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Review Notes on  ST 3: The History of Inequality
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 To understand the history of the development of inequality, we must understand the different Types of Strat Systems  
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         The Chart on the Socio-Historical Analysis spans all of human existence & goes through many stages, delineating the development of stratification & ineqality  
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 3. During the Era of H-G Society, which is for 99 % of human existence,  there was nearly total equality  
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         Marx's Tribal Society  
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 4. During the Pre Empire Era ( 10 K BC to 3 K BC ) inequality/stratification begins as humanity develops the capacity to produce a surplus  
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         Inequality is based on race:  Race Relations in the Pre Empire Era   
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         Inequality is based on gender:  Morgan: The Development of the Patriarchal Family  
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 5. During the Early Empires Era ( 3 K BC to 200 BC ) the caste system developed  
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 6. During the Era of the Roman Empire ( 200 BC to 500 AD ) the stratification system changed little  
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 7. During the Middle Ages ( 500 to 1300 ) industrialism & the modern class system arose  
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         During the Middle Ages (  500 to 1300 ) the modern system of Racism & Slavery arose  
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 8. The Early Industrial Age  (1300 - 1700 ) saw the beginning of the rise of the Middle Class  
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 9. During the Industrial Age ( 1700 to the present ), in the Core Countries the economic base became totally industrialized, while agriculture & other economic systems waned  
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 10. During the Age of Global Capitalism the class based stratification system became global  
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 11. During the Post Industrial Age, the economy shifted from basic industry to services & high tech jobs   

 
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Outline on the Types of Stratification Systems
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  There are six fundamental types of stratification systems, each of which generally dominated a particular historical period:
1. Primitive communal system ( aka hunter gatherer society or tribal society )
2. Slavery system  (two types:  conquest & racist)
3. Caste system
4. Feudal system ( aka Estate System )
5. Class system ( aka Capitalism System )
6. Post-industrial system ( aka The Global System )		  
  1.  The primitive communal system has the highest level of equality  
  When examining hunter gatherer societies & other early human social systems anthropologists generally agree that, compared to today, there was a very high level of equality  
  During the pre empire era, circa 10 K BC - 3 K BC, inequality/stratification begins  
  During the pre empire era, patriarchal gender relations first developed  
 
 2.  Slave system
 
  Historically, many types of slave systems have existed  
  Slave systems before the middle ages were generally less stratified & had more social mobility than did later slave systems  
  3. The caste system has a  legally or formally defined stratification system based on groupings assigned by birth that are unchangeable
 
  Examples of the caste system include ancient & modern India, ancient Japan, ancient China  
  There is the least amount of  socioeconomic mobility found in the caste system
 
  India's caste system is based on religion and has existed for thousands of years  
  Many countries, like the US & Malaysia, have never had a caste society  
  4.  In the estate or feudal system, status & class is determined on the basis of land ownership & / or formal title  
  Examples:  Europe in the Middle Ages
                 Russia in the late 1800's
                 Rural Mexico today		  
  The estate system has the highest level of inequality  
  The estate system has slightly more mobility than the caste system and usually breaks down as a society begins to urbanize  
  5.  In the class system, ( aka capitalist system ) status is influenced mostly by achieved status, i.e. the merit system  
  Examples:  western, industrialized, democratic countries today  
  In a class system, both ascribed & achieved statuses have significant effect on people's income, wealth, & social position  
  Though class systems are more open than caste systems, studies have shown that mobility is limited in class system  
  When examining the relationship between industrialization and stratification, one finds that virtually all industrialized countries distribute income more equally than most pre industrial countries  
 
 6.  In the postindustrial system ( aka the global system ) capitalist class relations exist in varying degrees of development around the world
 
  Globalization has resulted in a world-wide stratification system where entire countries are relegated to a position based on global social forces  
  Generally, western industrial democracies have a high level of social mobility & a full range of classes  
  The developing nations are struggling to attain social mobility & build a middle class  
  Undeveloped nations, isolated dictatorships, etc. have little or no social mobility, nor a middle class  
  Both developing & undeveloped nations have difficulty developing because of the developed nation's advantages in competition & sheer size 
 
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 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Types of the Stratification Systems examines the 6 Fundamental Types of Stratification Systems & the Characteristics of Stratification Systems
 
  Each type of stratification system may be analyzed along FIVE characteristics of stratification systems:  
  1.  Normativity is a characteristic of a strat system which examines the amount of mobility that the society's ideology accepts & thus ranks a society as open or closed  
  2.  The method of placement, i.e. ascription, or achievement, mixture is a characteristic of a strat system which describes the social processes through which rank in a society is established  
  3.  The method of legitimization, i.e. tradition, ideological, religion, or legal, is a characteristic of a strat system which describes the social processes through which rank in a society is justified  
  Tradition, ideology, religion, legal rationalization, are all methods of legitimation in stratified societies, all of which are embedded in our culture & social structure  
  4.  The form of inequality, i.e. status, class, or power, is a characteristic of a strat system which describes the three types of rank recognized in most societies  
  5.  The level of inequality is a characteristic of a strat system which describes the amount or quantity of stratification in a society  
  The level of inequality is:
- low in primitive communal societies
- high in slave, caste & feudal societies
- medium in class societies		  

 
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Chart on the Characteristics of the Types of the Stratification Systems
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Type of 
System		 Normativity Ranks
(Mobility)		 Method of 
Placement		 Legitimization
(ideology)		 Basis of 
Ranking		 Level of
Equality
Primitive 
( Hunter Gatherer)		 open achievement tradition status highest equality
Slavery generally closed ascription legal/racism economic (class) hi inequality
Caste closed ascription religion status hi inequality
Feudal generally closed generally ascription legal/religious economic highest inequality
Class open mostly achievement legal economic/
bureaucratic (power)		 low to medium
Post-industrial open mostly achievement legal economic/
bureaucratic (power)		 low to high

 
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Chart on a  Socio Historic Analysis
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  1.  Geologic era 5 bb BP -
5 mm BP		   Earth forms 
Early primates evolve		  
  2.  Pre-human evolution 5 mm BP -
1.5 mm BP		 Old Stone Age
Early primates		  Pre Human Ancestors  
  3.  Hunter - Gather Society 1.5 mm BP -
10 K BC		 Middle Stone Age
Early humans		 Equality:  99 % of human existence has occurred in H-G society
Sexism & Racism has existed for less than 1 % of human existence		  
  4.  Pre Empire Era 10K BC - 
3 K BC		 New Stone Age
Civilization dawns
First Ag & villages		 Patriarchy & Sexism began
Agriculture begins, allowing the production of surplus		  
  5.  Early Empires Era 3 K BC - 
200 BC		 Bronze Age, Mesopotamia,
Egypt, Greece, 
China, etc.		  The first empires form
Ag transforms from Pastorialism & Horticulture to herd mgt. & agriculture		  
  6.  Roman Era 200 BC - 
500 AD		 Rome rules the West;
China, India rule the East		 Limited forms of democracy occur
The practice of colonization develops		  
  7.  Middle Ages 500 AD - 
1300 		 Fall of Rome;
Rise of Persia & Ottoman Empire
Crusades
Ends w/ the Enclosure		 Modern form of Racism began
Wallerstein & WST holds that globalization begins w/ the Age of Exploration
Proto factories & the div of lab dev		  
  8.  Early Industrial Age 1300 - 
1700		 Renaissance
Reformation
Enlightenment
Industrial Revolution		 Early water power; steam power; railroads
The development of ag has biggest transformation since Early Empire Era		  
  9.  Industrial Age 1700 -
present		 American & French Revolutions Rise & fall of smokestack industries; deindustrialization; globalization begins  
  10.  Global Capitalism 1910 - 
present		 WW1
WW2		 True global corporations emerge  
  11. Post Industrial Age 1970 - 
present		 Service, Info, High Tech economies  Deindustrialization has a major impact on the developed econs  
  12.  The Future   What's next? Biotech Age?  Democratic Age?  Robot Age?   

 
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Outline on  Hunter Gatherer Societies
circa 1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC
External
Links
 
 - Project:  What knowledge is needed to develop from a H-G society to an Ag society? 
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  -  Video:  The Rise of Man & Hunting       6:29 
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  -  Project:  Video:  The Rise of Man & Hunting 
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 -  Project:  What Was HG Society Like & How Does It Relate to Life Today? 
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 Review: A socio historical overview demonstrates that humanity has experienced distinct stages & milestones in its development   
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 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Hunter Gatherer Stratification System shows that compared to other systems, the hunter gatherer (H-G) society has the highest level of equality   
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 The Table Summarizing a Socio Historical Overview shows that H-G society began 1.5 mya & ended 10 K BC   
 
 Early humans evolved into our modern form and Neanderthal & other human lines died out   
 
 The Hunter - Gatherer era is made up of the Old Stone Age & the Middle Stone Age   
 
 Old Stone Age                   c. 2 - 4 mya - 50 K BC   
 
 Middle Stone Age              c. 30 K - 10 K BC   
 
 New or Early Stone Age    c. 9 K   -  7 K BC   aka Proto Neolithic  ( is in the pre Empire Era )   
  Modern humans developed from a variety of human lines:   
  - 1.5 mm BP  H Erectus emerges from Africa   
  - Around 500,000 yrs. ago Homo Erectus evolves into Java man & Peking man, then Neanderthals & Cromagnons   
  Homo Erectus, Java man, Peking man, Neanderthals, Cromagnons, et al all lived in what we would recognize as H-G society  
  - Around 200,000 yrs. ago Homo Sapiens evolved  
  The early non modern human lines cook, wear clothes, use tools, live in huts, make fire & have the earliest tribal society   
  There were many types of hunter gatherer societies, & this analysis is done in broad generalities  
  For most of the H-G era, humans existed in thousands of thousands of mostly isolated tribes w/ a tremendous, astounding variety  
  At end of H-G period, circa 10K BC, there were less than 100 mm people on Earth  
  As the name implies, people in H-G Society lived by hunting, done mostly by males, & gathering, done mostly by females  
       See Also:  Gender in the H-G Era  
  During the H-G Era, people lived on what they could obtain directly from the environment w/ hand made tools such as spears, scrapers, etc.  
  Early in the H-G Era, people lived in isolated tribal societies of about 50 or fewer people, and toward the end of the era, up to 300 people of networked tribes  
  Toward the end of the H-G era, tribes might be made of several hundred people  
  Tribes were small because w/ the early tool technology, a given area could only support a small tribe  
  Because a given area would only support a tribe for a short period of time, hunter gatherers are often nomadic  
  In the H-G era, people lived at or near the subsistence level w/ no surplus created for hard times  
  Thus, every person carried their own weight & the weak had to be let go  
  During the H-G era, life was hard, as Hobbes said, life was 'nasty, brutish, & short' & yet people did not spend all their time working  
  During the H-G era, it is estimated that people, in general, worked less than 30 hrs. a week, & spent the remainder of the time doing housework, in leisure, in ritual celebrations, socializing, etc.   
  During the H-G era, it is estimated that people, in general, spent 21 hrs. a week doing housework while in industrial society, people spend 60 hrs. a week doing housework  
  During the H-G era, because there was no surplus, there was no patriarchy & no racism  
  It is important to note that 99 % of human existence has been in H-G society, thus in many respects it is all form of modern human existence that is "abnormal"
 
  Thus, recognizable, modern humans lived in H-G society for approximately 1.5 mm yrs  
  By 13,000 yrs ago (11,000 BC), the earliest villages developed  
  City states follow about 7,000 yrs after the development of the earliest villages (3,000 BC)  
  Humans have lived in ancient society (city & nation states) for approximately 5,000 yrs    (only .5% of HG society)  
  Humans have lived in modern industrial society for approximately 700 yrs    (only .07% of HG society)  
  Thus sociologists see ancient & modern societies as big experiments which have not yet proven their resilience  
  Agriculture has its roots in H-G society, but it was only toward the end that limited agricultural practices were discovered & utilized
 
  Early in the H-G Era, Homo Erectus lived only by hunting & gathering  
  Later in the H-G Era, Homo Sapiens, who emerged approximately 1/2 mm yrs ago, began to understand basic concepts such as:
- the Male role in procreation
- seasonal cycles
- fertility cycles in humans & animals
- the role of seeds
- the methods for domestication of animals		  
  And toward the end of the H-G era, the understanding of procreation, the seasons & so on, allowed for the limited sewing of crops & the domestication of animals  
  It was toward the end of the H-G era, that limited agricultural techniques were perfected & put into practice  
  The first domesticated plant was wheat, & the first domesticated animal was either the dog or the goat  
 
 Agricultural practices did not become widespread until the next era: the pre empire era 10 K BC to 3 K BC 
 
 
 Many analysts believe it is agriculture itself that allowed for the development of civilization
      See    The FOUR Ag revolutions 
      See    The 1st ag revolution:  The Beginnings & Spread of Agriculture 		  
 
 A classic debate btwn Hobbes & Rousseau concerns whether in H-G society life is 'nasty, brutish, & short' or 'the idealic village'
 
  See Also:  Hobbes  
  See Also:  Rousseau  
 
 The Hobbes - Rousseau debate is essentially about 'What was the nature of prehistoric woman & man?' 'What was the nature of prehistoric society?'
 
  Observers continue to ask today, "Who is more accurate in depicting the H-G Era, Hobbes or Rousseau?" because the H-G life has many noble & wonderful qualities that keep people in touch w/ the Earth & other people, but it is a difficult life  
 
 There was a high level of cooperation w/in tribes 
 
  "Work" in H-G society was hunting & gathering & you shared all your production  
  There were no markets & there was minimal trading among tribes  
  In viewing H-G society as more cooperative, Rousseau was more accurate than Hobbes
 
  Hunting & gathering had to be cooperative in order to function
 
  Because of limited specialization & isolation from other societies, H-G societies had high levels of consensus  
  Ownership was communal because subsistence level production meant that everything had to be shared  
  In H-G society, people have more free time than do modern, industrial people  
  People spend their free time relaxing, & partying in communal festival & rituals   
  Conflict btwn tribes was limited due to isolation & due to the fact that there was little to gain because all production was at the subsistence level, yielding no surplus to be gained through conquest
 
  Conflict was limited to struggles over turf & women
 
  Primitive weapons disallowed dominance by one or a few
 
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 All types of relationships, economic, familial, etc. were essentially egalitarian in the H-G Era
 
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 Egalitarian relationships were upset / abandoned w/ the development of agriculture, causing for the first time, class conflict
 
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 Gender differentiation existed in H-G society, but there was total equality  
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 In H-G society, racial differentiation was recognized only in the context of tribal ("nationalistic") differentiation & therefore was not a basis for inequality/discrimination  
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 The transition from H-G to Pre Empire Era (aka "civilization") occurred in different "hearth areas" at different times
 
  During the Proto Neolithic or Early Stone Age:, circa 9000 to 7000 BC, the transition to an agricultural econ begins in the mid east & other hearth areas  
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 Hearth areas are settings where new practices developed, & then spread to other areas
 
 
 ( Hearth areas may be thought of as "proto cores" visa vie World Systems Theory )
 
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 There are SIX major hearth areas which were found in Africa, the mid east, the Indian subcontinent, south Asia, China, & the America
 
  1. Africa:  In Africa, hearth areas of civilization developed along the Nile River & south, & along Mediterranean on the African north coast  
  2. Middle East:  In the mid east, in what is now called the Fertile Crescent:  hearth areas of civilization developed in Iran & Iraq, Jordan & Israel, Turkey  
  3. Indian Subcontinent:  In the Indian subcontinent, a hearth areas of civilization developed along the Indus & Ganges Rivers  
  4. South Asia:  In So Asia, hearth areas of civilization developed in Assam, Bangladesh, Burma, & India  
  5. China:  In China, hearth areas of civilization developed along the coast & major rivers, esp the Huang & Yangtze Rivers River  
  6. Americas:  In the Americas, hearth areas of civilization developed in Central Am & in So America in the Andes Mtns  
  From a historical perspective, the hearth areas developed relatively simultaneously  
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 Agricultural practices were first developed in the major hearth areas
 
 
 Hunter gatherer, nomadic societies still exist on every continent today, but the numbers of such societies are dwindling rapidly  
 
 Modern H-G societies exist today  in thinly populated, remote tropical areas, some arctic regions, some desert areas, & some plains areas  
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 The next historic stage is Pre Empire Era    10 K BC  to 3 K BC
- New Stone Age continues
- "Civilization" & history begin
- 1st widespread ag develops
- 1st permanent villages develop		  

 
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Table Summarizing a Socio Historical Overview
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Historic Period
Approximate Time Period
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1.  Geologic Era   5 bb  BP -  5  mm BP
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2.  Pre Human Evolution   5 mm BP - 1.5 mm BP
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3.  Hunter Gatherer Society   1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC
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4.  Pre Empire Civilization   10 K BC - 3 K BC
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5.  Early Empires Era   3 K BC - 200 BC
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6.  Roman Era   200 BC - 500 AD
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7.  Middle Ages   500 - 1300
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8.  Early Industrial Age  1300 - 1700
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9.  Industrial Age 1700 - present
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10. Global Capitalism 1910 - present
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11. Post Industrial Society 1970 - present
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Chart on the Characteristics of the Hunter -Gatherer Stratification System
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Type of 
System		 Ranks
(Mobility)		 Method of 
Placement		 Legitimization
(ideology)		 Basis of 
Ranking		 Level of
Equality
Primitive 
( Hunter Gatherer)		 open achievement tradition status highest equality

 
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Chart on the Characteristics of the Types of the Stratification Systems
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Type of 
System		 Ranks
(Mobility)		 Method of 
Placement		 Legitimization
(ideology)		 Basis of 
Ranking		 Level of
Equality
Primitive 
( Hunter Gatherer)		 open achievement tradition status highest equality
Slavery generally closed ascription legal/racism economic (class) hi inequality
Caste closed ascription religion status hi inequality
Feudal generally closed generally ascription legal/religious economic highest inequality
Class open mostly achievement legal economic/
bureaucratic (power)		 low to medium
Post-industrial open mostly achievement legal economic/
bureaucratic (power)		 low to high

 
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  Outline of Marxist History:  Tribal Society
a.k.a. the Hunter Gatherer Era      1.5 mm BP - 10K BC
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  For Marx, the tribal period is known as primitive communalism  
  The tribal period is the only period characterized by equality, according to Marx  
  Marx, following Morgan, realized that hunter gatherer society was egalitarian because they had no surplus, but did have "status wealth"  
  - Modern Anthropologists believe that hunter gatherer society was relatively egalitarian  
  - Because there was no surplus, there was no inequality except based on status which was related to achievement in recognized roles  
  - In general, "status wealth" could not be accumulated beyond 1 lifetime  
  The first form of ownership was tribal ownership  
  - Marx believed that in tribal society, men owned the family as he would own a slave  
  - Marx believed that in tribal society, most things, social & physical, were owned in common  
  - Marx believed that in tribal society, there was little surplus  
  In Tribal Society, there was a high level of social cooperation among producers  
  Forces of production were cooperatively oriented & not competitively oriented as they are today  
  The cooperation of the producers was necessary, not voluntary, just as competition today is voluntary & not necessary  
  Technical knowledge was generally shared w/in a tribe, but not btwn tribes  
  While we often think of hunter - gatherer society as living in harmony w/ nature, as technology developed, humankind fomented many ecological disasters  
  Inequality appeared at the end of the tribal society era as it crosses into what we call "civilization"  
  Thus, high levels of inequality, injustice, enslavement, etc. did not exist until until later in history  
  The middle class did not appear until there was the rise of the modern democracies  
  Tribal Society transformed into agricultural & conquest economies ruled by city states   
  Marx's next era is the Asiatic Period aka the Early Empire Era      3K BC - 200 BC  

 
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Outline on the  Pre Empire Era   10K BC  -  3K BC
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  The pre empire era runs from approximately 10 K BC to 3 K BC  
  During the pre empire era FOUR milestones were crossed for humanity which included
   a. the 1st development of agriculture
   b. agriculture becomes widespread
   c. the beginning of "civilization" 
   d. the 1st permanent villages		  
  The pre empire era includes what is commonly known as the New or Early Stone Age    c. 9 K   -  7 K BC     aka the Proto Neolithic Era   
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 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Pre Empire Stratification System shows that the pre empire era had a high level of inequality  
  During the pre empire era, inequality/stratification begins as humanity develops the capacity to produce a surplus  
  The transition from H-G society to pre empire "civilization" is characterized by the scattered development of agriculture of the late hunter gatherer era to where pre empire society had widespread agriculture  
  Pre empire society was based on agriculture  
  With the transition to agriculture, we see "mini systems" develop in the hearth areas  
  Mini systems develop w/ FIVE common traits
a.  a single cultural base
b.  a single social economy
c.  are essentially self sufficient
d.  much trade w/in their system
e.  even some trade outside their system, i.e. w/ neighboring mini systems		  
  Hearth areas are settings where new practices develop, & then spread to other areas  
  ( Hearth areas may be thought of as "proto cores" visa vie World Systems Theory )  
  There are SIX major hearth areas
a. Africa:  Nile River & south, & along Mediterranean on the African north coast
b. Middle East:  Fertile Crescent:  Iran & Iraq, Jordan & Israel, Turkey
c. Indian Subcontinent:  Indus & Ganges Rivers
d. South Asia:  Assam, Bangladesh, Burma, India
e. China:  along the coast & major rivers:  Huang & Yangtze Rivers River
f. Americas:  Central & So America (Andes Mtns)
These areas developed relatively simultaneously		  
  Agriculture in the pre empire era was based on widespread domestication of plants & animals  
  Agriculture has gone through FOUR "revolutions" or major stages  
  The first agricultural revolution occurs as societies domesticated plants & animals  
  Marx holds that during the pre empire era, the "exploitation of man by man" first developed  
  During the pre empire era, the "exploitation of the Earth by man" first developed  
  While environmental degradation & species extinctions at the hands of hunters had begun in H-G Era, the hearth areas sometimes experienced environmental collapse as a result of ag practices  
  The replacement of a hunting & gathering form of economy w/ an agricultural economy resulted in people being able to produce surpluses  
  In H-G society, no surplus was produced, therefore no one could exploit another by taking their surplus  
  The fact that a person could produce more than they could consume allowed others to "exploit" them, i.e. take their surplus or "enslave" them, i.e. make them create a surplus for another  
  During the pre empire era, people gain wealth by creating it themselves or taking it from others  
  Thus as humanities' ability to create a surplus appeared, so too did  the ability to exploit, enslave, etc. another, heralding the end of relative equality in human relations  
  But the social relationships surrounding any form of exploitation are different in each era
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  During the pre empire era, patriarchal gender relations first developed  
  See also:  Morgan:  The Origin of Patriarchy  
  See also:  Marx & Engels: Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State,  "The Historic Defeat of Women"  
  During the pre empire era, slavery first developed but was not based on race as it is in the modern era  
  The next era is the early empire era which runs 3 K BC to 200 BC  

 
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Outline on    Race Relations in the Pre Empire Era   circa 10 K BC - 3 K BC
External
Links
  -  Project:  The Difference in Race Relations Today & in the Pre Empire Era
Link
  Slavery begins along w/ "history" or "civilization" & agriculture  
  History, civilization, slavery, etc. begins w/ early, barely known civilizations that preceded the Egyptians, Sumerians & other early civilizations  
  In the pre empire era, tribal societies are just forming into sedentary societies & it takes another 6 K yrs before Egyptians, etc. buy into it all  
  Advances in human society & technology allowed "surpluses" to be created  
  One person could produce more than they needed to consume  
  Therefore, one person could hire or enslave another to work for them & profit from it  
  Thus slavery is an economic relationship  
  But, like in the hunter gatherer era, slavery was not based on race  
  In the pre empire era, slavery was based on conquest  
  The outcomes of conquest might include anything such as ...
-  mass murder
-  genocide
-  partial to full enslavement
-  paying tribute
-  enslaving low as well as high level workers
-  pillaging
-  simply conquering & moving on		  
  In any system of exploitation, there is always an ideology ( world view or set of ideas ) that supports it  
  It is through the ideological system that the economic exploitation or relationship is disguised, often as one of race, religion or nationalism  
  It is the ideology of conquest that supports slavery in the pre empire era, not racism per se ( i.e. genetic or developmental inferiority ) that is the justification of slavery  
  An ideology of modern, genetic based racism does not occur until the middle ages  
  The ideology of the pre empire era was that the victors have the right to rule the vanquished, but there are still strong individuals w/in a defeated society  
  The ideology of the pre empire era was, "I conquered, I may exploit you." accompanied w/ a respect for the enemy  
  The next period, the early empire era, witnesses the continuation of slavery based on conquest, not race  

 
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Outline on the   Development of the Patriarchal Family   by Lewis Henry Morgan
External
Links
Link
 -  Biography & Important Works  
  Summary:  Patriarchy & the monogamous family began when civilization began, which began when agriculture was well established

Patriarchy & the monogamous family created the first surplus of goods which could be bequeathed

Men established monogamy & patriarchy so that they could control their wealth, who their heirs were, & what they would receive

Before the production of a surplus, bequeathal follow female lines  (matriarchy) while after the production of a surplus, bequeathal followed male lines  (patriarchy)

Men gained power over women by controlling agriculture, war, husbandry, & bequeathal

These new relationships of patriarchy & strict monogamy created what Marx & Engels called "The historic defeat of women"

  
  Morgan was one of a group of early anthropologists who developed the field & our first understanding of anthropological stages  
  Morgan believed that patriarchy was established when agriculture created a surplus  
  Morgan developed a three stage view of pre history which followed the stages proposed earlier by social scientists, philosophers, et al   
  The first schema of pre historical stages remains valid today  
  1.  Savagery: Contemporary Paleolithic Age: aka Old Stone Age:   5 mm BP - 8,000 BC hunting gathering  
  FOUR social conditions / innovations were developed during the Paleolithic Age including
a.   Tree & cave dwelling
b.   Fishing & the use of fire, allowing people to become independent of one locale
c.   Bow & arrow
d.  Earliest villages		  
  2.  Barbarism:  Neolithic age: aka New Stone age:   8,000 BC to 3,000 BC     early agriculture  
  FOUR social conditions / innovations were developed during the Neolithic Age
a.   pottery & other vessels
b.   domestication and breeding of animals
c.   smelting iron
d.   alphabetic writing		  
  Morgan's Barbarian Age overlaps the Bronze age:   3,000 BC to approx. 500 BC   ( The Iron Age:  500 BC to present )  
  3.  Civilization:            3000 BC -   
 
 Morgan believed that patriarchy, sexism, etc. began during the pre empire era, which spanned the years, approximately,   10 K BC  to  3 K BC
 
  Contemporary anthropologists largely agree  
  Morgan analyzed FOUR family forms which were fully developed by the beginning of civilization ( all forms existed in a tribal setting, but some persist today )  
  a.  In the consanguine family, the parent child pair was the primary human bond, & there was  no marriage, & no incest taboo  
  b.  In the punaluan family, there is still no marriage as we know it, but family incest taboo develops, but cousin marriage is acceptable  
  c.  In the pairing family, there is matriarchy & pairing marriage that is similar to what we might call serial monogamy today  
  d.  In the monogamous family, strict monogamy was instituted by men to insure undisputed paternity  
  Marx believed that w/ the fall of capitalism, society would see the end of patriarchy  
  Marx believed that true love can only blossom among the proletariat, i.e., among those who love but are not entangled w/ property & wealth  

 
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Henry Lewis Morgan

1818 - 1881

Pioneering American anthropologist in the 1800s
His work provided anthropological background for Marx & Engels
Founded comparative scientific study of kinship systems
Studied family relationships of Am Indians & other peoples
   to determine similarities & differences
Unlike most anthropologists of his time
      Morgan learned through 1st hand experience:  living w/ natives

Born near Aurora, NY, became a lawyer
Never held an academic post
 

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Important Works
Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family  ( 1871 )
Ancient Society ( 1877 )

 
Internal
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Outline on the   Early Empires Era
a.k.a.    Ancient Agricultural Society            circa 3 K BC  -  200 BC
External
Links
  -  Video:  The Greeks:  The Crucible of Civilization   
 
 The Early Empire Era economies were based the FIVE factors of:
- agriculture
- conquest
- minimal, hand manufacturing sector
- some trade
- some service sector activities such as banking, law, education, etc.
 
 
 The Early Empire Era's economic systems were a mixture of state capitalism & command economies which was called the Asiatic system by Marx & Weber 
 
 
 During the Early Empire Era, there was in increased division of labor  
  By 3000 BC, agriculture, irrigation & villages were well established  
  During the Early Empire Era, non production workers emerged: 
  - artisans                                 - religious leaders
  - crafts workers                       - political leaders
  - traders                                  - bureaucrats
  - warriors		  
 
 -  See Marx's analysis of the Asiatic System  
 
 -  See Weber's analysis of the Asiatic System  
 
 Demonstrations of power & inequality emerged during the Early Empire Era in the form of burial practices, elaborate housing structures, the construction of significant religious monuments, etc., e.g., Stonehenge (estimated 30 mm hours to build)
 
 
 City states grew & groups of mini systems absorbed into a common political system while retaining fundamental cultural differences through a process now known as salad bowel integration
 
  - The first independent political systems were city states (though tribes also had a political function)  
  - City states would conquer neighboring city states & build empires  
  - City states were predominant in Egypt, Greece, China, Byzantium, Rome, Ottoman,  India, Aztec, Inca  
  - City states developed the practice of colonization  
  - Colonization is the domination of another group by political & military power   
  - During the Early Empire Era, & later, many empires ruled by conquest  
  The Early Empires 
- usually conducted minimal soci cultural political domination
- usually accepted the cultures of their conquests
- usually let conquered societies exist & pay tribute
- sometimes totally decimated the conquered societies:  Rome burned Carthage to the ground & killed ALL the citizens; men, women, & children, 100% genocide, & then salted the earth, resulting in it not being rebuilt for centuries		  
 
 Political systems in this era were mostly authoritarian or totalitarian   
 
 Hydraulic societies developed irrigation & drainage systems, w/ notable examples in Egypt & China
 
 
 Religion was transitioning from animism to polytheism & had minimal monotheism
 
 
 In the ancient world,
 
  - many people existed only at the subsistence level, & many hunter gatherers still exist  
  - the steppes, plains, etc. were the climates best suited for pastoral societies  
  - the hearths of sedentary agricultural societies continued to expand  
  - the trade routes on sea & land were rugged  
  - agriculture provided an existence only barely above the subsistence level, w/ diminishing returns if people stayed in one area to long  
  - agricultural over-use of an area was an impetus to explore & trade  
  - imperialism was another reason to explore & trade  
  - political fragmentation & competition were common  
  - many religions were violently evangelical  
  - inheritance became a widespread social practice  
  - there were innovations in shipping, navigation, & warfare  
 
 Leadership cycles:  The cycle of leadership first developed during Early Empire Era & to a great extent still exists today
 
  Empires rose & fell in rapid succession
 
  At times in history, one nation may dominate by economic, political, or military power
 
  There are also periods which are in flux where no nation dominates  
  The leadership cycle generally goes through SEVEN stages of
competitive struggle,  leading to economic power, leading to
political power, leading to military power, leading to
expansion/hegemony, leading to imperial overreach, leading to
decline/defeat, leading to competitive struggle, 
and so the cycle continues		  
  A particular leadership cycle could often be eliminated by the attack, out of the blue, by a more powerful country  
  A particular leadership cycle first developed during Early Empire Era & to a great extent still exists today, meaning that some historians try to trace the development of civilization based on the conquest of empires or civilizations  
Link
 The Table on Urbanization in the Early Empire Era indicates that the trend toward  urbanization existed since the dawn of civilization and was part of empire building
 
 
 Uruk was the first known city w/ approximately 50,000 people in 3500 BC in Mesopotamia, which is modern day Iraq
 
  Slavery, armies, & administration developed during the Early Empire Era  
  Wealthy cities were prized by nomads & other city states  
 
 The concept & practice of an organized military developed & war was made profitable by
- the development of wealth based on agriculture
- the development of weapons & tactics
 
 
 Ruling a nation & the practice of slavery was based on conquest, i.e. whoever a city state could conquer, and race was not a consideration in that city states would conquer neighboring city states of the same race, & ally w/ another race
 
  The development of an organized military, the rule of a nation by conquest, & the practice of slavery created the first & greatest jump in inequality  
 
 Egypt developed a hydraulic society where the central control of irrigation allowed a small elite lived above subsistence
 
  The Egyptian hydraulic society dominated all of civilization from about 4,000 BC to 600 BC  
  Some the the social characteristics of early Egyptian society included
- chronic warfare
- slavery based on conquest
- most pyramids built w/ free labor
- centralized govt
- military
- metal plows
- property now belonging to the ruler instead of the tribe		  
 
 The caste system developed in Indian religions & later in Japan about 1500 BC
 
  Caste refers to groups people according to specific social rank  
  Variations of caste are found in all Indian religious communities, not only Hindu but also Jain, Buddhist, Muslim, and Christian communities  
  All stem from the tripartite social division of the Aryans, who invaded northern India c. 1500 BC  
  However, only Hindus developed theological and legal rationales for caste  
  The caste system began w/ 3 divisions, Hindus have over 2300 today
 
  The three divisions or varnas consisted of Brahmins (priests and professionals), Kshatriyas (rulers, warriors, and administrators), and Vaishyas (farmers and merchants).   
  The caste system began w/ 3 divisions, Hindus have over 2300 today  
  Later a fourth varnas developed, the Shudras (artisans and laborers).   
  Each varnas classifies many jatis or castes, traditionally determined by occupation, but often linked through geographical locality, marriage, or dietary customs.   
 
 Despite the attempts of Gandhi and subsequent leaders to abolish the caste system, ( 1947 ) discrimination on the basis of caste persists.
 
 
 The caste system generally has normative closure & its legitimation is based on both law & religion:  Hinduism & reincarnation
 
  The nature of race & slavery did not change its nature in the Early Empire Era, but it use of it did grow dramatically as did war, empire building, the conquest of other peoples
 
  Like the previous stages of hunter gatherer society & the pre empire era, the Early Empire Era viewed race as just another human quality  
  Slavery was established based on the opportunity of a defeated opponent & religion, nationality, & race were just one more factor  
  Slaves were white/black/yellow....  rich/poor......     any nationality  
 
 Patriarchy began in the pre empire era but developed fully into a social system in this era
 
  Discriminatory gender relations did not exist until the time of the Early Empire Era  
  Thus 99% + of human history has been egalitarian  
  Morgan:  The Origin of Sexism & Patriarchy  

 
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Table on Urbanization in the Early Empire Era: 
Urbanization was part of empire building & during the Early Empire Era, less than 10% people lived in urban areas
Date
City State
Modern Country
Population
World Population
3500 BC Uruk Iraq 20,000 est 85 mm
2100 BC Ur Iraq 200,000 108 mm
1600 BC Thebes Egypt 200,000 114 mm
200 AD Rome Italy 1,000,000 165 mm

 
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Outline of the Era of the Roman Empire
circa 200 BC - 500 AD
External
Links
  -  Video:  Julius Caesar's Rome   
 
 During the previous early of the Era of the Early Empires ( 3 K BC to 200 BC ) many mini systems developed  
 
 During the Era of the Roman Empire ( 200 BC to 500 AD ), the stratification system changed little from the previous, Early Empire Era
 
  The Roman Empire dominated only the Mediterranean mini systems but did not affect five other mini systems in development in different regions  
 
 Mini systems that were outside of the influence of the Roman Empire include:
a.  the mid east Fertile Crescent (except for Mediterranean states)
b.  most of Africa
c.  south Asia
d.  China
e.  America		  
  During the Roman Era, many regions developed dominate mini systems of their own  
Link
 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of the Roman Empire shows that Roman society was a two level  system of Classes (Upper, Middle, Lower) and Slaves which exhibited high & medium inequality, respectively  
  There were FIVE major classes in the Roman Empire Core:
   a.  the ruling elite  b.  the common people  c.  the military  d.  merchants & intellectuals  e.  slaves		  
  a. The ruling elite of the Roman Empire made up less than 5 % of the population  
  The Roman Empire began w/ a limited democratic system similar to that of the Greeks  
  Upper Class males became Senators & had a voice in the govt  
  Circa 59 BC,  Julius Caesar was voted dictator for life  
  Because the Roman economy was dependent on environmentally degrading methods of agriculture, the Roman Empire had a continual need for new soil & therefore pursued & was dependent on the conquest for land & slaves  
  The stratification of the Roman system had a low level of openness  
 
 A person could advance their class & status position:
 
  - through a career in the military, as was seen in some men advancing from soldier to Emperor  
  - in business, though this was very difficult since most wealth was passed down along patriarchal lines of inheritance  
  - as a slave, who worked hard for a generous & justice loving person who sets you free  
 
 b. The common people made up over 65 % of the population
 
  W/in the Roman Empire, the common people were exploited and forced into a subsistence living  
  Each Roman male was forced to spend 10 yrs. in the military  
  If men in the Roman Army survived & as was often the case, the conquest was successful, they would receive land  
  One reason for the Fall of Roman Empire was that the exploitation of the common people was so great that they would not defend the Empire  
  In Rome, the people were pacified w/ "The Games," free food & drink... see any similarities to today?   
  c.  The Military  
  Though they were drawn from all classes, the military was such a large % of the population, that they should be viewed as a separate class  
 
 d. Merchants, intellectuals, etc. made us a small % ( circa 5 % ) of the population  
 
 e. Slaves made up 25 % of population  
  Slaves could gain freedom, because slavery in the Roman Era was not a racist system  
  Slaves were now “profitable” because one person could produce more than they consumed  
  Rebellions happened, & some forced reforms (Sparticus)  
  Strong state bureaucracies increased repression against the slaves as well as the free people  
  Guilds (early unions) protected markets and trade secrets  
 
 Agriculture in the "core" Roman Empire was based on slavery, but much work was done by free laborer in the rest of society  
  Roman agriculture had the characteristics of:  
  a.  inefficiency  
  b.  commodity production of olive oil, cotton, etc.  
  c.  large Roman estates  
  d.  significant trade w/ other regions   
  e. self sufficiency, which increased as the Empire declined  
  Trade was important mostly at the peak of empire, & declined as the Empire declined at which time the large Roman Estates became self sufficient, transforming into orgs more similar to feudal manors  
 
 Agriculture on the Roman Empire frontiers was based on the Estate ( feudal ) system  
 
 Agriculture in the Roman Empire consisted of estates w/ serfs & paid labor, & small farms  
  The Roman Empire depended on cereals from frontier to pacify people  
  The Roman Empire was based on militarism & conquest, more than on agriculture  
  Major employment for a Roman citizen was 10 yrs of military service  
  The fall of Roman Empire was due to many factors  
  The fall of the Roman Empire occurred because:
  1.  conquest reached a limit & so could not bring spoils to core empire  
  2.  exploitation: people did not defend the empire because they never had defended the empire  
  3.  w/ the limitations on conquest, Rome could not continue to rule the frontier  
  4.  w/o spoils from frontier, no support of people  
  5.  agriculture also depleted the environment  
  6.  slave based agriculture was inefficient  
  7.  not enough new slaves from conquests  
  8.  army was no longer staffed by citizens, but by frontiers' men  
  Frontiers' men in the army were less loyal & less skilled than the citizens soldiers  
 
 See Also:  Montesquieu on the Fall of the Roman Empire  
 
 Patriarchy & gender relations were similar to that of the earlier eras, except w/in the Roman Empire there was limited openness, & thus some women ( Cleopatra, et al ) achieved success   
 
 Slavery followed the system developed in the earlier eras in that it was based on conquest & not race; in fact, the Roman Empire is historically noted for its racial/ ethnic/ religious openness/ inclusiveness  
 
 The era that followed the Era of the Roman Empire was the Middle Ages ( 500 to 1300)  

 
Internal
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Outline on the  Middle Ages, aka the Feudal Era  circa 500 to 1300
External
Links
  -  Video:  The Dark Ages 
Link
  -  Video:  The True Robin Hood 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  The True Robin Hood 
Link
  In the previous era, the Fall of the Roman Empire, ( 200 BC  to 500 AD ) gave way to the Middle Ages  
 
 The Middle Ages are also known as feudal society, late agricultural society, the Dark Ages, etc.   
 
 After the Fall of the Roman Empire, a power vacuum developed in Europe accompanied by a decline in art, literature, science, technology, etc.  
 
 Civilization continued its rapid advance in the middle eastern countries of what is now Turkey, Iran & Iraq  
  Feudalism was based on military power & economic dominance  
  The feudalistic form of society arose, over centuries, out of the fall of Roman Empire  
 
 Feudalism was at its height by the 1100s, declined in 1600s, & was mostly gone by 1800s as early capitalism made it obsolete & ineffective  
  Pockets of feudalism continued to exist, notably in Russia & China, into the 1900s  
 
 Toward the middle & end of the Middle Ages,  industrialism & the modern class system arose
 
Link
 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of the Middle Ages indicates that this era had the highest level of inequality and had very little social mobility  
  There was extreme inequality among the 3 major classes of the middle ages
     1.  Nobility
     2.  Church Leaders
     3.  Serfs 		  
  During early feudalism, stratification was less institutionalized, then it became more fixed, & toward the end of the feudal era, it became less institutionalized again
 
  Feudal production displaced the pastoral/kinship & manor systems of the Roman system
 
  As feudal production developed & displaced the Roman Manor System, Serfs replaced slaves on the manors & freemen on small private farms  
  Serfs' existence was little better than subsistence
 
  Serfs had more rights & power than slaves but less than the freemen of the Roman Era  
  Serfs were “slaves” w/ traditional rights who were tied to land  
  At the beginning of feudalism, serfs worked & gave up their produce for protection  
  Over time, the serfs' trading of work & produce for protection became institutionalized in the form of tradition that could not be manipulated even by the king  
  However, extraordinary conditions can break even centuries old traditions, & so, as seen below, by the end of the Feudal Era, kings were exiling serfs from their homes of generations in order to privatize, control, & in some cases sell the land in what was called the Enclosure Movement  
  Serfs technically were real property, like land & so belonged to the Lord or King over them  
  Usually aristocrats did not give up or sell land, except by war  
  There were a few Slaves who were considered to be personal property, chattel, which belonged to the Lord or King over them & could be sold  
  Feudal era labor consisted of corvee labor where, for example, serfs might work for the Lord for 3 days a week & give up crops and produce   
  The Lord also had the power to take women, even married women, daughters, sons, etc. to servitude, the military, etc.  
  The Aristocratic class ruled based on ideology & military power  
  The Nobility & Church were very wealthy  
  The Church "Class" controlled access to the Bible & made power alliances w/ the Aristocrats  
  The Church was Catholic until it broke up into the Protestant religions  
  During the Feudal Era, there was a constant struggle between the Church & the State for power, & the serfs & few free people were pawns  
  Islam emerged in the Middle East & spread through North Africa to Spain & into southern Europe
 
  Circa 1000 - 1200, Islam's advance began again in Europe  
  The decline of feudalism & the transition to capitalism was due to
- the emergence of the modern form of the nation state in the 1300s
- the advance of science & technology
- the rise of merchants
- the rise of free labor
- urbanization
- Protestantism
 
  Merchants began to rise to power as they became wealthier than the aristocratic class  
  The merchants loaned huge amounts of money to struggling aristocrats & thus exerted considerable influence  
  Merchant capitalism developed w/in feudalism  
  Merchants eventually became the bourgeoisie class of the Early Industrial Age ( 1300 - 1700 )
 
  The word "bourg" meant town, & thus the merchants who were unique because they lived in the towns came to be called "bourgeoisie" or 'those who live in towns'  
  See Also:  The Bourgeoisie  
  The merchant class gained strength & size toward the end of the Middle Ages as commerce increased
 
  At the beginning of feudalism, merchants were very small in number, but by the end of feudalism, they were widespread & powerful  
  The guild system developed to a higher degree & thus the artisans escaped serfdom & became craftspeople who specialized in a trade, & eventually merchants  
  Common craftsmen were masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, plumbers, glaziers, shoemakers, etc.   
  Training new artisans through the stages of apprentice, journeyman, master was strictly controlled by the guild  
Link
 Gender felations in the Middle Ages develops into chivalry & romance  
Link
 Race relations in the Middle Ages transformed from the relatively "tolerant" ideology & relations prevalent since the H-G Era into modern forms of racist ideology & global slave trade  
Link
 The next era is the Early Industrial Age ( circa 1300 - 1700 )  

 
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Outline on   Race Relations in the Middle Ages   circa   500 AD  -  1300 AD
External
Links
  Introduction:  Race relations in the middle ages transformed from the relatively "tolerant" ideology & relations prevalent since the HG Era into modern forms of racist ideology & global slave trade  
  The previous era, the era of the Roman Empire ( 200 BC to 500 AD ) was characterized by relatively tolerant race relations  
  As the Age of Exploration begins & thus global capitalism begins, international trade begins, the modern form of slave trade begins  
  The origins of modern versions of racism & global slave trade begin w/ Age of Exploration in the Middle Ages  
  During the Middle Ages, people / slaves become a commodity  
  The emerging European Powers utilized an ideological justification of slavery/discrimination, especially religious, racist, & conquest / imperialist ideologies  
  The ideological justification of racism/slavery begins circa 1000 AD  
  Circa 1000 AD ideological racism emerges along w/ slave trade using both Biblical & imperialistic justification of colonization & the slave trade begins as a global social institution  
  Thus, modern relations of tension / conflict among the races has existed for less than 1000 years  
  Religion & racism interact w/ the result being the ideology that "primitives" may be converted & have their souls saved  
  There is little mention of race in the Bible, yet religions' interaction w/ other social structures has often resulted in the call to evangelize/convert a particular group of people  
  Papal determinations were made & if a people were found to have a soul, the Church would sanction conversion  
  During the middle ages, if a people were found not have a soul, the Church would sanction enslavement or genocide  
  The next era, the early industrial age ( 500 to 1300 ), has little change in the nature of race relations, but there is huge & tragic growth in the global slave trade  

 
Internal
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  Outline on the   Early Industrial Age    circa 1300 - 1700
External
Links
  -  Video:  A Hole in the Sky
Link
  -  Project:  The Early Industrial Working Class & a Hole in the Sky
Link
  -  Project:  The Rise of the Middle Class in the Early Industrial Era 
Link
  - Introduction: The Early Industrial Age  (1300 - 1700 ) saw the beginning of the rise of the middle class  
Link
 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of the Early Industrial Age shows that equality increases dramatically w/ the creation of the middle class  
  During the previous era, the middle ages ( 500 to 1300 ), the fall of feudalism saw the rise of merchant capitalism & the birth of modernism  
  As feudalism went through the transition to capitalism of the early industrial age,  
   a. the nobility still depended on the ag/feudal mode of production which was very inefficient  
   b. nobles became indebted to merchants  
   c. the political elite defended status quo, which created many wars & power struggles  
   d. states & city states arose challenging kingdoms  
   e. there was a large expansion of population, trade & markets  
  A new stratification system rapidly emerged as the serfs underwent the Enclosure which created a class of freemen who eventually became workers  
  The Enclosure Movement was a long, bloody historical transition fraught w/ revolution, war, & social dislocation in which one class became obsolete & another was born  
  The relationship of serfs to the manor was such that they traded work & produce for protection, a home, & some minor rights  
  Serfs had the right to a home, which in many cases they had lived on for generations over the centuries of feudalism  
  As population grew, & the aristocrats experienced competitive pressure from early capitalism, they sought to exile serfs, i.e. kick them off their ancestral homes, from the manor  
  The Enclosure Movement, the exiling of serfs, created a new class of free people, called "freemen," & the singular in "freeman" is a common surname, & even a common name of towns  
  Freemen became merchants, craftsmen, & "the rabble," the masses, the mob etc.  
  W/ the rise of merchant capitalism, the merchant class was added to the elites & the serfs  
  By the 1500s, the world economic system was developing  
  Some craftsmen began to trade, & then became merchants who focused totally on trade  
  Then some merchants began to contract out labor, supplies & jobs  
  Artisans & “freemen” became subcontractors to merchants  
  The first sweatshops emerged  
 
 The development of the putting out system was the earliest form of wage labor & was the proto factory system  
  In the putting out system, workers get paid on how many items they put out on their stoop to be picked up & carried to the next stage in the production process  
  The competition of the putting out system, i.e. the early factory system, was very hard on artisans  
  Guilds resisted the putting out system & the destruction of the craft system
 
  Patenting developed which allowed individuals & groups an increased control of knowledge  
  Legislative interference in the labor system became more common in an attempt to control labor  
  Violence ensued as guilds, workers, et al struggled to control their workplace knowledge & labor  
  The middle class was decimated as workers became known as "wage slaves"  
  From 1600 to 1750 ( the end of early industrial age ) we see the development of the core states of the modern world system
 
  Politicians began to protect the new status quo of merchant capitalism  
  Different events/ paths of development occur in the core & the periphery:  
  In the core, Europe,  power shifted from the Netherlands to France & England  
  In the periphery, there was the rise & fall of Hispanic America  
  The economies of developing core regions experienced a rapid building of the industrial sector
 
  The early industrial age saw the construction of canal systems & the growth of industrial regions  
  Canal transportation dominated until the development of railroads starting in early the 1800s  
  Railroads allowed vast regions to be developed  
  The economies of developing core regions experienced a rapid building of the industrial sector  
  The major factor influencing the development of the periphery was the core's need for labor & resources
 
  Colonies specialized when  
    - there was demand in core  
    - colony had a comparative advantage  
    - colony did not compete w/ core  
  Colonies did not develop  
  They primarily served to provide raw mat, labor for core, as they do in the industrial age & global age  
 
 The changes in the early industrial age created a class society that we would recognize today
 
  During the early industrial era, there was a shift from an agriculturally based economy to an industrially based economy  
 
 Mobility was based, more than before, on merit/ achievement, but ascriptive stratification was still present
 
 
 There was a normative stress on equality; though the amount of equality varied widely from region to region or decade to decade
 
 
 The legitimation system for the justification of the rise of capitalism eventually developed into an Christian work ethic that held that belief that equal opportunity exists/ merit system works
 
  Marx believed that capitalism inevitably arose out of the ashes of feudalism through the dialectical development of historical materialism, i.e. the interaction of historic events & class struggle  
  Marx held that political economic systems developed dialectically: through periods of crisis during which time social change occurs, resulting in periods of stability, during which time contradictions build leading to crisis...  
  For Marx, capitalism developed inevitably from feudal era  
  For Marx, capitalism would inevitably destroy itself, as it was doing to the working class, & then develop into socialism  
  See Also:  Marx's socio historical overview   
  Weber believed that the emergence of capitalism was the result of factors such as those discussed by Marx, but also as a result of the emergence of the Protestant work ethic  
  Weber agreed w/ Marx, but added cultural (religious) factors:  
  a.  Weber believed that the Protestant work ethic enhanced growth of capitalism  
  b.  Weber believed that other religions such as Catholicism, Confucianism, & others restricted the development of capitalism  
  One of Weber's most important works is the  Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism  

 
Internal
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  Outline on the   Industrial Age    circa 1700 - present
External
Links
  -  Video:  October Sky 
Link
  -  Project:  Stratification & October Sky 
Link
   - Introduction:  During the industrial age, in the core countries the economic base became totally industrialized, while agriculture & other economic systems waned  
  The previous era, the early industrial age, ( circa 1300 - 1700 ) saw the birth of capitalism  
Link
 The Chart on the Characteristics of Stratification System of the Industrial Age demonstrates a system w/ a high level of equality and social mobility
 
  Class society emerged w/ the industrial revolution as the agricultural base transformed into an industrial base & became fully developed in the industrial age, i.e. many classes exist
 
  In the industrial age, mobility is based on merit/achievement but significant ascription is still present  
  In the industrial age, there is a normative stress on equality, though the level of equality varies widely  
  Legitimation in industrial society is based on the belief that equal opportunity exists & that the merit system works  
 
 THREE historical events impact the development of world system during the industrial age including the:
  a. Industrial Revolution
  b. French Revolution
  c. independence of European colonies
 
  During the industrial age, uneven development continued and England advanced & became the dominant core country  
 
 The class system develops fully in the industrial era into the multiple classes of the upper class, the middle class, & the lower class  
  During the industrial age, the middle class becomes a political force in conflict w/ the upper class   
  See Also:    Class   
  There were THREE industrial waves in Europe that were based on technological development & the class system in that the technology was available primarily to the upper & middle classes  
  Today we call the class division of information technology (computer) availability "the great divide"  
Link
 The Table on Industrial Waves, which occurred primarily in Europe & marginally in the US, describes the development of industrial technology  
 
 The US made rapid development to core status because of the social, political, & geographic factors including that
 
  a. natural resources were relatively untouched in the US  
  b. there were few political boundaries to fragment development  
  c. these factors attracted immigration which created rapid population growth which increased  market demand & the availability of workers' skills  
  d. cultural & trading links w/ Europe helped the US  
  e. manufacturing belt spread west from Boston, NY, Baltimore to Chicago  
 
 Industrial waves also occurred in Japan
 
  In 1868 a revolution placed the Meji in power & they launched a successful modernization program  
  Other modernization programs succeeded, at great personal cost, in Russia beginning in the 1930 and in China beginning in the 1960s  
  WW1, The Great War, allowed Japan to grab market share in textiles, ships in Asia & Latin America & thus become a core power  
 
 The development of ocean shipping, especially metal hulls, advanced international trade & labor division
 
  By WW1 there were regular ocean trade routes & schedules and trade was widening & switching patterns  
 
 Automotion created a revolution in transportation & agriculture
 
  Cars, trucks, roads, tractors each created their own industry  
  There was a vast expansion of automotion industries starting in 1945 & continuing today  
  Automotion enhanced urban growth, & resulted in the decline of the rural population  
  In the US in the 1950s, Eisenhower begins interstate system  
 
 Pax Britainia, "The sun never sets on the British Empire." indicates that Britain ruled as a sole superpower through WW1
 
  Britain had competition from German, France, the Netherlands, & Japan over territorial & commercial domination of the periphery  
  Britain was top dog of the core; a sole superpower  
  Peace reigned when the balance of power was maintained  
  War ensued when the balance of power failed  
  Core nations competed via militarism, administration, & economic dominance  
 
 The final quarter of 19th Century saw a 2nd wave of imperialism in the competition over control of Africa & other corners of the world such as SE Asia
 
  Btwn 1880 & 1914, the Europeans sliced the periphery into a patchwork of colonies   
  As the Europeans sliced up the periphery into colonies, there was no regard for existing mini systems & empires  
 
 Europeans colonized an area 3 times the size of the US
 
 
 The Berlin Conference, 1885-6, established “rules” for European powers over colonization including that nations will
1.  give a notice of intent to colonize
2.  live by the rule that occupation equals sovereignty
3.  settle disputes by arbitration
 
  Africa was divided into zones of commodity production of industrial, agriculture, mining production & subsistence agriculture to produce labor  
  In the 1990s, recent conflicts in Sudan & Rwanda are the result of independent groups vying for power w/in a boundary as establish. by Europeans at turn of century  
 
 The periphery in the industrial age retains the same characteristics even though everything else has changed
 
  Africa & other sectors of the globe made up the periphery  
  Core needed labor & resources of periphery to develop  
 
 Colonies specialized when there was demand in core, the colony had a comparative advantage, & the colony did not compete directly w/ a core country
 
  Bismarck of Germany launched the "Sporting Wars" which were characteristic in European colonization around the world  
 Link
 The Table on US Size indicates that from 1870 - 1900 European powers colonized an area over three times the size of continental US
10 mm square miles  20 % of land surface of Earth
150 mm people to their empires 10 % of population
 
 
 Gender relations in the industrial age are see women gain equality 
 
 
 Gender relations in the industrial age are advanced by the intelligencia: 1st Wave Feminism  
 
 Gender relations in the industrial age are advanced by the women voters:  The Suffragettes  
 
 Gender relations in the industrial age are advanced by working women: Depression Era & WW 2 Women  
 
 Race relations in the industrial age became to be transformed & as slavery was eliminated in most industrialized nations, powerful vestiges of racism remained  
 
 The next era is the age of global capitalism ( 1910 to the present )  

 
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Table on Industrial Waves, which occurred primarily in Europe & marginally in the US
PW
The Golden Triangle of London, Paris, Berlin developed during the Industrial Age
1790 - 1850 water power, steam power, cotton, iron, textiles, canals, & turnpikes
1850 - 1870 coal steam, steel, machine tools, steam ships, Rail Roads, world shipping
1870 - 1914 electricity, telecommunications
1890 - 1950 internal combustion engine, oil, plastics, electricity, aircraft, radio & telecommunications
1950 to  present nuclear power, aerospace, electronics, chemicals, interstates, global air travel
1990 to  present solar, robotics, microelectronics, biotech, advanced materials, information technology, internet

 
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Table on US Size: Europeans colonized an area three times the size of the US
PW
U.S. 3,618,770 square mi 2,316,012,800 ac 2.3 bb ac
AK     591,004 square mi     378,242,560 ac .378 bb ac
US - AK  3,027,766 square mi  1,937,770,240 ac 1.9 bb ac

 
Internal
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  Outline on  Global Capitalism circa 1910 to present
External
Links
  GLOBAL CAPITALISM IS A ECON SYSTEM WHERE CORPS ARE TRULY TRANS NATIONAL, OPERATING ON A GLOBAL SCALE, & NOT SIGNIFICANTLY LINKED TO ANY NATION STATE OR MKT   
  The previous era, the industrial age, ( circa 1700 - present) saw the development of modern capitalism  
 
 In the era of global capitalism, this economic system, accompanied w/ the development of technologies w/ a global reach, became truly global in scope reaching to the farthest corners of the planet
 
 
 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of Global Capitalism demonstrates that this system has a wide range of equality, w/ some regions w/ high equality & other regions w/ low equality
 
 
 During the era of global capitalism, Pax American replaces Pax Britannia
 
  After WW 2, the US emerged as the dominant state  
  The seeds of the Cold War are planted during WW2, sprout in the 1940s and by the late 1950s, the Soviet Union was a superpower w/ equal status to the US  
  Decolonization started in the 50s and smoothed out in 60s, but was complicated by the cold war  
  The Cold War creates neo colonialism  
  Neo colonialism is an economic & political strategy whereby the colonizers indirectly gain/maintain influence in the periphery via  
  a.  international financial regulations  
  b.  commercial relations  
  c.  intelligence operations  
  d.  international corporate imperialism via transnational corporations which established overseas subsidiaries  
 
 Corporate imperialism is the process whereby nations or regions are dominated & controlled economic rather than military force
 
  THE MAJOR CORPS ARE MORE POWERFUL THAN 3 / 4s OF NATIONS  
  By the mid 90s, 40,000 transnational corporations, of which 90% are headquartered in the US, had 180,000 subsidiaries w/ $6 trillion in sales, which is equal to the US's total output  
  International corporate imperialism exercises considerable power, & frequently adversely affecting the periphery  
 
 -  Supplement:  The Fortune 500, 1998,  1 - 50
Link
  -  Supplement:  The Fortune 500, 1998,  51 - 100
Link
  -  Supplement:  The Fortune 500, 1998, Overview of GM
Link
 
 -  Supplement:  The Fortune 500, 2000, 1-50
Link
  -  Supplement:  The Global 100, 1998, 1-51
Link
 
 -  Supplement:  The Global 100, 1998, 51-100
Link
  -  Resource:  The Table on a Comparison of Corporations' & Nations' Income, 2005
Link
  The Table on a Comparison of Corporations' & Nations' Income, 2005, demonstrates that of 500 corps & 181 nations: 
                -  the top   10 corps are larger than 140 nations 
                -  the top 200 corps are larger than 100 nations 
                -  the top 500 corps are larger than   80 nations		  
  FIRST WORLD NATIONS (US, EURO, JAP), & THEIR CORPS, ARE CONSTITUTED BY 1 / 3 OF WORLD POP, & THEIR ECONS ARE IMPACTING SECOND WORLD NATIONS; LEAVING ONLY SOME THIRD WORLD NATIONS OUTSIDE OF GLOBALIZATION   
 
 "The Gulf Widens btwn the Fast & Slow Worlds"
 
 
 The catch phrase on the fast & slow worlds means that the gap in income & quality of life btwn the rich & the poor in the core & peripheral nations increased by three btwn the 1960s & 1990s
 
 
 An example of "the gulf" is that 5% of world has 40% of telephones
 
  An example of "the gulf" is that 10% of the world uses 90% of its resources  
  Does the fast world, western culture, affect entire world?   
  The fast world now encompasses everywhere, but not everybody...   
  An example of the pervaisiveness of the fast world is that poor Mexicans are aware of details of international soccer, music, film, fashion, etc.  
  An example of the pervaisiveness of the fast world is that poor Appalachians are aware of details of NASCAR racing, music....  
  Even in the fast world, the core, there are significant regions of the Slow World, i.e. regions that have peripheral economic development  
  The next significant historical era is the post industrial age, circa 1970 - present  
  See Also:  Globalization  
  See Also:  International Division of Labor  
  See Also:  Gender & global capitalism  

 
Internal
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A Socio Historical Overview of the  Post Industrial Age  circa 1970 to Present
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your Experience of the Post Industrial Age
Link
  -  Project:  Your Experience of the European Model
Link
 
 Introduction: During the Post Industrial Age, the economy shifted from basic industry to services & high tech jobs
 
  The Post Industrial Age may be seen as a product of both the Industrial Age & the Era of Global Capitalism in that industry matured, resulting in the development of the service & the high tech sectors, and the deindustrialization of the core, i.e. movement of basic industry to the periphery, & the globalization of all facets of society, e.g. the economy, culture, etc.  
 
 The previous era, the Era of Global Capitalism, ( 1910 to the present ) created many of the conditions that came together to herald the Post Industrial Age  
Link
 The Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of the Post Industrial Age indicates that the ranking system is open, placement is based on achievement, legitimation is based on the culture of law ( "the rule of law" ), the basis of ranking is accomplished through a bureaucratized state capitalist, economic system, & the range of equality is broad, running from low to high  
 
 There are 10 fundamental qualities of Post Industrial Society
1.  Less heavy basic industrial production
2.  The service economy comes to predominate in the first world
3.  More high tech jobs
4.  The information economy / internet is integral to the overall economy & growth
5.  Knowledge & education are equivalent to property & wealth
6.  Working middle class transforms into the white collar middle class
7.  Rise of professional classes
8.  Part time, serial employment
9.  The continuation of the growth of global capitalism
10.  Global monopolies & mergers develop		  
 
 Some of the fundamental qualities of post industrial society have decreased inequality and many other have increased inequality  
 
 During the Post Industrial Age, many people have not made the educational shift to high tech / service because education is an expensive investment
 
 
 Some people see the rise of professional class in the Post Industrial Age as the end of the class dominated system  
 
 In the Post Industrial Age, production is more complex, forcing the elites to make concessions to get knowledge from workers
 
 
 In the Post Industrial Age, there is increased productivity which creates more surplus, of which more is going to workers, resulting in less strikes & bigger markets
 
 
 Employment relations in the Post Industrial Age achieve many Labor's goals, w/o the intervention of the Labor Movement
 
 
 In the Post Industrial Age, the reduced population growth rate in industrial society has created a larger "pie", & less mouths to feed
 
 
 In the Post Industrial Age, elites must invest in the workforce as they never have before
 
  But an educated workforce & open trade systems creates a value system of egalitarianism / democracy  
 
 Historically, the elites needed the allegiance of the population only during times of war
 
 
 In the post industrial era, the elites need the allegiance of the general population, especially the middle classes, for the normal functioning of the high tech / service economy
 
 
 Given the high tech nature of wars of the 90s & 00s, it is not clear that the elites still have the need for the allegiance of the population during times of war, but most agree that they do  
 
 The marginal utility of wealth declines in the Post Industrial Age  
 
 Review the Marginal Utility  
 
 The declining MU of wealth means that middle & upper class workers & professionals are less motivated by $$ which result in the demand for more free time & other perquisites
 
 
 But on the other hand, the international division of labor has resulted in increased world inequality which demonstrates that improved employment relations have not been globalized  
 
 The degree of inequality in the stratification system in the modern world system has increased   
 
 Historically there has been extensive social mobility in the US mostly from the beginning of immigration & conquest in the 1400's to the 1950s  
 
 There is clear evidence that upward social mobility slowed & eventually reversed from the 1960s through the 1980s  
  In the mid 1990s, there was a restart of upward social mobility which ended w/ the "slowdown" of 2001 to 2003 & has not restarted as of 2004  
 
 The economic decline of the US in the modern world system appeared as early as the 1960s  
 
 Economic decline stimulated support for Reaganomics in the 1980s  
  Average Americans became more afraid for their economic security  
  The corporate class became more involved in politics in an attempt to reverse the decline in US profits & market influence  
 
 Today's development of the modern world system goes beyond capitalism and communism in that there is competition among many forms of state and monopoly capitalism  
 
 The process of stratification has moved to a new level, the global level  
 
 Deindustrialization was the label given to the movement of industry from the core to the periphery & semi periphery  
 
 A major cause of the increase in inequality in the P-I Age is the large loss of industrial jobs in America  
  A major cause of the increase in inequality in the Post Industrial Age is the growth of jobs at both the higher & lower ends of the income scale  
 
 The P-I era is characterized by Reaganomics, the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the collapse of Communism during the early 90s, the "New Democrats" (Clinton, et al) in the 90s  
 
 It is no longer simply capitalism vs. communism, but competition among differing forms of organization in the capitalist world economies  
 
 Historically speaking, most global competition, which is often in the form of nationalism, has been among differing forms of capitalism  
  The cold war / competition btwn capitalism & forms of socialism are the historical anomaly  
 
 Ronald Reagan was the President from 1980 to 1988 & he ushered in a "Republican Revolution" which was labeled "Reaganomics"  
 
 Reaganomics was a unique combination of:
-  econ policy which cut govt regulation, cut taxes, & had no Industrial Policy,
-  social policy which eliminated welfare, &
-  foreign policy which supported Poland & the Pope & oversaw the beginning of the collapse of communism		  
 
 The effects of Reaganomics, including tax cuts, a military buildup, & deficits, were significant & are still felt in the 00s  
 
 Reaganomics in the 80s resulted in downsizing, “service” jobs, cut wages, mergers, less regulation & govt  
  During the era of Reaganomics, the US moved from having average inequality to having the greatest inequality  
  Reaganomics contributed to an increase in income & wealth inequality that had already begun as a result of changes in the world economy  
  But Reaganomics did little to change the basic causes of American economic decline  
 
   In 1989 temp jobs were only 3% of new jobs
  In 1993 they were 26%    (New York Times, March 10, 1994)		  
 
 The poverty rate increased because of Reaganomics... & persisted  
 
   1989   poverty rate was 12.8%
  1991   14.2 % as the recession grew
  1992   14.8 %  at the height of the recession
  1993    15.1 % when the recession was over		  
 
 Average family income declined after Reaganomics, & increased w/ Clinton  
 
 There has been a decline in average family income through 1994 when it temporarily increased, followed by continued decline
It was down 7 % since 1989		  
 
 There was a short recession at the end of the 1st Bush admin, ( Bush, Sr Presidency 1989 - 1992 ) that ended in 1992 & there was econ growth by 1994  
 
 The econ growth in the 90s & 00s is a historically new phenomenon in that few new jobs were accompanying gen econ growth  
  When jobs appeared, they were "soft jobs"  i.e. temporary, part time, w/ low wages & few benefits  
 
 In the 90s the effects of Reaganomics began to be reversed  
 
 From the beginning of the 1980s, the US already had the highest level of income inequality among industrial nations  
 
 By the end of the 1980s, this inequality was even higher, & it continued to grow in the 90s finally leveled out toward the end of the 90s  
 
 By 95, the US was coming out of the recession in better shape than Europe & Japan  
 
 By the late 90s the growth of inequality resulting from job cuts, lower paying jobs, & more temp jobs created higher profits, was reversed.... at least in the short term  
 
 Some analysts belief that the European Model will create a better econ in the 21st century  
 
 Germany & Japan have less inequality than the US because:  
 
 a.  workers are paid more  
 
 b.  workers have higher levels of education  
 
 c.  workers have higher levels of skill  
 
 d.  both the labor force & corp mg. are more loyal to each other than in the US  
 
 The major point of the P - I Age is that there has been a historic shift in the American stratification system & the place of the US in the modern world system  
 
 It is the end of the Cold War & while American is dominant, it is not absolute, economically speaking, because we are challenged by Europe & Japan  
 
 Gender in the P - I Age:  The "New Woman"  
 
 Race in the P - I Age:   
 
 At this time there are no more historical eras on the horizon, but possibilities include
- the Biotech Age
- the environmental / global warming / population crash era
- Pax Democratica / market econ era
- "The End of History"
- the Information Age		  

The End
 
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