Internal
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Overview of George
Herbert Mead 1863
- 1931
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External
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- Biography & Major Works |
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GEORGE HERBERT MEAD IS THE FOUNDER OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
WHICH OVERLAPS W/ MANY OTHER SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT |
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George Herbert Mead is a major figure in the history of American philosophy,
one of the founders of pragmatism along with Peirce, James, Tufts, &
Dewey |
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Mead never published a book & so his students produced four books
in his name from his unpublished (& even unfinished) notes & manuscripts,
from students' notes, & from stenographic records of some of his courses
at the University of Chicago |
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Mead's theory of the emergence of mind & self out of the social
process of significant communication has become the foundation of the symbolic
interactionist school of sociology & social psych |
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Mead's thought includes significant contributions to social phil, the
phil of nature, the phil of science, phil anthropology, the phil of history,
and process phil |
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Both John Dewey & Alfred North Whitehead considered Mead
a thinker of the highest order |
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THE SELF EMERGES AS A RESULT OF INTERACTION W/ THE
ENV
& OTHERS |
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Mead is the most important thinker of the Chicago School & of symbolic
interactionism |
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Mead taught that people & their environment created the
unity
of the individual |
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Mead emphasized the natural emergence of self & mind w/in
the social order |
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Mead analyzes experience from the standpoint of communication as essential
to the social order |
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The development of the individual's self, & of his self consciousness
w/in the field of his experience is preeminently social |
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For Mead, the social process is prior to the structures &
processes of individual experience |
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For Mead, the emergence of self & mind comes about as a result
of interaction w/ the environment & other beings |
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The self emerges from social experience & this social experience
is based on the exchange of symbols |
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THE "I" & THE "ME" REPRESENT THE INSTINCTUAL & SOCIAL ASPECTS
OF THE SELF |
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When fully developed, the self is composed of the "I" & the
"me" |
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The I is the self as subject & the me is the self
as object |
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See Also: Mead on the Genesis of the Self |
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WHILE BEHAVIORISTS' VIEW OF SOC INTERACTION WAS MECHANICAL,
MEAD ADDED PEOPLE'S UNDERSTANDING / CONSCIOUSNESS |
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Individual psychology, for Mead, is intelligible only in terms of social
processes |
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Mead's work must be contrasted against psychological behaviorism |
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Mead accepted may of the tenets of psychological behaviorism,
but also rejected many others |
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Mead adopted the focus on the actor & his/her behavior |
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Mead accepted behaviorism's focus on observable behavior, rewards,
& punishments |
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Mead & Cooley did not accept the behaviorists insistence on excluding
any examination of the consciousness of the Actor |
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The term symbolic interactions was not used during Mead's life, but
his work on consciousness & Simmel's interest in action & interaction
served as the foundation for that school |
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MEAD & LEWIN WERE IMPORTANT INFLUENCES ON SOCIAL
PSYC W/ CORE IDEA THAT MEANING IS DEVELOPED VIA SOC INTERACTION |
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Two major influences on social psychology were the work of George Herbert
Mead & Lewin, Kurt (1890-1947) |
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Mead, an American psychologist & philosopher, argued that people's
ideas about themselves are developed through social contact |
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Lewin, a German born psychologist, investigated how individuals in
groups are affected by other members |
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Both Mead & Lewin claimed that behavior depends primarily on how
people interpret the social world |
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The work of these early researchers continues to influence social psychologists,
who study people's perception of themselves & others |
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George Herbert Mead 1863
- 1931
American pragmatist, philosopher, & social psychologist
b South Hadley, MA
Educated at Oberlin College, Harvard University, & in Europe
Taught at the University of Chicago from 1894 - 1931
Influenced by theory of evolution & the social nature of experience
& behavior
At the U of Chicago in the 1920's, Mead worked w/ colleagues
Charles H. Cooley, W. I. Thomas, and others to develop field
of Symbolic Interactionism
Timeline on Mead: The Mead Project, Dept of Soc, Brock U, St.
Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1 |
Link
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Major Works of
Mead
Mead published very little. His students compiled his work
Mind, Self and Society. 1934, 1962.
Twenty five of Mead's most notable published articles have been collected
in Selected Writings: George Herbert Mead, edited by Andrew J. Reck (Bobbs
Merrill, The Liberal Arts Press, 1964
Mead's published papers are the following:
Suggestions Towards a Theory of the Philosophical Disciplines,1900
Social Consciousness and the Consciousness of Meaning, 1910
What Social Objects Must Psychology Presuppose, 1910
The Mechanism of Social Consciousness, 1912
The Social Self, 1913
Scientific Method and the Individual Thinker, 1917 |
A Behavioristic Account of the Significant Symbol, 1922
The Genesis of Self and Social Control, 1925
The Objective Reality of Perspectives, 1926
The Nature of the Past, 1929
The Philosophies of Royce, James, and Dewey in Their American Setting,
1929 |
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External
Links
Top
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Outline on Mead
on the Genesis of the Self 1863
- 1931
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External
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- Project: Play at Playing |
Link
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- Project: The Generalized
Other & Ethical Dilemmas |
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- Video: Cooley & Mead |
Link
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Mead worked in the paradigm of symbolic interactionism & is generally
viewed as one of its founders |
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The genesis of the self is accomplished through socialization
& goes through FOUR stages |
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Self is composed of TWO components: the I
& the me |
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The I is the spontaneous, unsocialized, unpredictable self has
awareness of a separate identity |
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The me is the socialized part of individual
The I continues to exist
The self develops attitudes, behavior, & beliefs in order to fit
in to society
( Compare to Freud ) |
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For Mead, there are FOUR stages in the development of the self, including
- the tabula rasa stage
- the imitative stage
- the play stage
- the game stage |
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1. Tabula Rasa Stage:
circa birth |
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Tabula rasa means blank slate |
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the concept of the tabula rasa denotes that people are born without
certain predispositions to develop any particular type of personality |
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During the tabula rasa stage a baby can only do simple imitation |
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Only the I exists |
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We believe that babies believe that only they exist.
The world is under their control |
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During the tabula rasa stage, we have little or no identity |
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2. Imitative stage:
circa birth to 2 yrs. |
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During the imitative stage, we can only imitate others, especially
significant
others (SO), but the me begins existence |
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For Mead the concept significant other denotes people w/ whom one has
a regular, face to face, emotional connection |
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The I continues to exist |
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In the me, the individual carries society w/ them |
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Child can copy/imitate and plays
imitation games |
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3. Play stage:
circa 2 to 4 yrs. |
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In the play stage, the child can take on roles of others, especially
SOs |
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The me is more developed |
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Socialization begins through interaction w/ the SO |
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The Socialization that is achieved through the interaction w/ the SO:
- establishes sense of self, that is, a distinct identity & an
awareness of that identity
- others are seen as having a separate identity
- learn social norms from (a) messages & (b) role models
(SOs from whom child learns to play a role)
- child wants to play 'real games,' but only w/ his or her flexible
rules |
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During the play stage, we develop a sense of identity |
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4. Game Stage
circa 5 yrs. & older |
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In the game stage, a child can take on the complex roles of
generalized
others (GO) |
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The generalized other is the classes of people w/ whom a person interacts
on the basis of generalized roles rather than on individual characteristics |
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The GO is interaction based on general roles of that individual rather
than on specific traits |
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The GO represents actual games; the rules, standards of performance
or the attitude of entire community |
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According to Mead, children at the game stage learn that certain positions
are occupied by a variety of people & that people in similar social
positions frequently behave alike |
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Children in turn are expected to behave in particular ways toward people
w/ particular social positions |
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The me has gained all of it's capabilities, but still needs
more socialization/knowledge |
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The child moves beyond interacting w/ particular individuals &
interacts w/ roles |
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The child moves from interacting w/ SOs to interacting w/ generalized
others |
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At the game stage, the child has generalized from the behavior and
expectations of particular individuals to those of anyone playing various
roles that relate to whatever role the child is playing at the time |
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The child has gone from interacting with SOs to a new and higher stage
of interacting w/ the GO |
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Games are a metaphor for all organized activity:
family, work, etc. |
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In the game stage, one plays actual games & is truly concerned
about rules, performance |
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In the game stage, the child wants to appear grown-up |
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In the game stage, one becomes concerned w/ the attitude of the entire
community |
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During the game stage, a person is expected to behave in particular
ways toward people w/ particular social positions |
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According to Mead, children at the game stage learn that different
people behave differently, & that different people also expect children
to behave in different ways |
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Children do not yet really understand that how they are expected to
behave toward people |
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In the game stage, the self evaluates the self
from the point
of view of GOs & not merely from point of view of discrete others |
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The evaluation of the self from the point of view of the GOs is the
capacity for abstract thinking, objectivity, & morality |
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While play requires only pieces of selves, games require a coherent
self |
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The self allows the individual to be a more efficient member
of the society and offers greater coordination of society |
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But the self is not a conformist robot because each self has
a unique biographical make-up which shapes the self |
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People have multiple Generalized Others & Selves which provide
them w/ an internal dialogue/debate that allows for moral reasoning |
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People can only react against society by setting up a higher sort of
society which “out-votes” the one they find |
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To set up a 'higher society,' people must encounter the society of
the past, present & future |
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For Mead, institutions, social structures, etc. are common responses
of the community |
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The community often acts in an identical way to people |
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Institutions need not destroy or oppress the individual; in fact, many
are flexible, progressive & foster individuality |
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Education is the process where the common habits
of the community are internalized |
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Mead said, "The self, as that which can be an object to itself, is
essentially a social structure, & it arises in social experience… it
is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience”
. |
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Mead's statement that the self is a social structure that arises in
experience indicates that he thought nurture was the primary source of
human behavior |
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Internal
Links
Top
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Outline on an Advanced Examination of the Genesis
of the Self
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External
Links
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- Project: Play at Playing |
Link
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- Project: The Generalized
Other & Ethical Dilemmas |
Link
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THE GENESIS OF THE SELF DEPICTS HOW THE SELF ARISES FROM
SOCIAL EXPERIENCE |
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W/o socialization, we lack language, culture, abstract thought, &
a concept of the self |
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The self arises in the the process of social experience & activity |
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The individual is the result of its relationship to others & to
the socialization experience |
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IN THE IMITATIVE STAGE WE COPY OTHERS & JUDGE OUR ABILITY
TO COPY & THUS BECOME AN OBJECT TO OURSELF |
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The self begins the process of socialization only by first becoming
an object to itself |
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We do not first become a subject to ourself |
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Fully mature, "sophisticated," self actualized people gain an understanding
that they are simultaneously both objects & subjects to themselves,
and treat others according, in situation-, moral- specific contexts |
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We become an object to ourself by taking the attitudes of
others on us w/in a social environment |
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The self, as an object to itself, is a social structure that
arises in social experience |
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Social structures are patterns of behavior that have been institutionalized;
i.e. widely accepted, & taken for granted by people everywhere |
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The self is a social structure in that each person develops a personality
of regular behaviors & attitudes that the self & others accept
& take for granted |
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A social experience is the relation that we have w/ others in a social
environment |
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The person comes to carry on a conversation of gesture w/ themself |
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A person say something that elicits a certain reply in themself, which
makes them change what they were going to say |
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We respond to ourself as another would respond by taking part in our
own conversation w/ others, being aware of what we say & using that
awareness of what we say to determine what we will say thereafter |
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All children have
imaginary companions |
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A child's imaginary companion is only a problem when a child keeps
& develops a permanent relationship w/ the "friend" |
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Through the imaginary communication, kids
organize the responses that they call out in others & in themselves |
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THE PLAY STAGE |
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PLAYING AT BEING IS HOW CHILDREN TAKE ON / EXPERIMENT W/
INNUMERABLE ROLES & INTEGRATE THEM INTO THE SELF |
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Play is playing at being someone or something:
a mother, teacher, a monster, a truck, etc. |
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Even dogs play at being something such as chase dog or chased dog |
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Through the playing at being someone,
kids
organize the responses they call out in others & in themselves |
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When a child takes on a role, this is calling out the set of responses
that go w/ that role, both in:
- performing the role
- the reaction of others to the role
- their reaction to the reaction of the others |
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A child uses some of the responses to the role to develop the self |
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Actors integrate aspects of many roles into our
self |
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A child offers herself something & buys it, gives a letter to herself
& takes it away, addresses herself as a parent, then takes on the role
of child, addresses herself as a teacher, then takes on role of student,
arrests herself as a policeman |
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ROLE PLAYING IS THE ORGANIZATION OF SETS OF STIMULI &
RESPONSES INTO PARTICULAR ROLES & CONTEXTS |
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A child has a set of stimuli which create a set of responses |
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A child takes set of responses & organizes them into a
certain whole |
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A child says something in one character & responds in another character
then the responding character is a stimulus to the 1st character |
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In play, child make rules on the spot to get the self out of a jam |
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Part of the fun of play is developing rules |
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Part of the fun of a game is knowing / using the existing rules |
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IN THE GAME STAGE, A CHILD IS CAPABLE OF TAKING ON THE ROLE
OF EVERYONE IN THE GAME AS WELL AS THE 'GENERALIZED OTHER' WHO WATCHES
/ JUDGES PERFORMANCE |
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In play a child takes on a few roles while in a game, a child
must be able to take on role of everyone else
in the game or else the child does not understand the game |
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In play, the child passes from role to role based on whim, while
in a game roles change as dictated by rules of game, by the social
organization of the game |
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Example: Baseball |
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In baseball, one must understand roles of all other players |
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In a game, there is a set of responses that creates appropriate
responses in others which creates responses in the self,
etc. until the game ends |
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Mead said, "The game represents the passage in the life of the child
from taking the role of others in play to the organized part that is essential
to self consciousness in the full sense of the term." |
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The generalized other ( GO ) is the organized community
or social group which gives unity of self to the person |
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In baseball, the team is the GO |
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In abstract thought, we take the attitude of the GO to ourself w/o
referring to any particular other person |
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In concrete thought we imagine how specific others will react to us |
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ONLY BY TAKING THE ROLE OF THE GO CAN WE THINK |
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Only by taking role of GO can we think in adult manner |
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It is w/ the GO that we have internalized conversation of gestures
which constitute thought |
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Only through taking attitude of specific others or the GO is
the existence of a universe of discourse possible |
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The universe of discourse includes all of the possible roles,
acts, gestures by all people in a given culture |
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The attitudes which are common to the group, the GO, make up
the organized self |
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We all have something in common: the attitudes of the GO or society |
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SOCIETAL CONTROL OF THE PERSON IS EXERCISED BY THE COMMUNITY |
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Like Durkheim, Mead believes that the community
(society) exercises control over conduct of individual |
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The community exercises control through our internalized GO |
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PERSONALITY DEVELOPS IN A COMMUNITY FROM WHICH
WE ADAPT ROLES & FRAME A GO |
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We have personality because we belong to a community |
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We take the institutions of that community into account in our own
conduct |
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In the development of a personality, we take: |
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- on language, a style of language that is the language
of our community |
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- the roles available to us in the community |
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- the attitudes of members in the community |
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The attitudes of the members of the community are what we might
call our principles or values |
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We put ourselves in the place of the GO which represents the organized
responses of all the members of the group |
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ETHICS & MORALITY ARE A FUNCTION OF THE GO / COMMUNITY
IN THAT WE THINK BEYOND OUR INTERESTS TO THE INTERESTS OF THE GO / COMMUNITY |
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The only way we react against the disapproval of entire the
community is by setting up a higher sort of community which, in
a certain sense, out votes the one we find ourself in |
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A person may find themself going against whole world & to do that
they have to speak w/ the voice of reason, & to comprehend the
voices of the past & future |
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To go against our community, we may also think ourself insane |
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To go against our community, we may refer to the highest community:
god |
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Usually we assume the voice of the community is identical w/ the voice
of past & future |
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AS W/ THE GO, WE CONSIDER THE POSITION OF THE COMMUNITY & IN
MORAL
DILEMMAS, WE OFTEN EXPECT / HOPE IT WILL CHANGE |
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We imagine what the GO or community will say to us |
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We respond to that |
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We may expect the community to change or alter it's morality |
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We can reform the order of things |
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We are not simply bound by the community |
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We are engaged in a conversation w/ the community |
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We all "have our day in court" when we respond to the community &
hope that it will respond favorably to us |
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Thus the individual has not only the right
to engage in a conversation w/ the community, but also has a duty
to do so |
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The symbolic interatctionists concept of the right to converse is similar
to the issues surrounding Habermas' communicative action and discourse |
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For some symbolic interatctionists & Habermas, there is a duty
to bring about those changes that we believe are needed |
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Examples: Against the World
Galileo: before the Inquisition
Columbus: before the Queen
Person: should I fight (back)? |
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External
Links
Top
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Outline on Mead
on Mental Processes 1863
- 1931
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External
Links
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- Project: Mental Processes |
Link
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THE SELF IS A PROCESS WHICH ARISES THROUGH SOCIAL ACTIVITY
& RELATIONS |
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"The self, as that which can be an object
to itself, is essentially a social structure, & it arises in social
experience… it is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social
experience." |
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The self has the ability to take oneself as an object and thus the
self can be both subject & object |
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The self presupposes the social process of communication |
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The self develops through social activity & social relations |
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The self is reflexive in that when responding to another, that response
is heard by the self & responds to the self, as well as to the other |
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The self talks & replies as another would |
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The self has the ability to unconsciously put itself in the place of
another and examine itself |
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We must be able to get outside of ourselves to evaluate our self |
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To act rationally we must be able to put the self in the same experiential
field as we put everyone else: we must be able to take ourselves
& others into account |
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But we cannot experience ourself directly, so we must take the roles
of others |
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OUR VERY MIND ARISES W/IN SOCIETY |
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As we see from the process of socialization, the mind arises w/in society |
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For Mead, society comes first, then the mind |
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W/o society, life as we know it could not exist |
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Society & mind are a dualism |
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For Mead, a micro orientation means that we explain the behavior
of a group at that level and not in the terms of a sum of the acts of individuals |
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The act is the most "primitive" or basic unit for Mead |
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The act has 4 interdependent, simultaneous stages including the impulse,
the perception, the manipulation, & consummation |
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An act involves one person while a social act involves two or
more people |
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Mead is somewhat of a behaviorist or pragmatist in that while he studied
the mind, he insisted on a focus on observable, verifiable facts |
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THERE ARE FOUR STAGES IN THE CREATION OF A THOUGHT / ACTION,
INCLUDING: IMPULSE, PERCEPTION, MANIPULATION, CONSUMATION |
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1. THE IMPULSE IS THE FEELING / EMOTION WE EXPERIENCE
AS A RESULT OF EXTERNAL OR INTERNAL STIMULI |
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The impulse is the reaction to an immediate sensuous stimulation (stimulus)
which may be external, internal or combination of both |
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The impulse is similar to emotion, or a lesser form of a psychological
drive |
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An example of boredom as an impulse is to see others having fun &
feel bored, or just to have the feeling arise independently or some both
combination of external & internal cues |
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For Mead, the impulse is shaped by our social definitions of it:
inappropriate to be bored at a party |
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2. THE PERCEPTION IS THE SEARCH FOR & REACTION
TO STIMULI RELATED TO AN IMPULSE |
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We perceive both external stimuli as well as the mental images we create |
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We actively select among stimuli |
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Stimuli may have several dimensions and we choose one set |
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Perception & the object of perception are interdependently related |
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3. MANIPULATION IS ACTION OR THOUGHT BASED ACTIVITY
AS A RESULT ON AN IMPULSE & PERCEPTION |
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Manipulation is action or thought based activity as a result of an
impulse & perception |
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When we manipulate the object, we take action in relation to it |
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Manipulation is a pause to contemplate various responses |
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Animals don't generally manipulate |
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4. CONSUMMATION IS THE TAKING OF
AN ACTION WHICH SATISFIES THE IMPULSE |
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Mead does not consider the consequences of no consummation or w/ dissatisfaction
w/ the consummation |
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Gestures are movements which are specific stimuli calling forth
socially appropriate responses |
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Non significant gestures are unconscious, instinctive actions |
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Significant gestures are gestures which require thought |
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For Mead, humans do both non significant & significant gestures
while animals do only the former |
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Animal psychologists today would disagree w/ Mead because of their
observations that dogs, cats, simians, dolphins, et al engage in play &
appear to demonstrate other emotions & human traits |
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Language is vocalized significant gestures |
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Language & all social gestures stimulate speakers &
listeners similarly |
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Physical gestures primarily are unconscious & so primarily affect
others |
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SIGNIFICANT SYMBOLS ARE THE SYMBOLISM THAT IS ONLY AVAILABLE
TO HIGHER ANIMALS |
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Significant symbols allow communication, language, complex mental processes,
& complex social interactions |
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Significant symbols allow for greater adjustment because both giver
& receiver interpret them |
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Language makes thought possible |
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Thinking is an internalized or implicit conversation
w/ the self by means of the significant gestures of language |
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In Mead's view, animals cannot think, though many of them are conscious |
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Thinking is the same as talking to one another |
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Viewing language as a necessity for thought is a behaviorist view of
thinking |
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During the time Mead introduced his ideas of language & thought,
introspection & talking therapy were popular in psychology |
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In our conversations & actions, we strain to elicit automatic behavior |
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Prayer, meditation, focused exercise, artistic practice, etc. often
results in the is stopping of the conversations in our mind |
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Prayer, meditation, focused exercise, artistic practice, etc. stops
thinking & therefore enhances or expands consciousness |
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THERE ARE FIVE MENTAL PROCESSES INCLUDING: INTELLIGENCE, REASON,
CONSCIOUSNESS, MEANING MAKING, & MIND |
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1. INTELLIGENCE IS THE MUTUAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE ACTS
OF ORGANISMS & THE ENV |
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In relation to intelligence, both animals & humans can adjust to
each other but only humans use significant symbols |
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In relation to intelligence, animals have unreasoning intelligence
because they have no pause in action, no manipulation |
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2. REASON IS BASED ON THE ABILITY TO POSTPONE ACTION,
TO CONSIDER ALTERNATIVES |
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In relation to reason, we can test out these alternatives mentally
w/ no consequences |
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In relation to reason, we can choose which stimuli to consider |
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3. CONSCIOUSNESS IS AN AWARENESS OF THE
SELF |
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The TWO aspects of consciousness are substantive consciousness &
reflective consciousness |
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Substantive consciousness is that to which the individual alone
has access |
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Only the individual has access to substantive consciousness which is
based on the pre consciousness of impulse, reason, etc. that is done w/o
language or meaning in the social sense |
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Reflective consciousness is the social use symbols from the
external world |
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Thus mental images are social because they arise only in relation to
the external world & in gestures & symbols that are socially created |
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We often recognize the contrast btwn substantive & reflective consciousness
when, in conversation, we admit the difficulty of putting our feelings
into words, or when we know something but don't know how to explain it |
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4. MEANING IS THE CREATION OF MUTUAL SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING |
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Meaning is the creation of mutual social understanding |
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Meaning is highly social as seen in a gesture given to another so that
the other's behavior is predictable in that if we offer a person a compliment,
we expect civil or friendly behavior in return |
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Giving a gift to a loved one only has meaning if both people agree
on that meaning |
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5. THE MIND IS A PROCESS, A CONVERSATION W/ ONESELF |
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The mind arises & develops w/in a social process & is an integral
part of that process |
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Society is the processes that precedes both the mind
& the self |
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The social processes precedes the mind, precedes meaning, & is
not a product of the mind |
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The mind is not only the ability to create a response in another,
but the response of the community as a whole |
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We give a particular gift because our society defines it as appropriate |
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It is difficult or impossible to give a gift that has solely individualistic
meaning |
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Symbolic interactionism foreshadowed Giddens & the Post Modernists
who see institutions as both constraining & enabling to the creative
individual |
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For Mead, we need to grasp the emergence of society, self, etc.
in that the whole is more than sum of its part just as water, i.e. H2O,
is vastly different than 2 Hs & an O |
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