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Review Notes on  ST 13:  The Process of Legitimation
External
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 Legitimation  
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           The Processes of Socialization  
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           Ideology  
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 The Social Psychological Process of Legitimation  
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           Values  
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           KBVN AOII  
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           Class & False Consciousness  
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           Class & False Consciousness - Adv  
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           Norms of Distributive Justice  
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 The Socialization Process & Self-Evaluation & Legitimation  
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           Individualism & Equal Opportunity  
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 The Development of the Values of Individualism & Equal Opportunity  
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           The Working Class' Values of Individualism & Equal Opportunity  
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           Religious Values of Individualism & Equal Opportunity  
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 Social Structures as Agents of LegitimIzation  

 
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  Outline on  Legitimation
External
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  -  Project:  Legitimation in Society Today through the Processes of Socialization 
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  Legitimation is the consent of the governed, based on their belief that their leaders have a right to their position & are acting in an appropriate ways
 
  The more quickly a govt. moves to rectify just grievances, the greater the legitimacy it will have, & the more peaceful & secure it will be  
  Legitimation is the process by which a system of social stratification, a level of inequality, etc., & the power elites are made acceptable to the general population
 
  Legitimacy is the view by people that their govt. has the right or authority to rule
 
  The process of legitimation is the method of maintaining obedience & structure inequality  
  Legitimation is a process of socialization; it is simply a form of socialization that socializes people to accept the justice & necessity of their society  
  The processes of legitimation are at their most fundamental level, the processes of socialization  
  See Also:  The Processes of Socialization  
  Legitimation is accomplished by the processes of socialization, including selective exposure, modeling, identification, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & nurturance ( SMIPNN )  
  The processes of socialization legitimate the system by routinizing social relationships through the social structures of peers, family, religion, econ, govt, military, charity, ed, media, & leisure ( PF REG M CEML )  
  See Also:  The Social Structures  
  The content of legitimation is a justification for the present socio politico econ sys which is in essence an ideology, an ideology of legitimacy, though one's ideology is a broad world view that includes not only legitimacy but views on the other major spheres of life  
  An ideology is a  particular system of ideas a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group or a person especially on social & political topics  
  See Also:  Ideology  
  The functionality, dysfunctionality, validity or invalidity of a particular ideology is embodied in the concepts of class & false consciousness as developed by Marx, et al  
  See Also:  Class & False Consciousness  
  Class consciousness occurs when groups accept the ideology relevant to their own interest  
  False consciousness occurs when subordinate groups accept the ideology of the dominant group & believe things that are not in their own interest  
  Each society must legitimate itself or face a crisis of confidence  
  To the extent that a society pursues the interests of the masses of people, & not only the elites, the ideology of legitimacy would consist of a part of the class consciousness of the masses  
  To the extent that a society pursues the interests of the elites at the expense of the masses of people, the ideology of legitimacy would consist of a part of the false consciousness of the masses  
  Each type of strat systems may be analyzed using FIVE characteristics of strat systems, including:
1.  normativity which is the open or closed:  acceptance of mobility
2.  the method of placement including ascription, achievement, mixture
3.  the method of legitimization by tradition, ideological, religion, legal system, etc.
4.  the form of inequality including status, class, power
5.  the level of inequality which was 
     a.  low in primitive communal
     b.  high in slave, caste & feudal
     c.  medium in class
 
  Throughout hist there have been 6 types of societies, each which legitimized itself  
Link
 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Types of the Stratification Systems examines the 6 Fundamental Types of Stratification Systems & the Characteristics of Stratification Systems shows that each type of sys has its own form of legitimation, which functions the most effectively to justify the openness or closedness of that society 
 
  If capitalism is the base of elite power & privilege, the population must be convinced that private ownership & private profit are just & in the best interests of all in society  
  If communism is the base of elite power & privilege, the population must be convinced that this political econ is just & in the best interests of all  
  While strat & the legitimation of strat have existed at different levels throughout history, they also vary among contemporary nations  
  Comparative research found less acceptance of high inequality in Sweden & Japan than the US  
  Euro nations are less likely to accept high inequality of income & wealth than the US  
  The legitimacy of inequality also varies among classes  
  Higher class people are more willing to accept inequality based on merit, while lower class people are more willing to accept inequality based on need  
  People in higher occupations, & people who claim to be more politically conservative prefer higher pay for higher occupations  
  The young, minorities, & those lower in occupational status are more likely to favor greater equality  
  All research shows that it is more difficult to convince those at the bottom of the class system that our strat system is legitimate  
  All research shows that it is more difficult to convince those at the top of the class system that our strat system is illegitimate  
  The question for the study of stratification is, 'How can the public support such high levels of inequality?'
 
  But inequality & exploitation may exist for long periods of time w/o legitimacy or acceptance  
  Traditional societies used religion & the 'legitimacy of force,' i.e. "might makes right" to bolster social control in support of their high level of inequality
 
  Cultural values of democracy & equality of opportunity suggest that high levels of inequality & lack of opportunities are condemned
 
  Despite the condemnation of inequality in our society, we find continuing inequality in our society; the highest levels of any industrialized country  
  One reason for the legitimacy of US inequality, as Orwell put it in Animal Farm, "Ignorance is bliss"- or bliss at least for the elites
 
  In many countries, access to info is restricted, but the US has a relatively open system
 
  There continues to be some means of countering or slanting info causing doubt & confusion so that we don't know who or what is to blame for social problems  
  The US ranks the lowest of all industrial nations in newspaper readership, books, printed & sold, per capita
 
  Americans were last, behind Canada, Mexico, Britain, France, Spain, Germany & Italy, on 5 basic current event questions
94 % of Germans could identify Boris Yeltsin in 1994
50 % of Americans could
79 % of Germans knew the Israelis had recently signed a peace treaty w/ the Palestinians
40 % of Americans knew
 
  Thus we can conclude that it is relatively easier to mislead Americans than other people in industrialized nations.
 
  Legitimation may be considered w/ respect to FOUR social systems including: 
a.  the elite class
b.  a particular regime in power
c.  a particular system or political economy
d.  a value system that supports a particular stratification system
 
  Legitimization is a process of socialization that takes place through many processes which occur at all three levels of social reality including the micro level, the mid level, & the macro level  
  Legitimization at the micro level occurs through the social psychological & symbolic interactionist mechanisms of self evaluation, solidarity rituals, & the ideology of individualism, the ideology of equal opportunity, norms of distributive justice, etc.  
  Legitimation at the mid level occurs through social interaction in the fluid structures of everyday life such as the practice of religion, civil religion, the pseudo rationalization of evaluation & reward, the promulgation of a professional / civil attitude in everyday life, etc.   
  Legitimation at the macro level occurs through social interaction in the stable structures of the major social structures  ( PF REG  M CEML ) through the processes of   
  The social psychological / micro processes of legitimation occur at a very abstract level in that they occur primarily at the human personal level which is subjective in that people do not have direct access to others' perceptions, values, & norms  
  The micro processes of legitimation are abstract because to a great extent we do not have direct access to even our own perceptions, values, & norms  
  The micro processes of legitimation only help to produce tendencies to accept inequality; there is no automatic acceptance of inequality  
  The macro processes of legitimation are the social arrangements as accomplished by the social structures that lead to the elite's power & privilege  
  The social structures may legitimate a particular foreign policy or econ policy to fight inflation  

 
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Chart on the Characteristics of the Types of the Stratification Systems
PW
Type of Strat 
System		 Ranks
(Mobility)		 Method of 
Placement		 Legitimization
(ideology)		 Basis of 
Ranking		 Level of
Equality
Primitive open achievement tradition status hi equality
Slavery generally closed ascription legal/racism economic (class) hi inequality
Caste closed ascription religion status hi inequality
Feudal generally closed generally ascription legal/religious economic highest inequality
Class open mostly achievement legal economic/
bureaucratic (power)		 low to medium
Post-industrial open mostly achievement legal economic/
bureaucratic (power)		 low to high
In relation to legitimation, he Chart on the Characteristics of the Types of the Stratification Systems examines the 6 Fundamental Types of Stratification Systems & the Characteristics of Stratification Systems shows that each type of sys has its own form of legitimation, which functions the most effectively to justify the openness or closedness of that society 

 
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  Outline on the  Processes of Socialization
 
External
Links
  -  Project:  Socialization by the Social Structures
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  -  Video:  The Agents of Socialization
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  -  Video:  Socialization
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  -  Video:  Review of Socialization
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 Socialization is a lifelong process through which we are "taught" roles & "develop" a self image
 
 
 Socialization is essentially the same as learning or imprinting, aka "deep learning"
 
  There are   SIX   processes of socialization        ( SMIPNN )  
  1.  Selective exposure is the controlling of the influences to which another is exposed  
  Selective exposure is the process of exposure to those behaviors & attitudes considered desirable & sheltered from those regarded as undesirable  
  Maximization of good influences is selective exposure socialization   
  Examples:  the V Chip; a father talking to his 11 year old son, "No, you may not watch Baywatch."  Friends choosing what music to listen to;  CNN's coverage of the news   
Link
 2.  Modeling is the demonstration or acting out of behavior  
  Modeling is imitating the behavior of significant others & role models  
  Modeling begins with observing the behavior of another and with retention of images of such behavior in a person's memory.  Then one imitates, or reproduces that behavior.  "Eventually, however, this goes beyond mere habit, and it is repeated in situations beyond that in which it was originally observed."   
  Examples:  The little boy, dressing up like Dad and going off to work, or girls watching cheerleaders   
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 3.  Identification is an extreme form of modeling where the other establishes an emotional bond w/ the Model  
 
 Identification is seeing ourselves as the same as someone who nurtures us   
 
 Identification is the positive feelings toward an individual that lead a child to want to be like that person  
  Example:  The little boy, day-dreaming of being a great baseball player
  The little girl, day-dreaming of being President		  
 
 4.  Positive reinforcement includes rewards & removal of negative reinforcement  
  A friendly slap on the back or an invitation to join a group activity may be reward for an approved action or viewpoint  
 
 5.  Negative reinforcement includes punishments & removal of positive reinforcement  
  Positive & negative reinforcement socialization may also be known as reward & punishment socialization  
  Reinforcing correct behavior is reward & punishment socialization   
  Example:  “You are such a good girl, eating with your fork like a grown-up!”   
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 6.  Nurturance is support, affection, etc.   
  Nurturance is a special form of reward & punishment which is the support, affection, etc., or lack of, given by a significant other role model  
  Development of strong positive feelings towards another w/ whom one has a primary relationship is nurturance  
  Loving your child is an example of nurturance  

 
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b. Modeling
Demonstration or acting out of behavior
Children, esp, imitate behavior especially of Significant Others and Role Models
As a child we model almost everyone & everything around us
Teens and adults also imitate
But we model only those people/things that we feel are important to us

 
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c.  Identification
While we model almost everyone as a child, & important people as an adult,  we only identify w/ those who inspire  or nurture us
Strongest examples
Heroes
Lovers
Identification is a subset or type of modeling
Identification is a more powerful version of modeling
We may model our favorite boss, religious leader, actor
   but we may or may not id w/ them

Almost all children identify w/ parents

Some say:  we have no models / heroes today......   true? 


 
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f.  Nurturance
Giving....   care   help   affection   attention  ( listening )
The lack of nurturance is extremely powerful
Ostracism is one of most powerful social weapons
Greater than punishment

We develop strong positive feelings toward person acting as an AOS because any of previous 5 methods of socialization can be seen as nurturance
Example:  how can punishing a child be seen as nurturance?    Tough Love


 
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Outline on  Ideology
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  AN IDEOLOGY IS A WAY OF THINKING, A WORLDVIEW  
  An ideology is a  particular system of ideas, a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group, or a person especially on social & political topics   
  An ideology is a system of thought based on related assumptions, beliefs, & explanations of social movements or policies   
  Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality   
  An ideology may be understood as a "world view"   
  Ideology & culture are very similar in meaning.  The definition for ideology asserts that the knowledge, beliefs, & values shared by a society give legitimacy to the social structure   
  An ideology is a system of ideas that is pre conscious that often embodies a rationalization of motivations   
  IDEOLOGIES COMBINE ALL FACETS OF SOCIAL EXISTENCE  
  An ideology's content may be economic, political, philosophical, or religious   
  Some ideologies, such as communism & socialism, refer to econ & political systems   
  Other ideologies are capitalism, democracy, fascism, feminism, Protestantism, racism, Roman Catholicism, totalitarianism, & more   
  Ideologies do not rely equally on factual info in supporting their beliefs   
  People who accept an entire thought system usually reject all other systems concerned w/ the same content   
  To such people, only conclusions based on their ideology seem logical & correct   
  people strongly committed to an ideology have difficulty understanding & communicating w/ supporters of a conflicting ideology   
  Conflicting ideologies held by various nations, social classes, or religious groups have led to the world's greatest & most dangerous controversies   
  For example, World War 2 was largely a struggle btwn democratic & totalitarian nations   
  IDEOLOGIES HAVE SOCIAL POSITIONS, I.E. EXIST IN A HISTL CONTEXT  
  Ideologies have a "social position" in that they often support or justify a party, class, or group   
  Ideology & contextual knowledge:  Because we all have an ideology, & our own personal historical context true knowledge is impossible   
  Epistemology is the sociology of knowledge or how knowledge is socially created   
  Conflict theorists, Marxists, etc. believe that, narrowly speaking, consciousness, or broadly speaking, ideology, is shaped by the interaction of material ( working ) conditions & the dominant culture in which one finds oneself   
  A major focus of conflict theory is the examination of ideology which is a world view, including  knowledge, opinions, etc.   
  For conflict theorists, our ideology is that part of our culture of which we are generally, but not specifically aware   
  Ideology is important to conflict theorists because they seek an end to class domination, & to achieve that end, people must first understand that they are exploited, & desire to end that exploitation   
 
 Social scientists know that their is an interaction of ideology & social position, but they do not agree on how that interaction operates 
i
 
 The materialists believe that one's social position determines ideology 
 
 
 The idealists believe that one's ideology determines social position 
 
  The conflict theorist / Marxist view is that social position determines one's view of society, i.e., one's world view or ideology 
 
  Montesquieu first developed the concept of the "contextualization" of knowledge as seen in many contemporary theories of ideology   
  MARX:  CLASS DETERMINES CONSCIOUSNESS  
  Marx developed an analysis which held that class determines consciousness through a process that follows FOUR steps   
  a.  labor determines class   
  b.  labor & class determine consciousness   
  c.  what you do, determines how you think   
  d.  you are what you do   
  Marx developed an analysis which held that through the creative process of our labor, we develop an ideology which embodies the adage that "you are what you do"   
  CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS IS AN UNDERSTANDING OF YOUR OWN BEST INTEREST  
  Class consciousness occurs when a group of people w/ a common self interest correctly perceive that interest & develop beliefs, values, & norms consistent w/ advancing that interest   
  Class consciousness occurs when subordinate groups do not accept ideology of the dominant group, but accept ideology relevant to their own interests   
  THE DOMINANT CLASS' IDEOLOGY USUALLY DOMINANTS   
  The ideology of the dominant group or class is often the most prominent ideology   
  People accept the ideology of the dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interest   
  Much of social analysis concerns 
a.  the nature of the dominant group's ideology 
b.  why people accept the dominant group's ideology 
c.  how the dominant group's ideology is disseminated 		  
  STRUGGLES OCCUR OVER IDEOLOGY & MATERIAL RESOURCES  
  For many social theorists, culture, ideology, etc. cause conflict   
  For many social theorists, cultural belief systems, ideology, ethnicity & religion, can cause a lot of conflict   
  Ideological struggle has gone by various names such as: 
a.  the culture wars 
b.  the struggle for the hearts & minds 
c.  religious wars 		  
  When analyzing these ideological struggles, one must also examine material / economic struggles   
Link
 Examples of ideological & material struggles   

 
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Examples of ideological & material struggles 
Israeli - Arab conflict:  religion & land 
Black - White conflict:  some amorphous ideology of race/culture & equal opportunity rights 
Catholics & Protestants in No Ireland:  religion & land & equal opportunity rights 
PW

 
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Outline on the  Social Psychological Process of Legitimation
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 There is mutual, i.e. reflexive interaction btwn the individual & society ( in all of its manifestations )
 
  As individuals, we recognize the group, society, etc. has influence on us as individuals  
  Because society is a collection of individuals, any collective process is grounded in individual understandings & motives  
 
 A social psychological analysis of legitimation examines how individuals, small groups, & some social forces that operate at an individual level function to create an acceptance of stratification & inequality
 
 
 A social psychological analysis of legitimation asks:
 
  -  Why do some people often willingly accept a smaller share than equal opportunity indicates?   
  -  Why do people willingly accept the legitimacy of authority figures?  
  -  Conflict relationships may be inherent in society, but when overt conflict is not threatening, how is it pushed to the background?   
 
 Norms of distributive justice exist in every society, but vary a great degree both w/in societies, as well as btwn societies
 
 
 Norms of Distributive Justice existed even in H-G societies, but developed into a form recognizable when civilization began, i.e. in the Pre Empire Era, 10 K BC - 3 K BC
 
  HG Norms of dist just include
- the ownership of communal property
- sharing all food
- all for one, one for all		  
  Norms of distributive justice in civilization ( beginning w/ the Pre Empire Era & following ) include the establishment of a sense of elementary justice in sharing goods & services & the reduction of overt conflict  
 
 The principle of the merit system is that greater rewards are sanctioned for those who contribute the most
 
 
 Festinger & his theory of cognitive dissonance holds that we developed the norm that rewards should be proportional to investment & contributions because this is what felt fair
 
 
 On the other hand, contrary to the merit system, there is also support for distribution based on need
 
  Moore argues that all societies have distribution norms based on both need & contribution  
 
 In terms of merit, those w/ a higher level occupation & education are judged to deserve more income
 
  In terms of need, those w/ a larger family are judged to deserve more income  
 
 Alves & Rossie attempted to survey people to find the range of "fair" income for people in the US
 
  The range of "fair income" as a norm in the US which Alves & Rossie found was much narrower than the actual range in existence  
  The conclusions of Alves & Rossie are that people are tolerating much more inequality than they believe should exist, or else they don't know about it, or they don't much care about it  
 
 Those higher in the class system focus more on merit when making fairness judgments
 
  Those lower in the class system, focus more on need when making fairness judgments  
 
 We must conclude that most peoples' norms of distributive justice are ambiguous & imprecise
 
  We have a general value, that when applied to a specific, concrete situation, becomes vague  

 
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 Outline on  Values
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  Values are shared personal judgments/preferences about what is considered good/bad, like/dislike that serve as broad guidelines for social life  
 
 Values are what a social actor, i.e. a person, group, society, etc., judges as good or bad in a social relationship, thing etc.
 
  A values is something (as a principle, quality, or entity) intrinsically valuable or desirable, as in a regulated system of values  
  Erich Fromm, the psychologist, said that all values are relative to a given culture   
 
 Values concerning social relations are often termed morals or ethics
 
  A value is a principle, standard, or quality considered worthwhile or desirable: "The speech was a summons back to the patrician values of restraint and responsibility"  
  Values are the beliefs of a person or social group in which they have an emotional investment (either for or against something); "He has very conservatives values"  
 
 Morals are habits of life or modes of conduct; as in a principal of life
 
 
 People usually accept the ideology of dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interests
 
 
 Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality
 
  See Also:  Ideology  
 
 For conflict theorists, values should be determined by, or at the very least, harmonious w/ one's interests & interests should be determined by one's values
 
 
  See Also:  Interest
 
  People have an ideology characterized by class consciousness or authenticity when they have values & interests in support of their own group / sub culture  
  See Also:  Class & False Consciousness  
 
 But false consciousness prevents the correct interaction btwn interests & values because the interests of the ruling class come to predominate
 
 
 The ideology of the dominant group / class is often the most prominent ideology
 
 
 People accept the ideology of the dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interest
 
  RANGE OF VALUES  
  Values are always defined by their variability in that one may believe in monogamy or polyamory, i.e. having one lover / spouse, v. having more than one  
  Values imply a choice as in I prefer chocolate cake to coconut cake  
  Values may be more or less absolute in that I prefer chocolate cake but also have a taste for coconut cake  
  Our taste for food, does not demand mental consistency, we see variety as the spice of life,   
  Most people prefer a high level of consistency consistency in their values, & inconsistency causes the self to feel anxiety, & for SOs to judge one unfavorably, & for GOs to treat one w/ disdain  
  Because people are generally unaware of their real values (see below), there is often a wide range of inconsistent values operating in one person  
  When one has a life experience which calls for the demonstration of a value, if one has not developed that value, one often chooses a value w/ which one believes they are being consistent w/ their other values  
  Thus individuals seek to be consistent in one value, operating the same all the time, & to be consistent in their entire value set  
  ORIGIN OF VALUES  
  One word describes how we get our values:  socialization  
  Some social scientists, physical scientists, theologians, philosophers, etc. believe or seek to demonstrate that values come from sources other than socialization   
  Non socialization arguments for the origin of values hold that values originate from one's physical being such as genes, e.g. the altruistic gene; god or his or her representative, e.g. God, Jesus, Mohammed, Diva, etc.; rationalizations e.g. "I think, therefore I am.... " or some other argument  
  Socialization is the only argument for the origin of values which has been scientifically established  
  Socialization includes the processes of selective exposure, modeling, identification, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & nurturance  ( SMIPNN )  
  See Also:  Socialization  
  The major task for social scientists is to determine the agent of socialization which is responsible for the creation of a culture's, org's, or individual's value set  
  Functionalists believe that we we gain our values primarily through all of the social structures ( PF REG M CEML )  
  See Also:  Functionalism  
  See Also:  The Social Structures  
  Conflict theorists believe that we gain our values primarily through work, the economy, & education, as well as the family, who gets it's values from it's experience of work, the economy, & education  
  See Also:  Conflict Theory  
  REAL & IDEAL VALUES  
  Core American values have an ideal & a real aspect  
Link
 Table: Core American Values: Ideal & Real Aspects
 
 
 Ideal values are those that actors hold "patriotically," or rhetorically, that actors believe that they hold
 
 
 Real values are those that actors actually practice; when faced w/ a "situation," actors show their Real Values
 
 
 The importance of a value, any value is the extent to which it is accepted
 
  Ideal values are that set of values that are popular, or widely held, in a society's culture, or sub culture  
  In some cases, some people may believe that they hold values, called counter values, which run contrary to the values of a society  
  Real values are the operative or in practice values, which a person may not be conscious of  
  Thus a person may believe in equal opportunity, but not practice it, operating instead on nepotism, cronyism, favoritism, bribery, etc.   
  A person is generally not aware of their real or actual set of values  
  A person may not even have a set of ideal values in that if asked what their opinion is, or their values around a subject, they don't know what it is  
  People gain awareness of their real values through several routes, including:  therapy, surveys, a 'test of life,' action in life, long consideration of a value or subject, etc.   
  MICRO & MACRO VALUES  
 
 Values range in extent from broad cultural forces to individual norms
 
 
 Three types:
 
 
 a.  Macro level values include cultural norms & expectations include the deep roots in a culture that are usually uncritically accepted in that norms are social rules, formal & informal, that are obvious because everyone follows them
 
 
 b.  Mid level values include ideological positions are rationalizations for particular policy views
 
 
 Agencies, legislatures, courts, interest groups, etc. all have norms & expectations about goals & behavior. 
 
 
 c. Micro level values include personal beliefs & attitudes that vary from individual to individual:  desire for power or fame, integrity. 
 

 
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Table: Core American Values:
Ideal & Real Aspects
Core American Values: 
general consensus 
( may conflict )		 Ideal culture: 
accepted in principle		 Real culture: 
actually practiced
1.  Freedom   Freedom for all; Freedom is our Number 1 Value!  We allow more freedom for a middle majority & the upper class, less for the others.  Many groups have limited freedom
2.  Democracy
 
 
3.  Individualism 
 
 
4.  Responsibility 
 
 
5.  Religion / morality 
 
 
6.  Science/tech 
 
 
7.  Equal Opportunity
 
 
8.  Competition
 
 
9.  Work ethic
 
 
10.  Humanitarianism
 
 
11.  Practicality
 
 
12.  Nationalism
 
 
13.  Romance
 
 
14.  Sexuality
 
 

 
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 Outline on   KBVN AOII
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your KBVN AOII & the Env 
Link
  CULTURE & OUR AWARENESS OF CULTURE   
  Culture is the shared content of society 
 
  Culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ( K B V N ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content  
  Attitudes, opinions, interests, & ideology ( AOII ) are an individual's culture  
  Our consciousness or awareness of culture is manifested through our AOII  
  The FOUR components of culture are knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms       ( K B V N ) 
 
  Culture is the shared set of meanings that are lived through material & symbolic practices, & the socially created objects of everyday life
 
  UNAWARENESS OF CULTURE
 
  We are generally unaware of our own culture, of the KBVN that we hold in common w/ most other members of society
 
  The fact that we are unaware of our culture is not to say that we are unconscious of our culture
 
  We can gain awareness of some of KBVN
- through living "the examined life"
- through therapy, counseling, etc.

"Know thyself"
 
  INTERSECTION OF K & B 
 
  Individuals usually believe that their K & B are the same
 
  What we K may not jive w/ what we believe such as is seen w/ general society beliefs on female & male drivers, & the knowledge that, for example, the insurance industry has about female & male drivers
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a person, that person has a consistent, healthy mental state
 
  To the extent that K & B are in sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it has a consistent, healthy mental state & would tend to be a functional social entity
 
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a person, that person has a conflict, possibly unhealthy mental state that may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
  To the extent that K & B are out of sync in a subculture, culture, or society, it is in conflict, & may be characterized by anomie or alienation  
 
 The impact of culture on actions comes through our attitudes, opinions, & interests ( AOI )
 
  ATTITUDE   
 
 An attitude is a mental state that one consciously feels (emotes) that affects beh & generally cannot be articulated
 
 
 An attitude is the amalgam of our culture, our KBVN, that we can sense but are not consciously enough aware of so that we can explain or voice it to ourselves or others
 
 
 But since we do often act on the basis of emotion or feeling, attitudes are important in shaping behavior
 
  We are generally unaware of our attitude in a rational sense, i.e. we find it difficult to explain or even understand it   
  When we have a strong attitude, we may be aware of it's general direction   
  Those significant others who know us well may know our attitude better than we do because they have a better chance to be an outside, objective observer   
  OPINION   
 
 An opinion is an attitude that one can articulate, at least to a minimum extent
 
  We can voice our opinion  
  It is a reflection of our K & B of which we are aware  
  An opinion is a reflection of our Vs & Ns which are general below our level of awareness   
  But in most cases our understanding of our opinion is a poor reflection of our actual or real attitudes   
  Because we often cannot totally explain opinions, or because it is obvious to us that they are based on beliefs or values, & not on knowledge, an opinion is a particular judgment or belief resting on grounds insufficient to produce certainty  
  Most people recognize that opinions are not rationales for doing or believing something   
  We generally accept that opinion can be easily swayed  
  PUBLIC OPINION   
 
 Public opinion is the opinions of people throughout a soc about 1 or more controversial issues
 
 
 Generally a group or society can voice its public opinion if they have a relatively free & open society & they have the resources in the form of media or social scientists to uncover that public opinion & make it known
 
  Public opinion is a reflection of our below awareness V & N but in most cases it is a poor reflection  
 
 In modern societies today there is often the sense that public opinion is true
 
  There are two reasons that public opinion is judged to be true  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because it is judge to be an accurate, scientific reflection of many people & thus the truth is based on the idea that the opinion has been reliably measured  
  One reason modern societies have the sense that public opinion is true is because we have a fundamental, democratic value "the people" are always right  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe it is accurate & if we have the same belief  
  We are more likely to believe public opinion is true if we believe that many people hold that belief  
  Many earlier social scientists examined what they called the spirit of society (SpS) which is the generally unconscious attitude of a society  
  The SpS is mostly below most people's awareness level & thus it is an emotional experience  
  Durkheim wrote about the collective unconsciousness which is similar to the SpS  
  Tocqueville wrote about the which is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of the sociological imagination, Mills writes that to understand our relationship in the world, it is necessary to understand the general character of the men & women who are coming to prevail in that society & thus the general character is similar to the SpS  
  In his exposition of class & false consciousness, Marx writes that a class of people must have a historical view of the social relationships that are the best for them, i.e. their interests, in that society, & thus class consciousness is similar to the SpS  
  INTERESTS   
  An interest is what social relationships an individual or group judge to promote their general welfare  
  Interests are usually economic  
  For Marx, an interests is determined by person's relationship to the means of prod  
  Interests are mostly below the level of awareness for an individual or a group & thus are an emotional experience  
  Marx & others pt out that we need to make interests more apparent to selves & others if we expect society to function properly  
  Example:  What is my interest in a new road going by my house?  What is my  interest in the war in Iraq?  What is my interest in the development of the space shuttle?   
  TYPOLOGY OF INTERESTS   
  People often act against there self interest & against the interest of soc  
 
Type of Interest
Real one's "objective" interest
Perceived what one believes to be their interest
False not in one's "objective" interest
Class the interest of a class
Community the interest of a community
Social the interest of a society
Human the interest of the world/all humanity
 
  IDEOLOGY  
  An ideology is a  particular system of ideas a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group or a person especially on social & political topics  
  Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality
 
  An ideology may be understood as a "worldview"  
  KBVN AOII AFFECTED BEHAVIOR  
  It is only logical to assume that one's attitude, opinion, etc. would affect or determine one's behavior  
  In most cases, we assume that our actions, therefore, are congruent w/ out KBVN AOII, but in practice that may not always be so  
  Because much of KBVN AOII falls below the level of explicit consciousness, & because we may have one or several conflicts, contradictions, or inconsistencies in our mental system of KBVN AOII, we may act in a way that does not represent what one would expect from our KBVN AOII  
  We may not act consistently because we may emphasis one part of our mental system in one context & another part in another context  
  A person may believe that K is motivating her/him, when in fact an inconsistent V is actually motivating them  
  To the extent that we know ourselves & to the extent that our mental system is consistent, we will act more predictably  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization  

 
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Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior
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Knowledge He wore a coat because he knew it would rain; he saw the weather radar report  
Belief She wore a coat because she believed in would not rain because it was nice in the morning  
Value He  work a coat because he valued being warm & dry, as opposed to the value of looking good w/o one  
Norm She wore a coat because Mom always made her wear one when it looked like rain  
Attitude His negative attitude about wearing his coat was apparent to everyone but him; he didn't believe he needed it.  
Opinion In her opinion, she didn't need to wear the coat.  
Real Int It was in his (real) interest to wear the coat because there was a high chance of rain.  
Perceived She saw that it was in her interest to wear the coat because she knew her mother watched the weather.  
False He didn't think it was in his interest to wear the coat because he thought it looked bad.  
Class It is in the interest of the lower class to have coats.  It is not in the interest of the rich for the lower class to have coats because it makes them comfortable & more likely to demand other things.  
Community It is in the interest of the community for the lower class to have coats.  
Natl It is in the interest of the nation for all classes to have coats.  
World It is in the interest of the world for everyone to have coats.  
Ideology Belief in an ideology of human rights including the basic necessity of life for all means that all people should have food, water, clothing, shelter, ed....  
  The Table on Examples of KBVN AOI Affecting Behavior shows that we can have various mental states about the same subject that may or may not be consistent  

 
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 Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding
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  Way of Understanding Cultural /mental state  
  Common sense BN O  
  Religion BN O  
  Science K  
  Emotion VN AI  
  All of the above Ideology  
  Ways of Understanding  
  The Table on KBVN AOII & the Ways of Understanding shows that particular parts of our mental system are mostly strongly influenced by a particular way of understanding, a process of learning, a process of socialization   

 
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 Outline on an  Intro to Class & False Consciousness
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  -  Project:  Class & False Consciousness
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  -  Project: The Reasons the US has no Class Consciousness
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  CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS OCCURS WHEN GROUPS ACCEPT THE IDEOLOGY RELEVANT TO THEIR OWN INTERESTS
 
  Class consciousness is when subordinate groups do not accept the ideology of the dominant group, but accept ideology relevant to their own interests
 
  Class consciousness is when a group of people embrace a culture / life- style that represents their own interests
 
  An example of class consciousness is that the rich believe in their own superiority & the natural inferiority of the poor
 
  An example of class consciousness is that the middle class believe in equal opportunity for all & not in the superiority of the rich & not in the natural inferiority of the poor
 
  FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS OCCURS WHEN SUBORDINATE GROUPS ACCEPT THE IDEOLOGY OF THE DOMINANT GROUP & BELIEVE THINGS THAT ARE NOT IN THEIR OWN INTEREST
 
  False consciousness is when a group of people embrace a culture / life-style that harms their own interests
 
  For Marx, when non upper class people accept the world view of upper class, they have false consciousness
 
  An example of false consciousness is that the middle class indulging in consumerism, believing the rich are deserving, the poor are not deserving
 
  An example of false consciousness is that during the 1972 Presidential race, McGovern, the Democratic candidate, proposed limiting inheritance to .5 mm & this position was opposed by the vast majority of people even though over 90%  wouldn't be affected
 
  Class consciousness occurs when a group of people w/ a common self interest correctly perceive that interest & develop beliefs, values, & norms consistent w/ advancing that interest
 
  The concepts of class & false consciousness do not denote correct & incorrect consciousness  
  Historically, the class & false consciousness Ideologies of some groups have been accepted as wrong by most observers  
  Marx saw the workers, i.e. the proletariat, as the only group capable of class consciousness
 
  False consciousness is the beliefs, values, etc. that work against a group's / class' self interest
 
  Both workers & owners can experience false consciousness
 
 
 Many theorists believe this is the common condition today
 
 
 For Marx, we have either class or false consciousness  
 
 For Marx, class consciousness develops out of working class experience/context  
  An important aspect of class is the extent to which a society has members who are aware of, & identify w/ the social classes to which they belong  
  Americans are less class conscious than people in other societies  
  Nearly all Americans think of themselves as "middle class" or "working class"  
  In many societies, the wealthy readily identify themselves as upper class  
 
 There are FIVE reasons the US has no class consciousness
1.  The culture & ideology of the US is that of equal opportunity
2.  The media & all social structures support the Horatio Alger Myth
3.  The US has a relatively weak Labor Movement & no Labor Party
4.  Education is tied to social class in the US
5.  The US once had more structural mobility
 
 
 1.  THE CULTURE & IDEOLOGY OF THE US IS THAT OF EQUAL OPPORTUNITY
 
  As a result of  the US's foundation on the counter value of rebellion against title & monarchy, & the dissemination of the Horatio Alger Myth, the US's ideology mystifies class status  
  American's prefer not to openly acknowledge their class status  
  Americans prefer to believe that people have similar statuses & similar situations in life; that we are all pretty much alike  
 
 2.  THE MEDIA & ALL SOCIAL STRUCTURES SUPPORT THE HORATIO ALGER MYTH
 
  America's entertainment media, education system, all sectors of society, support the belief that anyone who tries can succeed, & that love will easily overcome social class differences btwn people  
  Examples of media support of false consciousness:  
  Pretty Woman  
  Dirty Dancing  
  White Palace  
  The Horatio Alger Myth supports false consciousness, preventing people from acting in their own interests  
      See Also:  The Horatio Alger Myth  
  The widespread presence of the Horatio Alger Myth, & similar ideological components in Am culture illustrates that it is in the class interest of the wealthy to promote the image of Am as a society where class doesn't really matter & where anyone can "make it"  
 
 When people perceive that there is not equal opportunity, they criticize the system & support change
 
  When people have false consciousness, when they believe that anyone can succeed, they accept the system as fair & legitimate  
  As long as people have false consciousness, believe in the fairness of the system, they will not demand changes that threaten the wealthy & the powerful  
  It is in the interest of those w/ wealth, including ownership & control of the media, to promote the Horatio Alger Myth, the ideology that the system is open & fair  
 
 3.  THE US HAS A RELATIVELY WEAK LABOR MOVEMENT & NO LABOR PARTY
 
  There is evidence that people who question the ideology of fairness are treated more harshly in the US than elsewhere  
  For example Sexton, 1991, demonstrates that Labor Unions & Labor organizers were, & are, repressed more harshly in the US than in Europe  
  In the 1930s, the US used the military, police & private security companies to interfere w/ strikes, often w/ the use of violence & the hiring of strikebreakers was common  
  Today, the US has the most restrictive labor laws of any industrialized country, & has the least amount of both physical & labor rights protection  
  In Canada, all public employees have the right to organize, bargain, & strike, while in the US they may not strike, taking much power away from organization & bargaining  
  In the US, companies can refuse the contract of a newly certified union, demanding a recertification  
  In Canada, to form a union, unions need only submit signed cards from a majority of workers  
  While the process of using signature cards to obtain union certification is legal in the US, in practice, signature cards & most certification elections are contested  
  The lack of a Labor Movement means there has been no Labor Party in the US, resulting in a general weakening of the political left  
  Canada & most European countries have a major labor or "social democratic" party  
  In Canada & Europe income & vital services such as health care are more equally distributed  
  4.  EDUCATION IS TIED TO SOCIAL CLASS IN THE US   
  Because most educational systems are funded by state & local taxes, usually property taxes, educational systems are much more effective in more wealthy regions, enhancing their class consciousness  
  The upper class sends their children to private school, enhancing their class consciousness  
 
 5.  THE US ONCE HAD MORE STRUCTURAL MOBILITY, WHICH MEANT THAT CLASS RELATIONSHIPS, & HENCE CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS, WAS MORE APPARENT TO PEOPLE & ALSO LESS NECESSARY   
 
 The US had a rapidly expanding economy through the 1950s, providing ever more, higher paying jobs lessening the need for class consciousness  
  As the rest of the world has moved to a modern, industrial economic base, the US faces more global competition, resulting in less economic expansion increasing the need for class consciousness  
  Less economic expansion creates less jobs, which creates less structural mobility making class consciousness more necessary  

 
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 Outline on  Class & False Consciousness - Advanced
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  Marx believed class consciousness would develop out of the working class' concrete experience in the capitalist system because of  FIVE historical material conditions  
  a.. working in a collective setting  
  b.  increasingly miserable conditions  
  c.  the contradiction of the wealth of the owners  
  d.  the lack of other solutions  
  e.  education  
  Lenin, Mao, Stalin, & others believed society needed an elite to rule the proletariat  
  Other conceptions of class consciousness often use the term to signify any feelings of self awareness or common identity among members of a social class  
  Existential philosophers have often used the terms authentic & inauthentic in a manner similar to class & false Consciousness  
  For Lukacs, class consciousness is when the dominate group acts in their own objective interest  
  For Lukacs, false consciousness is when the subordinate group acts against their own objective interest; usually accepts ideology (know & beliefs) of dominant group  
  For Lukacs, class consciousness is neither the sum nor the average of individual consciousnesses  
  For Lukacs, class & false consciousness are the property of a class  
  Lukacs' view is that class & false consciousness are largely determined by social relations in the economic sphere of life  
  For Lukacs, capitalism is the best context for overcoming false consciousness  
  Lukacs believed we do not realize extent of our exploitation, nor our socio historical, economic conditions, & therefore we can only understand, i.e. see, our exploitation by comparing contemporary exploitative relationships to relationships in the past  
  Thus, for Lukacs, the working & middle classes must have an understanding of history to develop class consciousness  
  Lukacs believed most classes in history could not overcome false consciousness  
  Lukacs believed the proletariat have the opportunity to overcome false consciousness because:  
  a.  the economic base of capitalism is simple & clear  
  b.  the state & economy are clearly linked:  not so in past systems  
 
 c.  status is less important today while in the past system status was very important  
 
 Lukacs believed the proletariat must move from fighting for survival to fighting for a specific aim
 
 
 For Mann, 1973, the elements in class consciousness are class identity, class opposition, class totality, & the vision of an alternative society 
an element of class consciousness? 
 
  a. Class identity as an element in class consciousness is the definition of oneself as working class  
  b. Class opposition as an element in class consciousness is the perception that capitalists & their managers constitute an enduring opponent  
  Note that many theorists would denote race or gender as the major oppositional element in society  
  c. Class totality as an element in class consciousness is the social phenomenon where class conflict defines social totality; i.e. it is a characteristic of all aspects of society  
  d. An alternative society as an element in class consciousness is the belief in the need for fundamental change in our social system  
  e.  Class position (not discussed by Mann) as an element in class consciousness is the level of class one is inhabiting whether that be upper class, upper middle class, middle class, working class, lower class, etc. as well as the status & power that society bestows on that class
 
 But false consciousness prevents the correct interaction btwn interests & values because the interests of the ruling class come to predominate
 
 
 The ideology of the dominant group or class is often the most prominent ideology  
 
 People accept the ideology of the dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interest  

 
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 Outline on  Norms of Distributive Justice
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  Norms of distributive justice (NDJ) are those norms that arise when people must cooperate which embody a sense of elementary justice or fairness in sharing good & services  
  As demonstrated by the history of inequality, during the 1.5 mm yrs that people lived in Hunter Gatherer Society, there were very strong NDJ  
  During the H-G Era, NDJ were communal or tribal in that people shared ALL of the work & bounty they harvested  
  During the H-G Era, if one was hungry, all were hungry; when one killed a beast or found a patch of berries, all shared in that bounty  
  In some tribes the potlatch ceremony was developed whereby a rich person, w/ lots of food & wealth, gave it all away at a large, lengthy festival  
  There may have been some inequality of food dist during famine times w/ child bearing age women & men, i.e. the core of adults of the tribe, eating first, children second, & the old or sick people last  
  Fundamentally, the only thing that was not shared equally in the tribe was status in that good hunters, gatherers, & individuals w/ other skills could gain high status compared to others  
  When humankind transitioned from Hunter Gatherer Society to the Early Empire Era, circa 10 K BC to 3 K BC, more individualistic & family oriented norms of distributive justice (NDJ) emerged w/ civilization  
  Because humankind came to live in close proximity, & because a farmer was more independent of others than a tribal member, NDJ became more individualistic
 
  SOCIAL PSYCH & NDJ  
  From a soc psych pt of view, NDJ are the result of psychological understandings of equality based on the contributions we make, & based on the needs we each have  
  Festinger views NDJ from a social psych pt of view
 
  Because NDJ originate in the psyche, NDJ are present in all humans, & thus the NDJ exist universally, though they vary widely
 
  For Festinger, since people strive for cognitive consistency, which reduces anxiety, people hold norms where rewards are proportional to investments & contributions
 
  Because people have different perceptions of the value of rewards, investments, & contributions, people can hold nearly the same NDJ but see the distributive justice of a particular situation very differently
 
  Another soc psych factor which affects NDJ is empathy
 
  Empathy is the action of understanding, being aware of, being sensitive to, & vicariously experiencing the feelings, thoughts, & experience of another of either the past or present w/o having the feelings, thoughts, & experience fully communicated in an objectively explicit manner
 
  Because empathy is the ability to identify w/, understanding of, & vicarious experience of another person's situation, feelings, & motives, NDJ are also the result of need
 
  People have NDJ because they recognize the needs of others & understand they too had those needs in the past, the present, or may have them in the future
 
  Small grp research consistently demonstrates that people possess NDJ
 
  In the US, people make judgments based on both merit & need, w/ some consistency & some variability
 
  In terms of merit, those w/ a higher level job & ed are judged to deserve more income
 
  In terms of need, those w/ a larger family are judged to deserve more income  
  Research shows some agreement upon the fairness of max & min income levels
 
  Alves & Rossi (1978) estb an average fairness judgment that ranges from $7 K to $44 K in yearly income in mid 1970s $, which is much narrower than the actual level of income inequality at the time
 
  Alves & Rossi also found that the higher one is in the class system, the more one bases one's NDJ on merit; & conversely, the lower one is in the class system, the more one bases one's NDJ on need
 
  Thus there is support for inequality based on NDJ, as well as differences among people in applying NDJs
 
  While values vary to measurable extent, they are ambiguous, & become even more ambiguous & variable in concrete situations  
  People vary in their application of NDJ because contributions & needs cannot be judged w/ much accuracy  
  There is the potential for elites to manipulate judgments of contributions so their greater rewards seem justified (Moore, 1978; Della Fave, 1980)  
  NDJ do exist & there is some agreement on what they should be, but also a wide enough range of variability for our present society to exist w/ one of the widest income gaps in its history  

 
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Outline on  Socialization, Self Evaluation, & Legitimation
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  Summary:  The self evaluation of non elites as being to blame for their own position in life & their parallel belief that those above have created their position in life as a result of their own efforts, legitimizes, in their mind, their low level of reward

The self evaluation of elites as being competent & superior & their parallel belief that those below them are incompetent & inferior, legitimizes, in their mind, their high level of reward

  
 
 Many argue that it is simple a different in perception that creates feelings of legitimacy for the level of inequality in our present strat system  
 
 Research demonstrates that the perception of inequality & the processes that create inequality do vary
 
 
 In both the US & the UK, minorities are more likely to perceive greater income inequality  
 
 In the US there is more overall variance in the perception of inequality & the processes that create inequality than the US
 
 
 People more often differ in their in their estimates of inequality in the US than in the UK
 
 
 People accept the present level of inequality because they do not recognize, or have been mislead about, the extent of inequality & opportunity
 
 
 However, the perception explanation of inequality does little to explain why an unequal system has legitimacy & thus social science needs to explain the processes that create these different perceptions
 
 
 If the problem of legitimacy were simply a problem of perception, then simple info & ed would change peoples' perceptions & delegitimize the system; however, rarely does info & ed change a persons' life long held opinion, esp if it is supported by the present culture & social structure
 
 
 Social scientists examine the many factors which legitimize the system, creating varying impressions of inequality  
 
 From Mead, our self concept is 1st developed through interactions w/ significant others (SO)
 
  Later, the self concept is developed through interaction w/ generalized others (GO)  
  Through the process of socialization, we come to define who we are
 
  In examining the impact of socialization on legitimation & strat, we focus on the fact that those toward the bottom of the strat system usually have a lower self evaluation  
  The lower one moves down the occupation authority ranks, the lower the self evaluation  
  The develop of the self through interactions w/ SOs, & GOs occurs through the processes of socialization of selective exposure, modeling, identification, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & nurturance ( SMIPNN )  
  The family structure is an important source of socialization for children & adults that establishes a particular level of self evaluation & legitimizes the system in which one exists
 
  Kerbo discusses how the working class & the middle class raise their children differently raise their children differently [ in C 8:  Wking Class & Mid Class ]  
  Working class children are more likely to be taught to respect authority w/o question  
  Middle & upper class children are taught to be more self reliant & to have greater self confidence in themselves  
  Early on, children ask parents about the status of their family  
  The parents justify their status to their children in the same way they justify it to themselves  
  The educational structure is an important source of socialization for children & adults that establishes a particular level of self evaluation & legitimizes the system in which one exists
 
  School age children move into the world of evaluation by peers & the generalized other ( teachers, peers, parents of others, strangers, etc. )  
  Kerbo describes how ed systems treat children differently by class background  [ Chpt 11:  Social Mobility:  Class Ascription & Achievement ]  
  Peer groups & teachers & other generalized others react to children based on class  
  Tracking affects life chances & self evaluation  
  Class background shapes educational & occupational aspirations through the influences of significant & generalized others  
  Aspirations & self evaluations are both outcomes of this socialization process  
  The occupational structure is an important source of socialization for adults that establishes a particular level of self evaluation & legitimizes the system in which one exists
 
  Research shows that self evaluation is more strongly related to class position in adults than in children  (Rosenberg & Pearlin, 1978; Demo & Savin Williams, 1983)  
  Adults have contact w/ a wider range of class members, making their own class position seem more significant  
  Children interact w/in the same class background because of class segregated neighborhoods, schools, & even classes  
  In the workplace, when workers are treated in a dependent & degraded manner, when work is organized so that workers cannot come to feel self reliant then self esteem is low
 
  Lower level workers are more often dependent, degraded, & controlled than are higher level workers  (Sennett & Cobb, 1973; Pfeffer, 1979)  
  Those in higher authority positions, esp. in the US, seldom assume that workers are self reliant, or possess intelligence or good sense, or can function w/o supervision (Turner, 1992; Lincoln & Kalleberg, 1985, 1990)
 
  The lower one moves down the occupation authority ranks, the lower the self evaluation  
  Wider society is an important source of socialization  for adults that establishes a particular level of self evaluation & legitimizes the system in which one exists
 
  Here feedback becomes more generalized in depicting stereotyped images of class members as a group.  
  Socialization in relationship to the legitimation of strat comes from  
  - the mass media:  movies, new stories, TV  
  - degrading views of welfare recipients & the poor by peers, the media, etc.  
  - working class characters in films  
  - the fact that TV & movie heroes are usually from the Middle & Upper Classes  
  The self evaluation of those in the higher classes can be seen as a complementary process to that in the lower classes
 
  Those in higher classes have a wider audience from which to receive feedback on their self evaluation
 
  They are more widely known in the community
 
  This wider audience appears to be made up of more objective outside observers
 
  Family, friends, peers may provide positive feedback, but you can seldom escape the feeling that these   
  Significant Others have a positive bias.  
  Thus the more positive feedback obtained from a wider audience can contribute even more to a person's self evaluation  
  Higher level classes have more class solidarity & support each other more  
  There is more internal strife & conflict at both a personal & structural level in the lower classes than in the higher classes.
True?		  

 
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 Outline on  Individualism & Equal Opportunity
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  The values & norms of individualism & equal opportunity ( I & EO ) are the primary aspects of our culture which support, legitimize, our class system & wide income gap
 
  While people in modern, Western societies find it difficult to conceive of a society w/o I & EO, such societies have existed in only a very small proportion of the societies that have ever existed
 
  In societies w/o a culture of I & EO, the legitimazation of class inequalities falls to other ideologies including religion & tradition
 
  Religious justification for inequality was the most widespread ideology used to justify inequality until the Pre Industrial Era 
 
  Once old ideologies were broken when Feudalism transitioned to Pre Industrial Society, the beliefs in I & EO proved to be new & powerful tools of legitimation of inequality, supplanting religious legitimation
 
  The belief in I & EO provides both support & danger for higher class privilege because these values must have at least some basis in reality if it is to legitimate the class system
 
  W/ the hope & expectation for a better life is raised, if the society provides no opportunity for it, then is is possible for some classes to seek revolution or a significant change in the social order towards higher level of equality
 
  Merton's analysis of anomie demonstrates that whatever sanctioned goals society socializes it's members toward, if it does not provide institutionalized means for achieving those goals, then individuals or classes may pursue alternative goal or means such as innovation, ritualism, retreatism, or revolution
 
  See Also:  Merton on Anomie  
  The expansion of industrial societies has provided more upward than downward mobility thus validating the values & norms of I & EO for much of the mid class
 
  However, the expansion of industrial societies has not validated the values & norms of I & EO for all in society such as blacks & Hispanics, & much of the lower class as seen in the fact that the US has a chronically high underclass living near or below the poverty line
 
  The US embraces a strong value of individualism partially as a result of its history of immigration & western expansion
 

 
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 Outline on the Development of the Values of Individualism & Equal Opportunity
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  The US embraces a strong value of individualism & equal opportunity ( I & EO ) partially as a result of its history of immigration & western expansion
 
  The US was taken away from Native Americans by Euro immigrants beginning in the early 1600s
 
  The Euro immigrants were religious refugees, members of extreme Protestant religious sects who believed in strict independence & individualism
 
  In the American Creed (1996), Lipset discusses the development of a value system stressing liberty, egalitarianism, individualism, populism, & laissez faire
 
 
 The Protestant religion of the Americans taught that all are equal in the eyes of God, and that one had direct access to God, eschewing the authority of priests & religious leaders, giving them an ideology of egalitarianism, I & EO
 
  Weber has also examined the importance of religion & esp Protestantism in shaping Western values   
  In the Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber found that the Protestant ethic was the new moral value that emerged w/ the religious changes of the 1500s  
  In the Protestant ethic Weber found that Protestants believe, contrary to earlier Christian views, that through their own actions, they could improve this world  
  See Also:  Weber:  The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism  
 
 The frontier made Americans even more egalitarian in that all suffered equally under it's hardships & all were seeking greater opportunity
 
  Breaking from family & community roots, those who moved westward lost their old status ranking
 
  Populism & laissez faire were the values that frontiers people directed to the govt, believing that govt should stay out of their lives
 
  In the Significant of the Frontier in American History, (1920) Turner is parallel to the work of Lipset, noting that in no other nation could so many people break from their family & community roots & live an independent life
 
  The radical individualism & independence of the Euro founders of Am were strengthened & also transformed from an ideology to reality
 
  Am Euro founders brought w/ them the ideal of independence from state religion & state govt and embraced most of the ideals of the Enlightenment, including
 
1.  "Worship" of Reason   7.  Scientific Method
2.  Religion Oppresses   8.  Rationality Overcomes Emotions
3.  Reason is Powerful   9.  Universal Rights
4.  Nature is Orderly 10.  Progress
5.  Universal Laws 11.  Social Sciences Shepherd Progress
6  Deism 12.  Individualism
 
  See Also:  The Enlightenment  
  Hofstede (1991) found that the attitudes of early Am provided a foundation for our values of today, making Am embrace individualism more than any other nations around the world
 
   Today Am are less likely to support govt action to solve social problems or to create & manage a social safety net such as the maintenance of the health care system (Lipset, 1996)
 
  Compared to Euro, Am are more likely to reject govt efforts to help the poor & reduce inequality, showing the highest % of people believing that equal opp exists  
  While Am believe that equal opp exists, there is no more soc mob in the US than other ind nations  
  The values of individualism & equal opp are different for each class of people  
  Working class values of I & EO are related to low self esteem & one ups manship  

 
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 Outline on the  Working Class' Values of Individualism & Equal Opportunity
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  Lane's study of wking class men in the Northeast (1962), found that white blue collar men had strong beliefs in individualism & equal opportunity ( I & EO ) which was based on comparing themselves to higher classes & finding some defect in themselves to justify their status, & further legitimated their position by scapegoating those below them in the class structure
 
  Lane found that wking class men felt they had more opportunities than they were using; in short, they felt they had let opportunities slip away
 
  Many wking class men regretted not furthering their ed
 
  The missed opportunities & ed legitimized wking class men's position for them
 
  Wking class men, or people of any class, have psychologically invested in the present system & psychologically, most change causes anxiety
 
  People want to believe, & do believe, that they have worked hard for what they have achieved
 
  Our families have sacrificed to ensure that we achieve a particular class position
 
  To criticize the system, to question their position is to question the hard work, & sacrifice of oneself & of one's family
 
  People in most classes fear greater equality because of the competition from the people classes below their present position
 
  Undoubtedly, equal opportunity would create greater competition among all classes & reduce class differences, including the closing of the income gap  
  Thus the fears of the wkr competition that would accompany equal opp is justified  
  People fear that their life's hard wk would be of little value if those in the classes below them, whom they view w/ contempt, were given equal rewards
 
  Many people assume that equal opportunity is a code for giving or allocating equal rewards, i.e. a simple redistribution of wealth
 
  Equal opportunity, on the contrary, is simply what it's names implies, an econ system which allows all people evenly matched opportunities for ed, training, & ultimately jobs, & does not discriminate on ascriptive characteristics but only only merit & achievement
 
  Compared to other indl nations, the US views the poor w/ a higher level of contempt because they are believed to be lazy, cheating, etc.
 
  Thus the fears of lower classes being unworthy & simply squandering opp are not justified  
  Negative feelings for classes below one's own position are common among all the classes & to a certain extent is a normal ethnocentric reaction
 
  It is only when the ethnocentric of class negativity gets to great, not allowing one to break through stereotypes & see how an individual may be different than their class that class ethnocentrism becomes prejudice  
  Gans (1972) demonstrates how contempt for the poor serves the function of legitimating inequality by making those just above the poor feel better about their own low rewards  
  The ideological debate has been limited to inequality vs. equality while a more reasonable controversy over degrees of inequality is absent  
  While every society provides some legitimating ideology for inequality of the strat sys is to remain stable  
  Because there is a lack of opp in the US, it has created a mythology to justify inequality  
  In England, people are taught to reconcile themselves to their lot in life; the English have historical traditions which lead them to a greater acceptance of ascription  
  In the US, our historical traditions preclude aristocratic privilege, & ascription must be denied w/ the belief that anyone can achieve success through hard work  
  While the British accept inequality as a fact of life, Am accept inequality as a result of an ideology of equal opp leading people to blame themselves & scapegoat those below them  

 
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 Outline on  Religious Values of Individualism & Equal Opportunity
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 Part of legitimization for individualism & equal opportunity (I & EO) in the US is based on religious values
 
  It is widely recognized that one of the major functions of religion is to support, maintain, a society's values  
  See Also:  The Principles of Functionalism  
  In general, religion today supports present day values, whether they are functional or dysfunctional  
  Furthermore, religion has it's own set of values on the after life & on the present life & these may prove to be functional or dysfunctional for society depending on the particular historical context  
  Religious values are broadly interpreted to include solidarity rituals & the emotional support for society's basic institutions & values gained through collective rituals
 
  When collective rituals take place, people emphasize their commonality, the social values, institutions, & social relationships they have in common  
  I & EO, other dominant values, the form & extent of strat are given positive meaning through rituals of solidarity  
  Durkheim & others have recognized that collective emotional rituals strengthen social bonds & provide an almost godly respect for human institutions
 
  Traditions of unequal power & wealth may come to appear almost sacred in nature
 
  W/ strong sacred support for the legitimacy of I & EO, or any structure of society, it becomes difficult for someone to question the legitimacy of these conditions & structures while continuing to desire membership in that society
 
  Religion has also been used to support inequality, as Marx & Feuerbach stressed
 
  Religion can be used to support or challenge inequalities
 
  In the Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber notes how Catholic ideology supported passivity on Earth holding that life's events are predetermined & that just rewards & punishments will come after death, not in life
 
  For Weber, Protestant ideology supported activism on Earth holding that one's actions could affect one's destiny & that rewards & punishments come in life; furthermore, rewards & punishments in life were signs of god's favor / disfavor
 
  See Weber:  The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism
 
  American's, regardless of religion have come to embrace the Protestant's view that one is responsible for one's own destiny
 
  Fundamentalist rural people in OK mixed Christian ideals & socialism & protested exploitation by wealthy landlords btwn 1912 & 1920
 
  Many comparative opinion polls on religious beliefs indicated that the US is the most religious of all indl societies
 
  The mixture of religion & Americanism provides emotional support for the basis inequality
 
  Religion in the US when mixed w/ politics & public displays comes to be a civil religion in praise of country the flag, anti communism, & Americanism  
  Even before the rise of fundamentalist Christian political action in the 1980s, Am religious beliefs were recognized by sociologists as mixing religious ideals w/ Americanism  
  The concept of a civil religion holds that nationalistic values & institutions are given emotional support to such a degree that to question such values & social arrangements is akin to immorality  
  Civil religion in the US makes significant contribution to the legitimating of I & EO & other dominant Am values  
  Emotional collective rituals are important because they create a reality which seems more meaningful or unquestioned  
  W/ the emotional collective rituals of civil religion, I & EO, other dominant Am values, social structures, culture, etc. seem more transcendental rather than simply man made  
  Elites often seek control of solidarity ritual in order to legitimate their position in society, but control by elites is not always necessary or possible  
  If power & privilege by an elite are an aspect of common reality, they will be supported as the overall social reality & given legitimacy through rituals of solidarity  
  When power & privilege of the elites are threatened or weakened, support through rituals is useful, & is often accompanied by finding or mfring a threat  
  Erikson (1966) found that the Salem witch hunts of the 1600s strengthened status quo values by creating the threat of witch craft, restoring support for authority  
  Coser (1967) demonstrated that out group conflict tends to produce in group solidarity  
  Recent threats to the US include Communism, terrorism, & Jihadism  

 
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 Outline on Social Structures as Agents of Legitimation
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  The social structures peers, family, religion, econ, govt, military, charity, ed, media, & leisure ( PF REG M CEML ) create the macro processes to legitimation which complement the micro processes
 
  While the micro processes of legitimation are inherently abstract because of the personal / subjective nature of symbolic interactions, the social structural processes of legitimation largely objective & thus observable & measurable
 
  While the micro processes of legitimation create a tendency in people to accept inequality as a value they adhere to, it is only exists in a very general sense
 
  Social structural processes of legitimation create, demonstrate, & validate the actual state of inequality in detail which impacts individual's lives
 
  Social structural processes of legitimation estb the degree of individualism & equal opportunity ( I & EO ) in a society & thus estb a large / small income gap
 
  Social structural processes of legitimation are the processes the elites estb to build upon the micro processes of legitimation to estb legitimacy for themselves & the particular political econ they represent
 
  While inequality, individualism, & unequal opportunity are legitimized at a personal / value based level, if elites seek legitimacy for their particular role w/in a particular sys of strat, they must work for it because there is no automatic acceptance & because the realities of inequality continually erode the basis of legitimacy
 
  Because the realities of inequality continually erode the basis of legitimacy, the elites must maintain continual processes of legitimation w/in the soc strucs which people interact w/ peers, raise families, worship, work, govern, defend the nation, give charitable gifts, educate, receive the news, & play 
 
  The task of the elites is to turn the general or abstract acceptance of inequality into the specific acceptance of their high rewards, the policies that favor their interests, & the general political & econ sys that provides the basis of power & privilege
 
  The elites must  beyond a socio psychological tendency for the acceptance of inequality to legitimation of social arrangements
 
  Elites use the norms of distributive justice to convince non elites that: 
 
  a.  elite contributions to society are in proportion to the rewards they receive
 
  b. the abilities of elites are superior to those of non elites
 
  Legitimation must create a justification of exploitation w/o those being exploited realizing what is going on
 
  While legitimation takes place in each of the soc structures, it is clear that they work in concert by overlapping & reinforcing each other  
  The process of legitimation in the social structures is an interrelated process w/in the system & it's nested subsystems  
  If one part of the system is not performing, the whole process may be weakened  
  If one part of the system is not performing, it becomes more difficult for each part to serve its overall function  
  If the legitimation system is functioning well, the task becomes easier for each part  
  An example of the networked functionality of legitimation can be seen in the fact that if the ed sys is legitimizing the system adequately, then it becomes easier for the media to fulfill their legitimation function
 
  The soc structures ( PF REG M CEML ) utilize the processes of socialization of selective exposure, modeling, identification, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, & nurturance ( SMIPNN ) to legitimize the stratification is a society  
 
 1.  SELECTIVE EXPOSURE  
  People are exposed selectively to info about the system  
  The ed sys media pass on info that helps support a particular set of elites their policies, & / or a particular sys of pol econ  
  To the extent that soc strucs selectively expose info, they are involved in propaganda & indoctrination  
  In convincing, socializing, legitimizing info is usually accurate but biased or slanted to favor the view & interests of those providing the info  
  The very act of attempted persuasion implies a conflict relationship  
  Socialization is one method for overcoming conflict  
  2.  MODELING  
  The elites, as celebrities, are models which we are socialized to emulate & honor  
  The poor provide models that serve as warnings  
  3.  IDENTIFICATION  
  Celebrity worship, fan mags, the high pay of athletes, actors, & other pop performers demonstrates all demonstrate extreme forms of legitimizing identification  
  4.  POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT  
  We are actually rewarded to the extent that we strive for eliteness & / or emulate their life style despite lower class status  
  5.  NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT  
  We are actually punished to the extent that we reject for eliteness & / or emulate their life style despite lower class status in that the culture of the mid wking class is that of a professional  
  To the extent that wkrs do not exhibit professionalism, they find it difficult to find employment  
  6.  NURTURANCE  
  Nurturance typically is the positive reinforcement offered by significant others (SOs)  
  To the extent that we pursue eliteness & / or emulate their life style despite lower class status, we are nurtured by friends & family   

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