis at the expense of the macro level, ignoring the fact that data on orgs, institutions, structures, etc. is also useful 
 
  b.  this is where interventions are made 
 
  RCT is building up the micro level analysis at the expense of the macro leveling ignoring the fact that changes are also made in orgs, the law, marriage practices, etc.
 
  The key to understanding the link btwn the micro & macro levels is to understand that in any particular situation, one level may dominate, but that the two levels always have a mutually reinforcing relationship
 
  See Also:  The Into to Micro / Macro Integration  
  RCT HOLDS THAT ACTORS MAXIMIZE UTILITY, ARE RATIONAL, HAVE GOALS, USE RESOURCES, DEVELOP SYSTEMS, MACRO LEVEL STRUCTURES EMERGE, WHERE ACTORS MAX UTILITY FOR THE LARGER SOCIAL UNIT   
  The fundamental principles of RCT include
 
  1.  Actors seek to maximize utility, i.e. satisfy needs & wants
 
  2.  Actors are rational, not expressive
 
  RCT holds that irrational action does exist, but it is insignificant & overwhelmed by rational action, but many theorists believe this is clearly wrong, believing instead that few people, orgs, or structures are rational
 
  Theorists who disagree w/ RCT on the rationality of actors include Freud, Durkheim, the post modernists & others
 
  Many other theorists belief that rationality is not a given, but it is emerging in the modern era
 
  3. Actors act purposively toward a goal, which is shaped by values or preferences
 
  4. Resources are things over which actors have control
 
  5. Systems consist of structures where two or more actors have control over resources of interest to others
 
  6. The macro level is emergent in that it emerges from patterns of action at the micro level
 
  7. Structures function independently of the actors
 
  8. To understand social action, the theorist should keep levels or types of micro level rational choice interactions constant & generate from these the various macro level phenomena
 
  9. The linkage btwn the individual & structure is the individuals granting of authority & rights to another  
  10. In structures, instead of maximizing one's own interests, one seeks to realize the interests of another  
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 Realizing the interests of another may be a goal for an actor in RCT for a number of reasons  
 
 THE MAJOR CRITIQUE OF RCT IS THAT ACTORS ARE NOT RATIONAL & DO NOT HAVE GOALS
 
  Ritzer's critique of RCT is that causality moves primarily from the individual actor to the structural actor, ignoring the dialectical relationship btwn micro & macro   
  Another common critique of RCT is that actors attempt rationality, but often don't attain it because of lack of knowledge, the power of others, lack of resources, etc.  
  Post modernists, et al, critique RCT by noting that it is not only purposes, values, preferences in which irrationality resides; irrationality may reside in the most "rational of systems" such as the modern bureaucracy; e.g. Hitler's genocide bureaucracy  
  Collective behavior theorists note that people transfer control to another, unilaterally, not as part of exchange, and that people in a crowd often appear to act irrationally  
  However, even the irrationality of mob violence is questioned by some theorists who note that many people in a riot or a social movement hope to gain something, even if they must make the ultimate sacrifice & act altruistically  
  Individual maximization of utility does not necessarily lead to system equilibrium  
 
 NORMS & VALUES MAY EMERGE RATIONALLY BUT OVER TIME ACTORS FORGET THE PURPOSE & SO FOLLOW THEM NON RATIONALLY 
 
  See Also:  Norms & Values  
  RCT says traditional sociology does not explain the emergence of norms & values  
  Traditional sociology says norms are socialized in & internalized through patterned rewards & punishments; then we forget the origin & they become a habit  
  RCT holds that norms are initiated by people who are willing to give up some control & in the process gain some control via norms over others  
  It is in the interest of some actors to have others internalize their norms  
  Marx holds that, in general, the people internalize the norms of the upper class  
  Norms are macro level & come into existence on the basis of micro purposive action  
  As differentiated from collective behavior theory, actors gain control over others via norms  
  For RCT, gaining control over others via norms is not a mutual exchange, it's unilateral, but it is in equilibrium  
  The power of norms lies in the ability to enforce consensus  
  CONFLICT IS RATIONAL IN THE SENSE THAT PEOPLE ARE PURSUING THEIR OWN INTERESTS   
  Conflict occurs because actors may pursue purposes at variance w/ others' interests  
  Conflict may exist at the micro level, or micro to macro, or macro to macro  
  Especially in modern society, a large fraction of rights & resources reside in corporate actors  
  Control by corporate actors is a key shift in society:  
  RCT notes that emergence of corporate actors as "natural persons" is a modern phenomenon  
  RCT asks, "How are we to judge the emergence of major corporate actors?"   
  Theorists should postulate (assume) that individuals are sovereign, i.e. have the maximum level of rights & evaluate social systems from that point of view  
  Old corp actors are being steadily replaced by new, purposively constructed, freestanding corp actors  
  There is a progressive unbundling of activities that were once tied together within primordial structures, e.g. the family, the workplace, religion, the military, etc.  
  The structural unbundling has left a series of voids that have not been fulfilled by the new structures  
  A major issue today is how to ensure corporate social responsibility  
  Corps may gain social responsibility by internal reforms or by changing external structures such as laws  
  The goal of Coleman's work is to construct a viable social structure commensurate w/ primordial structures  
 
 The goal of Coleman's work is not to destroy new structures, but to realize opportunities & avoid problems  
  The goal of RCT is similar to Durkheim, et al, in that Durkheim's concern was how to transition from  traditional society to modern society, & keep the best of both, & avoid anomie, i.e. normlessness, in the interim  

 
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Reasons to pursue the interests of another include:

Habit:  we are indoctrinated to do so
In our society, if we work for someone, & do well for them, we assume our reward will be forthcoming in the form of pay, a raise, status, etc.


 
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James S. Coleman
1926  -  1995

James S. Coleman was an Am sociologist. He was a sociological theorist, who studied the sociology of ed, public policy, & was one of the earliest users of the term "social capital". His Foundations of Social Theory stands as one of the most important sociological contributions of the late 20th century.

Coleman received his bachelor's degree in Chemical Engineering from Purdue U in 1949, & received his Ph.D. from Columbia U in 1955, where he stood under the influence of Paul Lazarsfeld. He achieved renown with 2 studies on problem solving: He taught at Stanford U, the U of Chicago, at Johns Hopkins U (1959-1973), & then again at Chicago, where he directed the National Opinion Research Center. In 1991 Coleman was elected President of the ASA.

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Major Works of James S. Coleman

Union Democracy (1956, with Seymour Martin Lipset) 
The Adolescent Society (1961) 
Introduction to Mathematical Sociology (1964) 
Equality of Educational Opportunity (1966) 
Mathematics of Collective Action (1973). 
Youth: Transition to Adulthood (1973) 
High School Achievement (1982) 
Individual Interests and Collective Action (1986) 
Social Theory, Social Research, and a Theory of Action, article in American Journal of Sociology 91: 1309-1335 (1986). 
Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital, article in American Journal of Sociology 94, pp. 95-120 (1988). 
Foundations of Social Theory (1990)

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