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  Review Notes on   ST 4: Early Stratification Theory
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 Paradigms  
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           Paradigms & Social Theory  
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 Introduction to Functionalism  
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           The Principles of Functionalism  
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           Functionalism on Stratification  
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 Marxism / Conflict Theory  
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           The Base & the Superstructure  
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           Marxists Economics  
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           Marxists Terminology  
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           Conflict Theory on Stratification  
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 Weberian Theory  

 
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Outline on  Paradigms: Shifting & Competing
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  -  Project: Paradigms 
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  -  Video:  Sociological Perspectives 
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  INTRODUCTION: THE SCIENTIFIC CULTURE OFTEN ACTS AS IF THERE ARE NO ANOMALIES   
 
 The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies   
  The values / beliefs of science include the ideas that: 
a.  there is progress 
b.  science is cumulative, "brick by brick" we construct science base upon agreed on facts 		  
  Theories are the infrastructure, But people are working on different buildings, i.e. paradigms   
  And all the bricks (facts) must be used   
  Facts that do not fit a theory are called anomalies   
  All theories have anomalies:  i.e. they cannot explain everything   
  The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies   
  A PARADIGM IS A SET OF THEORIES   
  Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape & underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories   
  A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations of why society is the way it is   
  A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects:   
  a.  a set of questions to be asked about the subject   
  b.  a general theoretical approach explaining the nature of the subject   
  c.  a set of values relating to the subject   
  d.  a set of theories concerning a common theme   
  There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of understanding   
  PARADIGMS COMPETE W/ EACH OTHER -- TO ESTABLISH 'TRUTH'   
  Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition of ideas within or between societies   
  Astronomy: collapsing universe vs. expanding universe 
Paleontology:  great comet vs. predation cold blooded vs warm blooded dinosaurs 
Biology:  Darwinians vs. evolutionary shock 
Sociology:  Functionalism vs. Conflict Theory     vs. Symbolic Interactionism 		  
  PARADIGM SHIFTS OCCUR AS PARADIGMS 'WIN OR LOSE' & A NEW 'TRUTH IS ESTABLISHED'   
  Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies, or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period   
  Examples: 
- world views changed from geo centric to helio centric 
- polytheism to monotheism 
- flat to round world 
- earth centric to helio centric 
- magic to science 
- demons to mental illness 
- creationism to evolution 
- Newtonian physics to Einsteinian physics 		  
  Paradigms are also known as perspectives, schools, school of thought, etc.   
  Science does not embrace "one truth" because human truth is always contested & relative, rather, what is true is constantly changing, but we act as if science is one truth   
  Because there is no absolute truth, & because people have competing ideas on what  is closest to truth, we have paradigms   
Link
 Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, & Disciplines   
 
 Sociology is a multiple paradigm science:  functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism 
 
  Theories & paradigms provide a conceptual formulation that provides a logical explanation or framework for all the facts, i.e. the objective info gained through observation & experiment   
  Theories must be validated in the same way that a hypothesis is validated   
  SCIENTIFIC LAWS ARE FOUND W/IN FEW PARADIGMS   
  Paradigms & laws are not validated in the way that theories & hypotheses are validated   
  Paradigms & laws are validated when the consensus of the scientific community, when the preponderance of theoretical evidence supports them   
  While a single experiment or piece of evidence may serve to validate a theory of hypothesis, it takes evidence, theoretical validation, & the consensus of the scientific community to validate a paradigm or law   
  NATURAL LAWS APPEAR TO HAVE NO ANOMALIES   
  Basic principles or natural laws are theories that stand out as precisely predictable with no known exceptions:  gravity, laws of thermodynamics, etc.   
  There seems to be only tenuous/contentious theories in the social sciences, but also in some physical sciences such as env science   
  Principles or laws are limited to those of chemistry, physics, etc.   
 
 FOR KUHN, PARADIGMS SHIFTS ARE 'SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS' THAT CHANGE PERCEPTIONS OF REALITY   
  Thomas Kuhn wrote about paradigm shifts wherein a veritable scientific rev occurs that essentially deposes an old paradigm, such as Newtonian physics, & replaces it w/ a new one, i.e. Einsteinian physics   
  Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962, in which he held that new paradigms displace old paradigms altering our significant portions of truth as defined by science, & possibly the general populations view of everyday existence   
  See Also:  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions   
  A paradigm shift is a new set of theories that comes along & explains all facts to a superior degree, displacing the old paradigm   
  An example of a paradigm shift is seen in where Einsteinian physics replaced Newtonian Physics because it could explained nuclear fission better & other anomalies better   
  As of the present there have been no paradigm shifts in the social sciences nor in some newer physical sciences such as ecology, though each has multiple, competing paradigms   

 
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Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, Disciplines
Paradigm
Set of theoretical assumptions that shape & underlie explanations of why society/the world is the way it is 
Examples: 
The Expanding Universe 
Functionalism
Theory
Explanation of cause & effects that encompasses relationships btwn 2 or more facts 
Examples: 
Suicide is caused by isolation/lack of integration 
Racism is taught/learned 
Crime is caused by frustrated expectations 
Poverty is caused by the concentration of wealth
Law
Theory or part of a theory that is well established & therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community 
There are no laws in the social sciences 
Examples: 
Nothing can move faster than light 
To every action, there is an equal & opposite reaction
Discipline A recognized area of academic exploration 
Examples: 
sociology 
biology 
literature

 
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 Outline on  Paradigms & Social Theory
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  THEORIES ARE SETS OF EXPLANATIONS  
  A theory is an explanation of cause & effects that encompasses relationships btwn 2 or more facts   
  A theory is a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more cause effect relationships  
  Theories are made up of verifiable statements about reality that, with the right information, can be tested  
  Ideally, a theory can be tested through research  
  PARADIGMS ARE SETS OF THEORIES   
  Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape & underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories
 
  A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations of why society is the way it is
 
  While theories can be tested & either verified or dismissed, paradigms can neither be tested or verified & this their existence may rely on science as well as tradition  
  A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects:
 
  a.  a set of questions to be asked about the subject
 
  b.  a general theoretical approach explaining the nature of the subject
 
  c.  a set of values relating to the subject
 
  d.  a set of theories concerning a common theme
 
  There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of understanding
 
  Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition of ideas within or between societies
 
  Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies, or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period
 
  In relation to sociological theory, paradigms are general images & assumptions of reality which shape theory
 
  THE STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL PARADIGM FOCUSES ON COOPERATIVE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY   
  Structural functionalism (S-F), conflict theory, & symbolic interactionism shape their paradigmatic image by focusing on 'How is social order possible?' which was an important question for social scientists & philosophers in the transition from the traditional to the modern era, i.e. in the 1600s & later
 
  The paradigm of S-F was developed by Durkheim, then the Chicago School, then by Parsons & Merton, & continues to evolve today
 
  The paradigm of S-F is a general theoretical approach that develops a set of questions, values, & theories on:
 
  a.  the consensus on norms & values  
  b.  the processes & outcomes of socialization  
  c.  a biological, systemic & holistic view of society  
  d.  social systems & their needs & functions  
  THE CONFLICT THEORY PARADIGM FOCUSES ON COMPETITIVE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY   
  The paradigm of conflict theory was developed by Marx, then Mills, then Dahrendorf, & continues to evolve today  
 
 The paradigm of conflict theory is a general theoretical approach that develops a set of questions, values, & theories on the:  
  a.  conflicting values in society which yields a societal discensus  
  b.  development & outcome of false consciousness which results from socialization as shaped by societal power struggles & biases  
  c.  competition among grps, esp btwn & w/in classes  
  d.  domination of the upper classes & general grp over individual needs  
  THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PARADIGM FOCUSES ON INDIVIDUALS' CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIETY   
  The paradigm of symbolic interactionism was developed by Mead, then Cooley, then Blumer, & continues to evolve today  
  The paradigm of conflict theory is a general theoretical approach that develops a set of questions, values, & theories on the:  
  a.  social construction of the self, identity, ideology, etc.  
  b.  aggregation of the social construction of the self which creates the social construction of reality, & thus society  
  c.  interaction of the processes & outcomes of the social construction of the self & reality  
  WEALTH, POWER ETC. IS A CENTRAL PART OF SOME BUT NOT ALL SOCIAL SCIENCE PARADIGMS   
  Wealth, power, etc. is a central part of many, but not all of the paradigms in the social sciences  
  Thus wealth, power, etc. is  included in the classification of theories below in addition to several other values  
  Because there is no clear consensus on values, scientific or otherwise, in the social sciences, any given set of values & structures used to classify theories is simply one example of a process of theoretical classification & cannot be considered a universal or comprehensive classification  
  Thus, no universal classification of social theory will  be possible until there is more harmony among competing paradigms & until the social sciences develop into a more exact science  
 
 Historically, wealth & stratification have been heralded & chastised  
  Many ancient religions denounce wealth & stratification while many do not discuss it  
  In the Old Testament, Amos, Micah, Isaiah denounce wealth  
  Aristotle believed that wealth & stratification represented the natural order  
  In the Age of the Enlightenment, 17th - 18th Century, Locke, Rousseau, Monte & others believed that the concentration of wealth was at the least, a social problem, & at worst, the root of most social conflict  
  Early Sociologists  Saint Simon, Comte, Bonald, and Maistre recognized wealth & stratification as an important to understanding society but they had inconsistent positions on its inevitability  
  Sociology is generally made up of three paradigms:  Functionalism, Conflict Theory & Symbolic Interactionism  
  One fundamental question  is frequently asked by all paradigms: How is social order possible?  Stratification is one answer  
 
 In light of the 3 sociological paradigms, we ask, how does stratification & injustice occur?   
  Paradigms embrace Value Sets that allow their classification as either Critics or Apologists of modern, industrial, stratified society which result in their viewing society as exhibiting either a Critical Culture or an Uncritical Culture  
 
 Paradigms embrace Social Structures that allow their classification into either seeing society as primarily operating on the basis of Conflict or Order ( Cooperation ) Structure which means they view society as exhibiting either a Conflict Structure or a Cooperative Structure  
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 Table:  Value & Model Assumptions in Social Science Paradigms  
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 Table:  A Typology of Paradigms  
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 THE CRITICAL CULTURE / ORDER STRUCTURE PARADIGM FOCUSES ON 
THE POWER OF CULTURE & COOPERATIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES		  
  Cell 1:  Critical Culture Order Structure Paradigm combines the Critical Value assumptions or CULTURE w/ an Order/Cooperative Model of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Critical Order Paradigm views society as exhibiting Critical Culture & a Cooperative Structure  
  No modern school is associated w/ the Critical Order Paradigm  
  The Critical -Order Paradigm  of Maistre & Bonald opposed the Enlightenment ideals & viewed society as a whole  
 
 1.  Unjust inequality ( stratification ) is not inevitable ( at least not to the present degree )  
  The appearance of the inevitability of stratification comes from the fact that all of history has witnessed stratification  
  But stratification did not exist in Hunter - Gatherer Society & it does not exist at high levels in all societies  
 
 2.  There is an optimistic view of human nature based on theory, history & anthropology  
  Recently Humanistic Psychology has supported an optimistic view of human nature w/ its view of the higher nature or needs of individuals  
 
 3.  Better, more just societies are the goals of the social sciences  
  Failure to act, or the belief that the current order of things is natural, is merely support for the status quo  
  The social sciences should be activist & try & change the world  
  The downside of social scientists being activist is that science itself is a neutral weapon & could be used for good or ill  
 
 4.  Society is held together by a consensus of norms & values  
 
 There is no conflict of ideology or interests  
 
 5.  There is a holistic view of society  
 
 Thus we have equal influence for both the economy or base & the culture  
 
 Status is often seen as more important than class or income  
 
 Thus income is determined by the prestige of a position  
 
 6.  There is a focus on a social system w/ needs of its own & thus the conflict that does occur is bad for the system  
  The needs of society supersede the needs of individuals  
  Thus some people must be at the bottom of the hierarchy & a few at the top  
Link
 THE APOLOGIST CULTURE / ORDER STRUCTURE PARADIGM FOCUSES ON 
NON POWER ORIENTED CULTURE & COOPERATIVE ASPECTS OF STRUCTURES 		  
 
 Cell 2:  The Apologist Culture Order Structure Paradigm combines apologetic (uncritical) value assumptions ( little or no criticism of the status quo ) or CULTURE w/ an Order/Cooperative Model of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Apologist (Uncritical) - Order Paradigm combines an Uncritical Culture & a Cooperative Structure  
 
 1. Stratification ( i.e. unjust inequality ) is inevitable because
    (a) human nature is selfish 
    (b) it necessary for social system, i.e. a quality of the system		  
 
 Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed & because any features that exist in society must be functional
 
 
 2.  The distrust of human nature is based on analyses of theory, history & anthropology  
 
 Freudian psychology also supports the idea of our animal human nature, that must be controlled by society  
 
 3.  There are no goals for social analysis because the social sciences are value free  
 
 Thus the social sciences are merely to report & describe the functioning of society & not work to or advocate change  
 
 To advocate change is to exhibit the ultimate hubris or self serving pride in thinking that 'I know what is best for society'  
 
 4.  Society is held together by a consensus of norms & values  
  There is no conflict of ideology or interests  
 
 5.  There is a holistic view of society  
  Thus we have equal influence for both the economy or base & the culture  
  Status is often seen as more important than class or income  
  Thus income is determined by the prestige of a position  
 
 6.  There is a focus on a social system w/ needs of its own & thus the conflict that does occur is bad for the system  
  The needs of society supersede the needs of individuals  
  Thus some people must be at the bottom of the hierarchy & a few at the top  
Link
 THE CRITICAL CULTURE / CONFLICT STRUCTURE PARADIGM FOCUSES ON 
POWER IN CULTURE & COMPETITIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES 		  
  Cell 3:  The Critical Culture Conflict Structure Paradigm embodies a Critical analysis of value assumptions or CULTURE & a Conflict based analysis of the operation of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Critical - Conflict Paradigm embodies a Critical Culture & a Conflict Structure  
  This paradigm is commonly associated w/ Marx -> Mills -> Dahrendorf  
  This characterization is typically associated w/ Conflict Theory  
 
 1.  Unjust inequality ( stratification ) is not inevitable ( at least not to the present degree )  
  The appearance of the inevitability of stratification comes from the fact that all of history has witnessed stratification  
  But stratification did not exist in H - G Society & it does not exist at high levels in all societies  
 
 2.  There is an optimistic view of human nature based on theory, history & anthropology  
 
 Recently Humanistic Psychology has supported this view w/ its view of the higher nature or needs of individuals  
 
 3.  Better, more just societies are the goals of the social sciences  
  Failure to act or the belief that was is is natural is merely support for the status quo  
  The social sciences should be activist & try & change the world  
  The downside of this is that science itself is a neutral weapon & could be used for good or ill  
 
 4.  Society is held together by conflict & power, & not a consensus of norms & values  
  The consensus is an illusion or is itself the result of ideology, i.e. world views imposed by the elites control of education, the media etc.  
 
 5.  There is a focus on the parts & processes w/in a society, & not society as a whole, where all structures have equal influence  
  Understanding the economy & its impact on all the other social structures & culture is key to understanding how society operates  
 
 6.  Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups  
  Society may operate as a system w/ needs of its own, but when those needs are controlled by a group of elites then society becomes a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups   
Link
 THE APOLOGIST CULTURE / CONFLICT STRUCTURE FOCUSES ON 
NON POWER ORIENTED CULTURE & COMPETITIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES 		  
 
 Cell 4:  The Apologist Culture Conflict Structure embodies an Apologist, or uncritical analysis of value assumptions or CULTURE & a Conflict based analysis of the operation of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Apologist (Uncritical) - Conflict Paradigm embodies an Uncritical Culture & a Conflict Structure
 
  Weberian theory is commonly associated w/ this paradigm
 
  1. Stratification ( i.e. unjust inequality ) is inevitable because
    (a) human nature is selfish 
    (b) it necessary for social system, i.e. a quality of the system		  
  Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed & because any features that exist in society must be functional
 
  Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed & because any features that exist in society must be functional
 
  2.  The distrust of human nature based on analysis of theory, history & anthropology
 
  Freudian Psychology also supports the idea of our animal human nature, that must be controlled by society
 
  3.  There are no goals for social analysis because the social sciences are value free
 
  Thus the social sciences are merely to report & describe the functioning of society & not work to or advocate change
 
  To advocate change is to exhibit the ultimate hubris or self serving pride in thinking that 'I know what is best for society'
 
  4.  Society is held together by conflict & power, & not a consensus of norms & values
 
  The consensus is an illusion or is itself the result of ideology, i.e. world views imposed by the elites control of education, the media etc.
 
  5.  There is a focus on the parts & processes w/in a society, & not society as a whole, where all structures have equal influence
 
  Understanding the economy & its impact on all the other social structures & culture is key to understanding how society operates
 
  6.  Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups
 
  Society may operate as a system w/ needs of its own, but when those needs are controlled by a group of elites then society becomes a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups  
  See Also:  Early American Stratification Theory:  the Lynds & Warner
 
  See Also:  Occupational Prestige
 
  Functional Theory is often traced from Durkheim to the Chicago School to Parsons & Merton
 
  Conflict Theory is often traced from Marx to Mills to Dahrendorf  
  Weberian Theory straddles several issues of concern to both functionalism & conflict theory  

 
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Table: Value & Model Assumptions in Social Science Paradigms
Kerbo 0404
Value Assumptions  on  CULTURE
Critical CULTURE
    Views culture as exerting / expressing power in society
1.  Inequality is not inevitable ( at least not to the present degree )
2.  There is an optimistic view of human nature
3.  Better, more just, societies are the goals of the social sciences
Apologist ( Uncritical ) CULTURE
     Views culture as an epiphenomenom, i.e. cannot exert or express power in society 
1.  Inequality is inevitable ( "natural" )
2.  There is a distrust of human nature
3.  No goals:  sociology should be value free
Model Assumptions on STRUCTURE
Conflict STRUCTURE
     Views structure as a terrain of conflict through which groups compete
1.  Society is held together by conflict & unequal power
2.  Focus on parts & processes w/in the society
3.  Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups
Order ( Cooperation ) STRUCTURE
      View structure as a mechanism through which social goals are cooperatively accomplished
1.  Society is held together by consensus of norms & values
2.  Holistic view of society
3.  Focus on a social system w/ needs of its own

 
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Table:  A Typology of Paradigms
Kerbo 0404
 Model of Society: 
STRUCTURE           \/
Value Assumptions on CULTURE
 
Critical
Apologist
Cooperation
 1.  Critical Culture Order Structure  Paradigm 2.  Apologist Culture Order Structure Paradigm
  Focuses on the power of culture & cooperative social structures  Focuses on non power oriented culture & cooperative aspects of structures 
 
 No modern theory is associated w/ this Paradigm Functional Theory (Durkheim, Parsons)
 
Conflict
 3.  Critical Culture Conflict Structure Paradigm 4.  Apologist Culture Conflict Structure  Paradigm
  Focuses on the power of culture & competitive social structures  Focuses on non power oriented culture & competitive social structures 
 
 Ruling Class Theory (Marxism) Power Conflict Theory (Weber)
Post Modernist Paradigms focus on the power of culture ( Critical Culture Paradigm), but deny that any structure exists ( contra the Order Structure Paradigm & the Conflict Structure Paradigm )
Kerbo 0404 Source:  Adapted from Hermann Strasser (1976) 
The Normative Structure of Sociology:  Conservative & Emancipatory Themes in Social Thought.  London:  Routledge & Kegan Paul.

 
 
 
 
 
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 Outline on the Introduction to Functionalism
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 FUNCTIONALISM VIEWS SOCIETY AS A LIVING ORGANISM 
 
 
 Functional theory is often traced from Durkheim to the Chicago School to Parsons & Merton 
 
 
 Early social thinkers likened the operation of society to that of a living organism, such as the human body, exemplifying the quality of consensus   
 
 LIKE AN ORGANISM, SOCIETY EXEMPLIFIES THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:  NEEDS, REPRODUCTION, COMPETITION, COOPERATION, & ORDER   
  Like an organism, society exemplifies the FIVE characteristics of life: 
- has needs (need inputs) 
- has ways to reproduce 
- competes 
-  cooperates 
- needs order or it is "sick" or has "cancer" 
 
  THE QUALITIES OF SOCIETY ARE THAT IT HAS PARTS CALLED SOCIAL STRUCTURES, THAT ARE INTERDEPENDENT, & THEY FUNCTION TO PRODUCE CONSENSUS & STABILITY   
 Link
 Functionalism views society as having FOUR qualities: 
Society has 
- parts                                    ( social structures ) ( PF REG M CEML ) 
- that are interdependent         ( mutual interrelations ) 
- that function to produce       ( functional requisites ) 
- consensus & stability           ( society is in equilibrium ) 
 
 
 FUNCTIONALISM IS A MACRO PARADIGM is a macro paradigm / perspective (set of theories) 
 
  Functionalism is a paradigm & is therefore contains many theories such as: 
- order perspective                - systems theory 
- structural functionalism        - neo functionalism
- consensus theory 
 

 
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4.  Society is made up of interdependent parts:
The parts / components of society are termed Social Structures 
1.   Peers  6.   Military
2.   Family 7.   Charity
3.   Religion 8.   Education
4.   Work (economy) 9.   Media
5.   Government 10. Recreation/leisure
       PF REG M CEML

 
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 Outline on the  Principles of Functionalism
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 -  Project:  The American Dream 
Link
  THE EIGHT PRINCIPLES OF FUNCTIONALISM   
  The EIGHT principles of functionalism include: 
1. consensus 
2.  equilibrium 
3.  interdependence 
4.  social structures 		 5.  functional imperatives 
6.  dysfunctions 
7.  needs or goals 
8.  culture
 
  1.  CONSENSUS:  THERE IS A GENERAL CONSENSUS ON THE MAKE UP OF CULTURE & SOCIAL STRUCTURE   
  Functionalists agree that there is a general consensus of culture & social structure which is embodied in the American Dream & how we achieve it   
  There is a normative consensus:  i.e. agreement on values, norms, etc.   
  Functionalists focus on the social order as based on tacit agreement   
  Change is slow & orderly   
  What are some examples of consensus in society?   
Link
 What makes up "The American Dream?"  
  2.  EQUILIBRIUM:  ONCE SOCIETY ACHIEVES THE FORM BEST ADAPTED TO THE ENV, IT IS IN EQUILIBRIUM   
  Social change will occur only when the society needs to adapt to a new situation  
   Note:  Functionalism is considered to have a weak theoretical explanation of social change  
  3.  INTERDEPENDENCE:  THE PARTS OF SOCIETY ARE HEAVILY INTERDEPENDENT & INTEGRATED   
 
 Early social thinkers likened the operation of society to that of a living organism, such as the human body
 
  The functioning of the body depends on the heart, brain, lungs, & other vital organs  
  A malfunction in any one interdependent part of society / the part can affect the entire body   
Link
 4.  SOCIAL STRUCTURES (AKA SOCIAL INSTITS) ARE THE ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY   
  Social structures are groups of organizations that perform the basic functions of society, supports society's culture, & are accepted as an essential element in society, i.e. they are taken for granted   
  5.  FUNCTIONS:  SOCIETY FUNCTIONS TO FULFILL ITS NEEDS  ( i.e. the American Dream )  
  According to the functionalist perspective, characteristics of any society developed because they met the needs of that society   
Link
 A Chart on Parsons' Functional Imperatives:  AGIM  
Link
 A Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures  
Link
 A Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives, Social Structures, Manifest & Latent Functions, & System of Manifest Functions
 
  Manifest functions are societal functions that are obvious & open  
  Latent functions are functions that are not obvious or openly acknowledged  
  6.  DYSFUNCTIONS:  MERTON MODIFIED FUNCTIONALISM TO SHOW THAT SOCIETY BOTH FUNCTIONS & DYSFUNCTIONS   
  Society can embody structures, processes, goals, etc. which ultimately hinder or even destroy society   
  7.  NEEDS OR GOALS:  SOCIETY CREATES & THEN PURSUES ITS NEEDS / GOALS   
  The concept of "function" denotes that the characteristics of any society developed because they met the needs /goals of that society  
  Note that critics of functionalism hold that goal creation by society is anthropomorphizing a thing & is teleological   
  8.  CULTURE IS THE SHARED KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES, & NORMS BY WHICH A SOCIETY DEFINES ITSELF   
  Culture is equally important as social structure as a determinant of social action of individuals   
  FUNCTIONALISM IS A PARADIGM THAT IS CONSERVATIVE, ESCHEWS ACTIVISM, & COMPETES W/ CREATIONISM & CONFLICT THEORY   
  Functionalism has a conservative outlook
Functionalism was influenced by European sociology, but not Marx, & was more abstract		  
  As Functionalism rose in prominence in sociology, the activism of the Chicago School was lost  
  Competing perspectives
- Creationism & evolution
- Expanding universe & collapsing universe		  
  Functionalism & conflict theory are competing paradigms  
  MERTON'S ACCEPTANCE OF DYSFUNCTION IS AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF CONFLICT THEORY   
  Merton's Functionalism parallels conflict theory in the belief that
- there is dominance over some social groups by other other social groups
- subordinate groups conflict/struggle w/ dominant groups
- order is based on manipulation & dominance
- change is rapid & disorderly		  
 
 Symbolic interactionism does not directly compete w/ functionalism or conflict theory
 

 
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Norms & values & physical characteristics of  "The American Dream:"

Cultural Components
Live free                            fairness, justice, meritocracy
work hard                           religion
be honest                            democracy
get ahead                            travel
scientific outlook               respect others...
home                                  family/friends 

Social Structure:   How we achieve the American Dream:
Peers, Family religion, Work, govt, Military, charity, Education, Media, Leisure / Recreation


 
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Chart of Parson's Functional Imperatives:  AGIM
1. Adaptation Adapt to the environment (social & physical)
2. Goal setting Set Goals for social & sub-systems of society & people
3. Integration Integrate in new systems, procedures, people, etc.
4. Maintaining Maintain old systems, procedures, people, etc.

 
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Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures
.
Social
Institution
Manifest
Function
1.
Peers
Integration
2.
Family
Maintenance
3.
Religion
Maintenance
4.
Work (The Economy)
Adaptive
5.
Govt (Politics)
Goal Setting
6.
Military
Adaptive
7.
Charity
Integration
8.
Education
Adaptive
9.
Media
Integration
10.
Recreation / Leisure
Maintenance

 
Top
    
Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives, Social Structures, Manifest & Latent Functions, & System of Manifest Functions
.
Social
Institutions
Manifest
Function
Latent
Function
System of
Manifest Function
1.
Peers
Integration
Maintenance
Social
2.
Family
Maintenance
Integration
Cultural
3.
Religion
Maintenance
Integration
Cultural
4.
Work (The Economy)
Adaptive
Integration
Behavioral
5.
Govt (Politics)
Goal Setting
Integration
Personality
6.
Military
Adaptive
Integration
Behavioral
7.
Charity
Integration
Maintenance
Social
8.
Education
Adaptive
Integration
Behavioral
9.
Media
Integration
Goal Setting
Social
10.
Recreation / Leisure
Maintenance
Integration
Cultural
Note, the manifest/latent functions may change over time

 
Internal
Links

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Outline on   Functionalism on Stratification
External
Links
  -  Project: Functionalism & Conflict Theory on Strat
Link
  FOR FUNCTIONALISM, STRAT IS FUNCTIONAL / USEFUL / NECESSARY FOR SOCIETY BECAUSE IT ALLOCATES REWARDS ACCORDING TO VALUE CREATION   
  Review:  Functionalism views society as a living organism, & like an organism, society has FOUR characteristics of life:  has needs (need inputs), has ways to reproduce, competes & cooperates, & needs order or it is "sick" or has "cancer"  
  Early functionalism's position on stratification was that stratification is functional  
  Today functionalist's opinion on stratification is more diverse in that some functionalist believe that inequality is functional and others recognize that stratification may be dysfunction under some conditions  
  Social inequality or stratification serves some function for the health & well being of society:  
 
 A. STRATIFICATION IS FUNCTIONAL BECAUSE IT MOTIVATES PEOPLE VIA THE MERIT SYSTEM BY ALLOCATING REWARDS TO THE SUCCESSFUL & DENYING THEM TO THE UNSUCCESSFUL
 
  Stratification is functional  
  Many functionalists believe that the social system requires inequalities to meet some of its basic needs  
  The merit system operates within each social system of society  
  While social theorist generally all agree that the merit system operates w/in each social system in society, there is wide disagreement on how well the merit system operates  
  Some social theorists see the merit system as operating quite well, while other social theorists see the merit system as corrupt, serving the interests of the elites  
  In the social structure of the family, stratification aids "like people" getting together  
  In the social structure of the economy, stratification motivates the most talented people to fill the most important jobs  
  In the social structure of peer groups, stratification ensures that the most popular receive the most status & benefits  
 
 In the social structure of the military, stratification ensures that the most competent soldiers rise in the hierarchy
 
 
 While some early functionalists would maintain that the merit system is operating optimally & the present inequality is "natural", today most functionalists believe the merit system is not operating correctly
 
  In early functionalism, there was the assumption, like early evolutionary theory, that 'no mistakes' were possible; i.e. if a social phenomenon exists, it must be functional  
  W/ the advancement of functionalism to embrace dysfunctions, cultural lag, uneven development, & the experimental & forward / reverse nature of social change, even the typically more conservative functionalists recognized that some social phenomenon may not be functional for society  
  As functionalists came to embrace social change, they came to embrace the position that all types of strat in all situations are not necessarily functional  
 
 B.  STRATIFICATION RESTRAINS BOTH THE MASSES & THE ELITES   
  Functionalists believe that because we have a selfish human nature, some restraining mechanisms are required  
  Many functionalists believe that the elites must also be restrained  
  Restraints operate w/in the socialization process & legitimation process that maintain consensus as well as the laws of the economic & government systems
 
  Different societies have different acceptable levels of restraint that generally follows the level of individualism in that society  
  The US, historically, appears to have the lowest level of restraint & accepts any amt of the accumulation of wealth as well as any level of poverty  
  Hunter gatherer societies had strong limits on both wealth & poverty as seen in the concept of the potlatch where the wealthy gained status by giving away their wealth & where widespread sharing prevented poverty  
  In many societies there are greater limits on wealth & poverty than in the US as seen in higher tax rates for the rich & a more effective social safety net for the poor  
  Davis & Moore believe that stratification is functional / necessary for the operation of society  
  Functionalism on stratification in modern sociological theory  

 
Internal
Links

Top
  An Introduction to   Karl Marx  1818  -  1883
External
Links
  -  Project:  We Are What We Do
Link
  -  Project:  Class & False Consciousness
Link
  -  Project:  Principles of Marxism & Money, Power, & Status 
Link
Link
 -  Major Works & Biography of Marx  
Link
 -  Biography of Engels  
  Summary:  There are FIFTEEN of Marx's fundamental concepts
1.  Our human nature is that we are laboring/creating beings
2.  Society consists of two fundamental components:  the base & the superstructure
3.  The forces of production & relations of production determine economic relationships & thus the Base & thus society
4.  Individuals have conflicting self interests
5.  There are "contradictions" in society
6.  There is class conflict:  proletariat & bourgeoisie
7.  Conflict is the energy of social change-- of historical development
8.  There is social evolution in the form of historical development of material life
9.  Society is in a state of constant change & struggle
10.  Conflict does not always mean violence
11.  Capitalism is destructive of humanity
12.  Capitalism is alienating
13.  The upper class controls the economy
14.  Culture is shaped by the economic Base of society
15.  We have either class or false consciousness		  
  SCHOLARS DIVIDE MARX'S WORK INTO "EARLY" & "LATE" MARX BECAUSE IN HIS EARLY PERIOD 
HE WAS MORE PHILOSOPHICAL & IN HIS LATE PERIOD HE WAS MORE ECONOMICS ORIENTED 		  
  There is much debate over the differences & the significance of the differences of Marx's early & late works  
  Early Marx is generally more global & philosophical in scope & offers a more complex & humanist view of human kind  
  Late Marx is generally more focused on the mechanisms of economic systems & is considered to present a more deterministic view of human nature  
  A major debate w/in Marxism is whether Marx's system was a deterministic system or not, & which sector of society had the greatest power over human nature, the economy or culture?   
  See Also:  Economic v. Cultural Determinism  
  There is much debate over various interpretations of Marx's work  
  Early Marx is seen as a humanist w/ a social focus, & a dynamic view of human nature & social life  
  Late Marx has an economics focus & a deterministic view of human nature & social life  
  Many theorists debate whether Marxism is a deterministic system or not  
Link
 Preface: A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy  
  See Also:   Entire preface  
  There are FIFTEEN of Marx's fundamental concepts  
Link
 1.  OUR HUMAN NATURE IS THAT WE ARE LABORING / CREATING BEINGS  
  There are many other bases of  human nature  
  Marx used the term species being for human nature  
  Marx believed our species being is undeveloped
 
  Marx believed in the perfectibility of the individual   
  2.  SOCIETY CONSISTS OF 2 FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS: THE BASE & THE SUPERSTRUCTURE  
  Economic relations make up the base or foundation of society  
  All other relationships make up the superstructure & are determined by the Base  
Link
 Did the so called communist countries actually change the economic foundation of their society?  
  3.  THE FORCES & RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION DETERMINE THE 
NATURE OF THE ECONOMY & THUS THE BASE & THUS SOCIETY 		  
  See Also:  Forces of Production  
  See Also:  Relations of Production  
  4.   PEOPLE, GROUPS, ETC. HAVE CONFLICTING SELF INTERESTS  
  Conflict is linked to, or over the material / economic struggle
Groups (classes) conflict because of competition over scarce resources
The major split of self interests was seen as being btwn owners & workers		  
  5.   THERE ARE "CONTRADICTIONS" IN SOCIETY   
  Contradictions are social relations that cause conflict, which may or may not be seen as unjust or simply as "the way things are"  
  Conflict, at the abstract level, is btwn classes while at the everyday or concrete level, conflict is when workers/unionists & particular capitalist firms engage in struggle  
  Examples of Contradictions:
-  social character of production -  private property
-  productive forces -  relations of production
-  production for use -  production for profit
-  production -  consumption
 
  Marx respected Hegel because, through the dialectic, he discussed an affirmative view of a phenomenon as well as its negation; i.e., its inevitable breaking up which takes account of the transient nature of things  
Link
 6.  THERE IS CLASS CONFLICT IN SOCIETY   
  The form of society is shaped by conflict btwn groups in society, as well as by the economic base   
  Marxists will see society in conflict whereas functionalists will see society as interdependent/cooperative  
  There were only two classes in Marx's day:  the bourgeoisie & the proletariat  
  The bourgeoisie, aka the owners, are those who own the means of production
The proletariat, aka the workers, are those who work with the means of production		  
  Stratification is the study of class structure today  
  A typical formulation of classes today includes the upper class, UMC, MC, LMC, LC  
  See Also:   Class Structure  
  Today, we see all classes in a struggle w/ each other
Example:  how does more pay for coal miners affect the other groups? 		  
  7.  CONFLICT IS THE ENERGY OF SOCIAL CHANGE, OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT   
  Conflict brings social change  
  8.  SOCIAL EVOLUTION IS THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL LIFE   
  Marx sees all history as the history of class struggle  
  Each historical epoch has its own contradictions & classes  
  Humanity has developed through FOUR historical phases, which will be followed by TWO more  
  - Asiatic       Egypt, China
- Ancient     Greece, Roman Empire
- Feudal       W Europe
- Capitalist   last antagonistic system
- Socialist     Marx would maintain that socialism was never estb in Russia, China, etc.
- Communist		  
  While capitalism is last antagonistic system in that there is class conflict, there will always be individual struggle & conflict  
  See Also:  An Overview of Marxist History  
  9.  SOCIETY IS IN A STATE OF CONTINUAL CHANGE & STRUGGLE  
  Equilibrium does not exist for Marx & other conflict theorists because the inherent tendency of society is toward conflict, not consensus  
  Conflict is natural, normal & useful to society  
  10.  CONFLICT DOES NOT ALWAYS MEAN VIOLENCE  
  Conflict is institutionalized so that differences can be worked out through society's channels such as unions, courts, etc.  
  Collective bargaining & civil rights panels are examples of the institutionalization of conflict  
  Violence occurs when groups become frustrated w/ society's channels to redress differences  
  Conflict eliminates social arrangements that harm society as a whole  
  Conflict offers disadvantaged groups the opportunity to improve their position in society  
 
 11.  CAPITALISM IS DESTRUCTIVE OF HUMANITY 
 
 
 The existing system of capitalism was not only preventing fulfillment of our potential, it was even depriving us of our animal needs:  food, shelter, sex, fresh air, & so on
 
 
 Hunger is a condition of deprivation imposed by people
 
 
 During Marx's time, capitalism had reduced humanity to animal laborers where the worker's needs were at the barest & most miserable level &, in fact, people were becoming less than animals
 
 
 See Also:  Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844  
 
 Market relations destroy society through TWO processes
 
  a.  creativity is destroyed because we are not creating for ourselves, but instead we are creating for the market  
  b.  the mkt concentrates wealth which creates monopoly  
  See Also:  Pac Man economics & Mkt Concentration  
 
 12.  CAPITALISM IS ALIENATING, I.E. CAUSES SEPARATION OF INDIVIDUALS & SOCIAL GROUPS   
  While both Hegel & Feuerbach discussed the nature of alienation, Marx built upon these to develop his own dialectical- material view of alienation  
  See Also:  Alienation  
 
 13.  THE UPPER CLASS CONTROL THE ECONOMY ( 50% of income )
 
 
 See Also:   Introduction on the Economic Power of the Upper Class  
  The UC controls the economy & thus the culture  
  Bill Gates controls more wealth, over $100 bb in 2000, more than the lower 20% of the population  
  In 2000, there were over 1000 billionaires in the world  
  American income distribution demonstrates that the richest 20% has more income as all the rest  
  The top 5% of the population controls more than the lower 40% of the population  
 
 American income distribution demonstrates that the richest 20% has more income as all the rest  
 
 Groups w/ advantage will attempt to preserve the status quo:  i.e. existing set of arrangements
 
 
 While society experiences conflict, in the long run, society is relatively stable, & income distribution has changed little in the last 100 yrs.
 
 Link 14.  CULTURE IS SHAPED BY THE ECONOMIC BASE
 
 
 By controlling the base, the upper class ( UC ) controls the superstructure & thus we have conflicting values & ideologies 
 
 
 Marx believed that the powerful promote a belief in their ideology, i.e., ideology of the UC
 
  Most Am have the ideology of the rich which may be thought of as a morbid belief that they also can be rich when the cold reality is that class structure has changed only minutely in last 100 yrs.
 
 
 The media holds success stories up for workers to see
 
 
 15.  WE HAVE EITHER CLASS OR FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS
 
 
 For Marx, we have class consciousness if we support policies that advance our interests 
 
  An example of class consciousness is when the working class supports policies in its own interest such as lower taxes for the non upper classes, the advancement of unions, universal health care, etc.  
 
 For Marx, we have false consciousness if we support policies that harm or reverse our interests
 
  An example of class consciousness is when the upper class supports policies that are not in its own interest such as the advancement of unions, capital gains taxes, inheritance taxes w/ a high deductible rate  
 
 An ideology or world view is a mental system of beliefs about reality, which may be real or ideal
 
 
 See Also:  Ideology  
 
 See Also:  Class & False Consciousness
 
 
 Conflicting ideologies often appear as a conflict of values
 
 
 For Marx, most workers support the status quo, i.e., the ideology of the upper class, & thus, they have false consciousness
 
 
 Marx viewed the development of the modern era as fraught w/ both immense problems & immense potentials
 
 
 Modernity was defined by the capitalist economy
 
 
 Modernity had developed as a result of the transition from earlier forms of society  
 
 Marx restricted himself mostly to a critique of the economic system & its deformities such as alienation, exploitation, econ collapse, monopolization, etc.  

 
Top
  


Karl Marx
1818 - 1883

Born in the German Rhineland, Marx spent most of his adult life in political  exile
He studied law in Bonn & history & phil in Berlin
He received his doctorate in philosophy from Jena in 1841

Top
  
Major works of Marx
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844
The Communist Manifesto
Das Kapital
Thesis on Feuerbach
A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy    1859
Top
  
Engels biography:  Engels was Marx's friend & colleague
Though Engels was also born in the Rhineland, his father was a textile mfr. w/ interests in England
Engels moved to England to 1st work at, then manage, then own, a cotton mill in Manchester
Marx & Engels met briefly in 1842, again in 1844 
From that time on they worked closely together 
From 1850 Engels provided financial  support for Marx, & Marx's family after Marx died

 
Top  
Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy.  Succinct formulation of his theory 
 
See entire passage
Link
  1. Legal relations & the form of the state are rooted in mat conditions of life under name civil society
  2. People enter into social relations of production which are indispensable & independent of their will
  3. These relations of prod correspond to a definite stage of development of their material powers
  4. Totality of relations of prod constitutes economic structure of society: the foundation on which legal & political SS arise & to which definite forms of consciousness correspond
  5. It is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but rather that social being determines consciousness
  6. Mat forces of prod come in conflict w/ the existing relations of prod
  7. The legal representations of property relation's become problematic
  8. And so social revolutions occurs:  w/ change in economic foundation, SS is more or less rapidly transformed
  9. Changes occur first in the mat economic conditions, & later in the ideological SS:  legal, political, religious, aesthetic or phil 
  10. No social order ever disappears before all the prod forces in it are development 
  11. New conditions begin amidst old conditions, slowly
z 0515 Hist Mx

 
Top  
Our human nature is that we are laboring/creating beings.  People are "naturally" "laborers."  Marx called our human nature:  our "species being"
  • People work on social, material & natural world of which they are part
  • In doing so, they change the world, the world changes them ( natural selection) & the activities in which we engage change us
  • Work is a part of our human nature:  We are creative beings who must create through work to realize ourself, actualize, develop, etc.
  • Humans are constructing & being constructed by nature
  • Changing of economic systems is a result of individuals & groups struggling w/ their social & natural contexts
  • Marx saw history as an analogy based on competitive struggle
Society & Nature, Dickens, Chap 2

 
Top
  
Did the so called Communist countries change their economic foundations?

Russia, China:  did they change the economic foundation?  And what was the effect on the superstructure? 
This is Marx's rationale for the development of socialism in capitalistic countries only.


 
Top
  
Examples of class conflict & conflict in society: 
Labor v. mgt
Wkrs v. mgt

Environmentalism
Civil Rights Movement
Women's Movement
MADD


 
Top
  
Examples of how Culture is shaped by the economic base of society
Pretty Woman:  prostitute succeeds:  marries millionaire
Cinderella
Who wants to be a millionaire?
Lottery
Beauty Queen marries a multi-millionaire

 
Internal
Links

Top
Outline on the Base & the Superstructure
External
Links
  THE THEORY OF THE BASE & SUPERSTRUCTURE HOLDS THAT ECON RELATIONS ARE THE FUNDAMENTAL FOUNDATION OF ALL OTHER SOCIAL RELATIONS   
  Note:  There is much debate over the interpretation of Marx's work as seen in the related & competing schools of thought such as conflict theory, neo Marxism, the critical school, etc.  
  Class analysis holds that all history is history of class struggle   
  Class struggle is rooted in economic struggle/competition   
  Understanding economics is at the heart of understanding society because our most fundamental needs are based on food, clothing & shelter & the "higher needs" of art, recreation, even sexuality, are secondary to material needs   
  However, there is an ancient, & on-going philosophical debate over whether material (economic) [Archaic Language] conditions determine the nature of human society or whether idealistic (cultural) conditions determine the nature of society   
  All other human relations fail when fundamental economic relations fail, e.g.  food, clothing, shelter   
  ECON RELATIONS ARE THE FOUNDATION OF SOCIETY IN THAT MOST OF US DEFINE OURSELVES BY WHAT WE DO IN LIFE & BY THE FACT THAT ECON INSTITS DOMINATE SOCIETY TODAY   
  The concepts of the base & the superstructure embody the idea that: "We are what we do"   
  The concepts of the base & the superstructure are similar to humanistic psychology concept of self actualization in that we strive to develop ourselves to highest degree & this is usually done by immersing ourselves in creation, in becoming   
  Alienation occurs when we cannot develop   
  There are many divergent & convergent conceptions of human nature   
  Species being is Marx's term for our most basic human nature which is a collective or social group conception, an not an individual conception of human nature   
  THE BASE IS THE ECON FOUNDATION & THE SUPERSTRUCTURE IS BUILT UPON THE BASE & INCLUDES CULTURE & ALL OTHER SOC RELATIONS   
Link
 The Chart on the Base & the Superstructure depicts the belief that the economy is the base or foundation of society & that culture or superstructure of society is determined by the base 
 
 
 The base is the economic foundation of society including the means of production & relations of production 
 
 
 The base includes what is commonly known as the economy, & also all the social relationships inherent in the economic sphere of society 
 
 
 The superstructure includes the ideas of society & their manifestations including culture, law, art, entertainment, etc. 
 
  The superstructure includes what is commonly known as culture, & also all the social relationships inherent in the cultural sphere of society   
 
     See Also:  Marxist Economics   
 
 Common terms for the base & the superstructure are the economy & the culture   
  THE BASE HAS THE QUALITIES OF A FOUNDATION, INCLUDES THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION, INCLUDES THE RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION, & DETERMINES CULTURE  
 
 The base has FOUR major quals.  The base: 
a.  is the economic foundation of society 
b.  includes the means of production 
c.  includes the relations of production 
d.  determines culture 		  
  THE QUALITIES OF CULTURE INCLUDE THAT IT IS COMPOSED OF KBVN & REPRESENTS THE IDEAS MANIFESTED IN SOCIETY, INCLUDING THE LAW, THE ARTS, ENTERTAINMENT, ETC.   
 
 Cultural relationships ( KBVN ) are the superstructure or framework of society   
 
 The superstructure has FOUR major qualities 
a.  represents the ideas of society 
b.  represents the manifestations of society 
c.  is made up of culture & law 
d.  is made up of art & entertainment 		  
  In the overview of conflict theory, one of the major principles of conflict theory is that culture is shaped by the economic base of society   
  But most social scientists view this point as the question of how much does the economy influence culture?   
  For Marx, the structure of the economy determines structure of culture   
  For Marx, the base determines the superstructure   
  For Marx, a particular economic order creates a particular type of culture   
  THROUGHOUT HISTORY, THE ECONS OF DIFFERENT ERAS MANIFESTED THE PARTICULAR CULTURAL SYSTEMS OF THOSE ERAS   
  A feudalistic economy had one type of culture, a religious & authoritarian culture 
A capitalist economy has another type of culture, a consumerist & individualist culture 
A socialist economy has another type of culture, a cooperative & bureaucratic culture 		  
  Furthermore, an analysis of the base & superstructure shows that different types of economic systems have different cultures 
  Agriculture 
  Industrial 
  Service 
  High Tech 		  
  Do different occupations have different cultures?     (knowledge, beliefs, values, norms)? 
  Top executive?                    Worker? 
  Cop?                                    Teacher? 
  Entertainer?                         Athletes? 		  
  One bit of proof of the conception of the base & the superstructure is that different occupations have different cultures   
  THE BASE EMBODIES THE SOCIAL STRUCTURES OF THE ECON & ED; THE SUPERSTRUCTURE EMBODIES ALL OTHER SOCIAL STRUCTURES, INCLUDING PF RG M CML  
Link
 The Chart on the Base & the Superstructure & the Social Structure shows that the economy determines all other aspects of society   
    See Also:  Social Structures   
  The question of how much the economy influences culture is reflected in an ancient, but still on-going philosophical debate (archaic language) btwn materialism & idealism   
  Materialism, as a philosophy, holds that the concrete aspects of life are primary determinants   
  Idealism, as a philosophy, holds that the abstract aspects of life are primary determinants   
  What is the relationship btwn material life & ideal life?   
  Most Marxists, but not conflict theorists, believe material life totally determines ideal life   
  Marx's theories are based on a materialistic (economic) view of humanity   
  SOCIALIZATION BY THE BASE IS THE MOST PERVASIVE & POWERFUL   
  The fundamental idea of material life determining ideal life is found in many other theories, especially the concept of socialization   
  Socialization is:   
  a.  a process that "teaches" people roles & functions to develop a self - image in people   
  b.  how we "deep learn" through exposure to & participation in the activities of our lives   
       Review:  Socialization   
  The economy shapes our culture / personality because we, for example, engage is the processes of the economy that teach us to look out for number one, work hard, etc.   
  Conflict theorists believe that material life influences ideal life   
  By "controlling" the base, the upper class "controls" the superstructure   
  The ultimate question is not whether the upper class controls the superstructure, but rather how much influence the upper class has over the superstructure   
  Marx believed that the powerful promote a belief in their ideology, i.e., ideology of the upper class   
  In general, most workers support the status quo, i.e. the ideology of the upper class   
  Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality: world view   
  Conflict theorists believe that Americans have the ideology of the rich   
  Conflict theorists believe that most Americans have a "morbid belief " that they also can be rich   
  While most Americans are hopeful that they too can be rich, the reality is that class structure has changed only minimally in last 100 yrs.   
  Social scientists, activists, et al, frequently struggle w/ the questions, "Why do Americans have false consciousness?" & "What can be done to change what people believe?" etc.   
  One common reason people believe what they do is the influence of the media, but conflict theorists & Marxists hold that the media's ideology is only a reflection of the larger ideology as created by the base   
  The media continually holds up unrealistic success stories for people to long after:   
    Cinderella 
  Pretty Woman 
  Who wants to be a millionaire? 
  The Lottery 		  
  'CLASSIC' CONFLICT THEORISTS HOLD THAT THE SOC RELATIONS OF THE BASE DETERMINES THE SOC RELATIONS OF THE SUPERSTRUCTURE, BUT NEO CONFLICT THEORISTS & OTHERS HOLD THAT THERE IS A MUTUAL INTERACTION BTWN THE TWO   
  The question of the relationship btwn the economy & culture is not simply one of how strongly one influences the other   
  The question of the relationship btwn the economy & culture may also be understood as a struggle of competing value systems, ideologies, etc.   
  Societies have conflicting values & ideologies   
  Conflicting ideologies often appear as a conflict of values   
  But many believe there is mutual causation btwn the economy & culture   
        See Also:  Economic & Cultural Determination   
  For Marx the direction of causality is that the base determines the superstructure while for Parsons the direction of causality is that the superstructure determines the base   
  For Marx & many conflict theorists, the direction of causality btwn the base & the superstructure is from the base  to the superstructure, but for Parsons & many functionalists the direction of causality is from the superstructure to the base   

 
Top
  

Chart on the Superstructure & Base
 

Superstructure:  ideas of society & their manifestations:  culture, law, 
                             art, entertainment, ideology, values, etc. 
 
 

Base:  economic foundation of society:  means of production & relations of production 


 
Top
  
Chart on the Base, the Superstructure & the Social Structures
1.    Peers
2.    Family
3.    Religion
5.    Government
6.    Military
7.    Charity
9.    Media
10.  Recreation/ Leisure 

4.    Work (economy)
8.    Education

 
External
Links

Top
Outline on  Marxist Economics
External
Links
  SOCIETY IS STRUCTURED BY THE MODE & RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION IN THE ECON BASE   
  The mode of production consists of the two components of the forces of production & the relations of production   
  THE LABOR THEORY OF VALUE HOLDS THAT WORTH / USEFULNESS IS CREATED BY APPLYING LABOR TO FORM 'A PRODUCT'   
 
 The labor theory of value holds that the value of a thing is determined by amount of labor put into it
 
 
 The market theory of value posits that the value of a thing is determined by its scarcity
 
 
 Surplus value is the amount above subsistence value for the worker:  similar to profit
 
 
 The most profitable capital appropriates the most surplus value
 
  CAPITALISM DEPENDS ON KEEPING AN INDUSTRIAL RESERVE ARMY, I.E. A SURPLUS OF WORKERS TO KEEP LABORERS COMPETING, THUS KEEPING WAGES LOW   
 
 The industrial reserve army is the Marxist concept denoting that  w/ capitalism, there is always unemployment & the concomitant poverty
 
 
 Capitalism needs unemployment to make jobs scarce, so people will work for less
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on  Marxist Terminology
External
Links
  Praxis is the process of combining theory & practice  
  The goal of praxis, and for Marx, the social sciences, is to change the world  
  Historical materialism holds that we must understand the historical development of the social relationships which make up the economy, i.e. the forces & means of production  

 
Internal
Links

Top
Outline on    Conflict Theory on Stratification
External
Links
  WHILE STRAT IS NECESSARY, UNDER CAPITALISM, A DISPROPORTIONATE AMT OF REWARDS GO TO THE UPPER CLASS; IT IS THE MID & LOWER CLASSES WHO ACTUALLY CREATE VALUE  
 
 Introduction:  Conflict theory generally developed from the works of Marx -> Mills -> Dahrendorf, & continues today  
Blank
 Review:  Conflict theory focuses on FOUR qualities of society:
a.  Society has 2 or more classes of people who are in conflict    (competition)
b.  Different groups in society are in conflict over control of resources
c.  Different groups in society are in conflict over control of ideology 
d.  Historically one group has dominated		  
  Conflict theory, w/ it's roots in Marxism, is directly focused on issues of stratification, viewing the understanding of economic & the distribution of wealth as central to understanding society  
  Conflict theory, from it's beginnings, focused on the struggle for justice, equal opportunity & the historic changes that have occurred through the various stages of class struggle from hunter gatherer, to agricultural society, to indl society, to contemporary global capitalism / service econ  
  For conflict theorists & strat theorists, one cannot understand the nature of conflict in society w/o understanding the stratified div of wealth, & strat theorists cannot understand the basis & process of the strat div of wealth w/o understanding the competition in society that creates said strat  
  WE ARE SOCIALIZED TO ACCEPT OUR STATION IN LIFE & NOT QUESTION THE OPERATION OR OUTCOME OF THE CURRENT SYSTEM  
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 Members of a society are socialized to an ideology which is the part of our culture of which we are more or less aware & a big part of the content of that socialization is the acceptance of stratification
 
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 The culture of modern, globalized, state capitalist nations is a culture of stratification; i.e., members are taught to accept:
a.  the largest gap btwn rich & poor in all of history
b.  the highest level of deadly poverty in all of history, even in the midst of unsurpassed wealth		  
  HG SOCIETY DID NOT HAVE STRAT AS WE KNOW IT; CAP HAS A HI LEVEL OF STRAT; THE POWER OF THE UC IS GREAT & THEIR CLAIMS OF REGULATION & REFORM MUST BE TAKEN W/ EYES OPEN   
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 Early conflict theorists focused on SIX major aspects of stratification  
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 1.  Stratification & unjust inequality are required for the functioning of any class based system:  e.g. slavery, feudalism, caste system, capitalism  
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 2.  The inequality of capitalism is the greatest: "It is was the best of times, it was the worst of times"  
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 While the inequality of capitalism is the greatest, the state, or regulated capitalism has reduced this equality  
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 3.  The power of one group over another maintains stability, but that stability is based on oppression  
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 4.  Conflict theory is "distrustful" of our ability to restrain social institutions (regulatory institutions)  
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 5.  Conflict theory is critical of the status quo norms & values which support the present system  
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 6.  Power & conflict can be equalized through communism, socialism, or radical reforms of capitalism  

 
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  An Overview of   Max Weber  1864  - 1920
External
Links
  -  Project:   Your Status, Class, & Power 
Link
Link
 -  Biography & Major Works   
  SUMMARY:  There are EIGHT major ideas of Weberian sociology
1.  The major influence in modern society is the development of rationality
2.  Charisma, tradition, & rationality are all forms of authority
3.  In relation to an overview of Weber, while rationality is necessary for the dev of mod soc, it is also dominating soc 
4.  The dimensions of stratification include class, power & status 
5.  Culture, like economics, affects the fundamental structure of society 
6.  History demonstrates the development of rationality
7.  Weber agreed w/ Marx on the functioning of the econ sector, but supplemented his work w/ examinations of rationality & culture 
8.  Weber believed that the development of social science methodology was needed		  
  There are EIGHT major ideas of Weberian sociology
 
  1.  THE MAJOR INFLUENCE IN MODERN SOCIETY IS THE DEVELOPMENT OF RATIONALITY
 
 
 For Weber, rationality is a method or practice of choice based on who / what works best in achieving a given objective  
  2.  CHARISMA, TRADITION, & RATIONALITY ARE ALL FORMS OF AUTHORITY
 
  2.1.  Charismatic authority is present when one is treated as endowed w/ supernatural, or at least exceptional powers or qualities not accessible to ordinary people  
  2.2.  Traditional authority is the claim by leaders & the belief by followers in the virtue of sanctity of age old rules & powers   
  2.3.  Legal/rational authority is a model of choice based on who / what works best in achieving a given objective  
  2.3.1.  BUREAUCRACY IS THE ULTIMATE RATIONAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION   
  See Weber on Organizations  
  Weber believed that, conceived as a pure type, the modern bureaucratic organization has several distinctive characteristics  
  2.3.2.  Weber noted that Marx largely ignored administrative domination & organizational life
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  See Also:  A comparison of Charismatic, Traditional, & Rationality Authority  
  3.  WHILE RATIONALITY IS NECESSARY FOR THE DEV OF MOD SOC, IT IS ALSO DOMINATING SOC   
  Weber viewed the development of the modern era as increasingly dominated by the "iron cage of rationality"  
  Weber called the rationalization of society, i.e. the development of the iron cage of rationality, the disenchantment of the world  
  Weber demonstrated that the disenchantment of the world had been carried out more thoroughly in the West than elsewhere  
  Weber thought the development of rationality in society was inevitable, but was extremely uncertain about the value of said development  
  For Weber, domination had been implemented, historically, through govt, i.e. political orgs  
  Weber feared that domination would become absolute through bureaucracy  
  Weber conceived of many of the dysfunctions of bureaucracy   
  Weber analyzes the role of professionals in bureaucracy & concludes that they have the best chance of breaking out of the "iron cage of rationality"  
  4.  THE DIMENSIONS OF STRATIFICATION INCLUDE CLASS, POWER, & STATUS
 
  See Also:  Stratification  
  4.1.  Class, a.k.a. the economic dimension, is based on wealth & income
 
  Weber updates Marx on class by adding the middle & professional classes  
  4.2.  Power, a.k.a. the political dimension, is based on political power
 
  4.3.  Status, a.k.a. the social dimension, is based on prestige, honor, etc.
 
  Weber is the first social theorist to make status important in social analysis  
  The addition of power & status to social analysis makes Weber similar to the neo Marxists   
  5.  CULTURE, LIKE ECONOMICS, AFFECTS THE FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY   
  Weber, contrary to Marx, believes that the cultural system affects being as much as the economic system
 
  Weber believed that all societal institutions were shaped by climate & geography as well as by the econ system  
  In the PESC, Weber finds that the economic & religious systems have mutual impacts on each other  
  The transition from ancient Judaism to Christianity enhanced the evolution of capitalism & rationality  
  China did not develop capitalism for many reasons  
  India did not develop capitalism for many reasons  
  6.  HISTORY DEMONSTRATES THE DEVELOPMENT OF RATIONALITY  
  Weber adds cultural effects to economic effects to understand history  
  Early Empire Era aka Asiatic System                         3 K - 200 BC  
  Empire Era: Ancient Slave Society: 
The Transition to Feudalism                             200 BC - 500 AD		  
  Middle Ages: Transition to Capitalism                                500 - 1300  
  Early industrial Age:  Western Capitalism                     1300 - 1700  
  7.  WEBER AGREED W/ MARX ON THE FUNCTIONING OF THE ECON SECTOR, 
BUT SUPPLEMENTED HIS WORK W/ EXAMINATIONS OF RATIONALITY & CULTURE 		  
  Weber's "debate w/ ghost of Marx" was a sympathetic debate  
  Marx examines the development & impact of the economy  
  Weber examines the development & impact of rationality  
  8.  WEBER BELIEVED THAT THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCE METHODOLOGY WAS NEEDED   
  Weber & many other soc scientists believe that the soc sciences must distinguish themselves from phil & common knowledge by developing a methodology that allows for the creation of verifiable, objective  knowledge   
  One of Weber's major discoveries was that science cannot be value free  

 
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Max Weber
1864  -  1920
( pronounced   vay ber )

Born and resided in: Germany, then Known as Prussia
Began as an historian, later converted to a full time sociologist. 

Weber studied legal and economic history at several German universities.
After a brief period as a legal assistant and on completion of his doctoral dissertation, he was appointed professor first (1894) at the University of Freiburg and then (1897) at Heidelberg. Despite a severe nervous breakdown several years later, Weber produced a body of work that established him as the foremost figure in social thought of the twentieth century.

Towards the end of his life, Weber became politically active and served on the committee that drafted the constitution of the Weimar Republic in 1918.

xrefer  Who's Who in the Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press, © Market House Books Ltd 1999

WEBER, Max (1864-1920). 'The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism', Max Weber's most controversial and stimulating book, was published in 1904-05. In it he asserted that the stern doctrines of Calvinism bred in believers a relentless commitment to one's earthly calling and an avoidance of trivial pleasures. The result was, in Protestant nations, the rapid accumulation of capital that has made possible the enormous structure of modern economic life. 
   Weber was born in Erfurt, Germany, on April 21, 1864, to an authoritarian father and strongly Calvinist mother. He was educated at the universities of Heidelberg, Berlin, and Gottingen and served briefly in the army. In 1895 he became professor of political economy at Freiburg, and the next year he went to Heidelberg in the same post. He advocated German overseas expansion as a means to raise the political consciousness of the German people. 
   Following a nervous collapse in 1898, Weber was institutionalized periodically until 1903. It was after this period that he did his most significant research. During this time he influenced sociological theory and tried to gain respect for sociology as a discipline by defining a value free methodology for it. He also argued strongly against German aims in World War I. After the war Weber helped draft the constitution of the Weimar Republic and founded the German Democratic party (see Weimar Republic). He died in Munich on June 14, 1920. 

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Excerpted from Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia
Copyright © 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 The Learning Company, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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Major Works of Weber

Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. 1904, trans., 1930
General Economic History.
 Economy and Society.  1922; translated as Economy and Society, 1968
Methodology of the Social Sciences. (1949).

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