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Review:  Stratificaton
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Sociological Stratification
Chapter 8:  The Middle & Working Classes
Link The Middle Class
Link               The Great Labor Compromise
Link The Middle Class:  Social Power
Link The Middle Class:  Economic Power
Link The Middle Class:  Political Power
Link Alienation
Link Job Satisfaction
Link Alienation at Work
Link Work:  Physical Conditions
In-Class Project:  The Middle & Working Classes Link
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Outline on
The Middle Class
Table of Nine Classes in the Modern Industrialized Nations ( Primarily the US )
The Convergence of Occupation, Bureaucratic & Property Divisions of Five Class Categories
There are NINE qualities which describe the Middle Class 
       which are seen in the remainder of the discussion of the Middle Class
       1. Occupational structure encompasses a range of jobs
       2. Jobs vary on complexity, skill, education, authority,
       3. Generally non-manual
       4. May include professionals:  Dr, lawyer, Acct, Prof, mid mgrs, et al
       5. Includes a variety of sub-classes:  semi-prof / white collar, teachers, sales people, clerks, office wkrs..
       6. Higher job satisfaction, security, pay
       7. Relatively little ownership
       8. Independent workers have some ownership:  petite bourgeoisie
       9. Minimal stock ownership:  no stock control
The distinctions between the Upper Middle Class, the Middle Class & the Lower Middle Class
      are that as one moves up the class ladder, 
      each class has more bureaucratic authority & political power, as well as income
Professionals & some white-collar workers have mid-level authority, 
       i.e. authority over middle & working class workers
It is this allocation of authority that makes class conflict seem irrelevant to most of the Middle Class
There are NINE qualities which describe the Working Class ( aka blue collar workers )
       1.  Low complexity, skill, education, authority, manual:
       2.  Factory wkrs (some very highly paid), truck drivers, plumbers, gas station wkrs, welders, etc
       3.  Low pay, security
       4.  More physically demanding
       5.  More dangerous
       6.  No authority
       7.  Independent wkrs have some ownership:  petite bourgeoisie
       8.  No or very little ownership
       9.  US has lowest level of mid & working class authority & ownership 
           as compared to other industrialized nations
       10. Stock ownership is minimal:  no stock control
There is much conflict & competition among all these ranks
It is a continuum--no clear lines 
The History of the Middle & Working Classes began when
      poor merchants, serfs, "free men" came to America for religious freedom & economic opportunity
In 1789 French Democratic Revolution encompassed 3 classes: 
      Aristocracy / church, 
      Merchant
      Middle class / poor
In the 1830's: Alexis de Tocqueville was startled by the equality he saw in the US Link
There was no true Upper Class in the early US
The Industrial Working Class did not develop as rapidly as in Europe because of westward expansion
Class systems change, but slowly over centuries, generations, decades
Table 8 - 1  Occupational Distribution of the Civilian Labor Force, 1900 - 1990
An analysis of Table 8 - 1 indicates a shift from the Working Class to the Middle Class
This shift does not mean things have improved because we must account for 
      the shift to lower working & middle class status, authority & economic reward jobs 
Mills believes there are FOUR qualities of the pre-industrial Old Middle Class:
        1. Entrepreneurship
        2. A commitment to personal freedom on the job:  were their own boss
        3. A small business orientation
        4. Ownership of land, buildings, tools, etc.		 Link
Mills believes there are FOUR qualities of the industrialized & white collar New Middle Class:
       1.  Works for large organizations
       2.   Has little or no freedom
       3.   Large business
       4.   No ownership (requirement for Weber's bureaucracy)
Mills presents a romanticized view of the old, pre-industrial middle class,
    though he does point out many important distinctions
The dual processes of agrarian capitalism & industrialization/urbanization 
      allowed small farmers to grow
 This created a concentration of agriculture 
      which encouraged the shift from the small farmer to the industrial worker
Early factory work was low pay & low status:  employed mostly women & children
The rise of Unions & the Great Labor Compromise created a dual economy 
      of union & non-union sectors		 Link
Unionized workplaces became Core Industries
The Peripheral Industries were non-unionized
THREE shifts in the Middle & Working Classes resulted in their shrinkage
        1.  Loss of skilled blue & white collar jobs  ( see technology & deskilling )
        2.  Expansion of low skilled, low pay service jobs in periphery industries
        3.  Expansion of professional/managerial jobs in upper range of pay (for mid class)
With the shrinkage in the middle, there much growth at the bottom, & slight growth at the top
There are THREE reasons the US economy deindustrialized
       ( i.e., shift away from our old core industries )
       1. US lost the competitive edge in manufactoring to Japan, S Korea, & Germany
       2. US won the competition in hi tech & hi income services
       3. US responded to lost edge w/ downsizing, lean manufactoring, etc.		 Link
The conditions of work for US upper managers became the best in the world
Marx:  1860s:  work is a necessity to our “species being;” i.e., we need work to realize/fulfill ourselves
We are creative beings & if we cannot be creative, we are alienated
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Outline on the 
Great Labor Compromise
       - Summary:  American labor agreed to give-up socialism & socialist goals 
                           in exchange for the right to exist 
                           & bargain over only wages & benefits
       - Introduction:  The Great Labor Compromise, aka Business unionism, aka Wage unionism, 
          aka Gomperism
Business Unionism: "The Great Compromise" created FOUR facets of labor relations where
( Not called Business Unionism until the 50's )
     1.  Unions deal only with traditional areas: wages, hours, benefits, wking conditions
     2.  Unions will not form labor party
     3.  Unions will not strive for other management prerogatives: 
          control of workplace, ownership, etc.  ( no socialism )
     4.  Management will accept unions
Unions made dream of upward mobility possible for the working class 
       & even gave many a middle-class lifestyle
If the American Dream fails, many will turn to radicalism, escapism or other negative social behaviors
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Outline on
The Middle Class:  Social Power
Table of Nine Classes in the Modern Industrialized Nations ( Primarily the US )
The Convergence of Occupation, Bureaucratic & Property Divisions of Five Class Categories
July 4th, 1776:  Because of its emphasis on equality & democracy,
     the founding & survival of the US seemed one of the most radical developments in history.
The US established a relatively flat hierarchy of status stratification:  all classes could mix 
There are SEVEN consequences of one's class position affects nearly every aspect of one's life
These broad generalities have mask many exceptions:
       1.  Different classes live in different neighborhoods
       2.  Often vote differently 
            ( since Reagan-1980s-the Democrat & Republican Parties have lost influence )
       3.  Often have clear political differences
       4.  Have different tastes in music
       5.  Lower classes have earlier sexual experiences
       6.  Different classes have different reactions to different sexual experiences
       7.  Higher class:  more likely to be happy, have sense of well-being, & have greater self-worth
Each class has its own subculture & lifestyle
Lifestyle:  tastes, preferences & general style of living:  more superficial than subculture, 
       but reflects a subculture
Each class has differences which marketers / capitalism exploit & reinforce: 
       1.   Purchasing patterns
       2.   Fashion
       3.   Style of home
       4.   Space between homes
       5.   Automobiles
       6.   Speech
       7.   Opinions & attitudes
The social, economic & political differences are reflexive: 
      i.e. they reflect the inequalities & boundaries & also reinforce them
The Middle Class is more sociable & involved in community & less tied to the family
The Working Class is less sociable & involved in community & more tied to the family
There are FIVE factors that influence a class's sociability & community participation:
       1. It takes time & $$$ to be involved in community  activities
       2. The Middle Class is more mobile:  they leave birth place for better job, & so have less family ties
       3. The Middle Class jobs produce less alienation
           & so there is a greater sense of being part of the community
       4. The Middle Class world view is more cosmopolitanism: 
              sense of wider social environment that affects ones life. 
       5. The Working Class world view is more parochial: 
              sees world in terms of particular persons & things, short-term contingencies, 
             & as alien & uncontrollable
The Middle & Working Classes socialize their children differently
Middle & Working Class socialization reinforces class factors:  i.e., you are socialized to fit into your class
In many respects the socialization by all of the other Agents of Socialization is class based
Chart on the Differences in Socialization of the Middle & Working Classes
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Outline on
The Middle Class:  Economic Power
Table of Nine Classes in the Modern Industrialized Nations ( Primarily the US )
The Convergence of Occupation, Bureaucratic & Property Divisions of Five Class Categories
The Income of the Working & Middle Classes lies roughly between the 
      Poverty line & 
      that of low level millionaires (wealth ) who earn $ 100 K to several hundred K per year
Given a broad definition of class ( income/occupation, bureaucratic authority, & property ownership ), 
      there is not a direct relationship between class & income for classes below the Corporate Class
The Westward Expansion in the early US allowed all classes 
       to gain access to what is now known as the Middle Class
       because people gained land ownership, which allowed them to earn a Middle Class income
       both of which were largely denied in Europe
In the early 1800s, 80 % of free people who worked own property
This % has steadily declined because of: 
1.  Concentration of the means of production
2.  Increased complexity/ technical specialists
     i.e., the expected effects of capitalism & industrialization
Because of the Dual Economy, which encompasses the Core 
      ( unionized, mfr jobs: auto, mining, steel, etc. ) 
       & the Periphery ( non-unionized mfr & service jobs ) 
       many within the Core of the Working Class, 
       earn as much or more than Middle Class
Core industries are able to pay more because they have less competition, 
       therefore higher profit, and therefore can afford to pay higher wages
       because in general they have established oligopolistic or monopolistic market conditions
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Outline on
The Middle Class:  Political Power
The Middle & Working Classes are not powerless
They have had many victories in the last 200 yrs.
Inequality has been reduced & transformed because of their efforts
The political power of the Working & Middle Classes roughly parallels their income
While today there is a positive relationship between economic power & economic power,
      in the past the link was more direct
Only white males who owned at least 80 acres & had a positive net worth could vote & hold office
Political power has been extensively expanded
Some middle class white-collar workers have bureaucratic authority 
The Middle & Working Classes have a unique set of Political Values & Behavior
In other industrial nations, the Republican / Democrat class split is even stronger than in US.
They have also become more conservative
In general the entire industrialized world become more politically conservative
     because of FOUR world economic system changes:
        1.  Deindustrialization
        2.  Shift of jobs overseas
        3.  Loss of US economic leadership
        4.  Shift from manufacturing industry to information economy
In general the entire industrialized world become more politically conservative
     because of FOUR world political system changes:
     1.  The Vietnam War
     2.  The escalation of the Nuclear Arms race under Reagan
     3.  The fall of Communism & the ensuing world instability
A return to traditional values which reinforces the movement to political conservatism has SIX causes
     1.  Swing of pendulum from 60s
     2.  AIDS
     3.  Economic conservatism bandwagon
     4.  Failure of welfare state
     5.  Back-lash against Feminism & Civil Rights
     6.  The corruption & failures of the Labor Movement
The shift to conservatism explains historic shifts in voting patterns:
       1932:  elect FDR
       1980:  elect Reagan:
Voting rates are affected by stratification ( income )
People with less income vote less for THREE reasons
     1.  Sense of alienation & hopelessness
     2.  Less freedom:  harder to get info & get to polls
     3.  Candidates are less likely to offer them real choices
This lower level of political participation results in less favorable political policies for these classes
The Lower Class is more likely to be authoritarian
Authoritarianism is increased by EIGHT factors:
       1.  Low education
       2.  Low participation in community
       3.  Low reading
       4.  Isolation
       5.  Authoritarian childhood socialization
       6.  Live in poor, isolated enclaves
       7.  Economic insecurity or any kind of threat
       8.  Tendency of the media & political system to scapegoat
The Working Class is  less willing to have taxes support civil rights because they feel exploited too
In 1994 the US had the lowest union membership of any industrialized country
The US unions are weak because of  TWO major reasons
       1.  The Great Labor Compromise
       2.  "Decapitation" by the government & the corporations & the ensuing corruption
The political influence of the Working & Middle classes is low due to $$$ influence in politics
The Middle & Working classes have failed to organize for FIVE reasons
      1. Highly fragmented/diverse group, esp compared to UC/CC
      2.  It takes time & $
      3.  Ed, media, govt, family, peers, religion, work, rec all support status quo more than change
      4.  Alienation, sense of futility
      5.  UC/CC organize against efforts of WC/MC
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Outline on
Alienation & Anomie
Alienation:  A state of being, a relationship ( mental & physical manifestations ) 
     characterized by the separation or isolation from existing culture 
     ( knowledge, beliefs, values, norms held in common )
     caused by an estrangement from idealistic and/ or materialistic factors
Alienation:  As defined by Marx, the separation or isolation of workers from the products of their labor
      Contemporary definition:  feelings or the experience of emotional distance, isolation,
       powerlessness, loss of control
Anomie:  A state of being, a relationship ( mental & physical manifestations ) 
     characterized by the lack of a controlling culture 
     ( knowledge, beliefs, values, norms held in common )
     caused by the destruction, ineffectiveness or rejection of culture
Examples:  Hippie is alienated because they cannot fit in or become part of middle class America
For the street urchin there is no dreams of middle class America
For him there is no such culture in existence-- he is anomic
He embraces a Gang counter culture
Both alienation & anomie exhibit any number of psychological & political manifestations
For Hegel, alienation was only a phenomenon of mind 
      caused by an estrangement from the dominating ideas of the time
For Marx, alienation is a condition in which a person's own powers
       appear to be controlled by independent forces or entities
Marx believed that people find their humanity through labor, 
      not religion, not sex, not anything else
Marx believed we are alienated under capitalism 
     because of any of FOUR estrangements [separations] from
    1.  Products 
    2.  Labor
    3.  Oneself
    4.  Others
    5. ( the earth / nature )
i.e., all those things that make us human
1. Alienation is caused because of our separation from Products, the things we produce
      For a laborer, labor becomes objectified in commodities over which they have no control
      An example of product related alienation: birthing for hire, or creating a child against your will
2. The separation or loss of control of the act of production causes alienation
      Under capitalism, nearly everyone experiences a separation from the means of production
      When we are estranged from the act of production,
            work becomes a means to an end rather than an end in itself
3. Alienation is the separation from oneself, our very human essence, 
       our species-being, our human nature 		 Link
       Alienation from oneself, the denial of one's Species-Being, results in the objectification of the self
       The worker feels outside themself 
             because the worker has no control over the process of production or its results
        The worker therefore feels outside of his work, & his work feels outside of himself
      Work is like any other human activity: 
            when it is abstracted or separated from other human functions, it becomes animalistic
4. Alienation is caused by the separation from other people
       The Bourgeoisie & Proletariat remain estranged 
            from each other because the relationship is based on conflicting interests 
           & fundamentally different conditions of life
       The ideology of capitalism alienates all,  including the capitalists themselves because of self-denial
       The Proletariat is separated from the Proletariat
             because under Capitalism, the organization of the Forces & Relations of Production
             make workers compete against each other.		 Link
"Capital" itself is a source of alienation
Alienation appears as an impersonal force
The improvement of wages does not decrease alienation
Other Formulations of Alienation
      Durkheim:  Anomie:  Separation from society; discontent w/ society
      Weber:  powerlessness in face of the solidity of soc institutions
The modern view of alienation, in the 50s and 60s, 
       emphasized the subjective or psychological facet of alienation 
       at the cost of the social structural aspect, and thus ignored Marx's sociology of capitalism.
Alienation is a personal experience created by social forces
Seeman delineated FOUR personal experiences of alienation
       1. Powerlessness
       2.  Meaninglessness
       3.  Isolation
       4.  Self-Estrangement
5. Environmentalists believe that alienation is caused by separation from our environment
    See Blauner & Job Satisfaction Link
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Outline on
Job Satisfaction
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Link Outline on the FOUR Factors which determine Job Satisfaction & their sub-factors
Satisfaction:  gratification, pleasure, contentment
Alienation:  As defined by Marx, the separation or isolation of workers from the products of their labor
      Contemporary definition:  feelings or the experience of emotional distance, isolation,
       powerlessness, loss of control		 Link
Most Americans are satisfied on-the-job
Intrinsic Satisfaction:  rewards realized on the job:  freedom, co-workers
Extrinsic Satisfaction:  rewards realized off the job:  pay, benefits, security
1. Job tasks ( determined by organization & structure of the economy )
       1.1  Technology on the job
              Technology does not dictate the organization of work
              Technology has been able to "clkean-up" some jobs, but it has polluted others
       Blauner linked four dimensions of subjective alienation
          (powerlessness, meaninglessness, isolation, self-estrangement )
           to different types of work found in modern industry
           & claimed that production techniques were the major determinant of alienation
Link        Blauner's  Inverted U-Curve of Technology & Alienation
             shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others
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Outline on the FOUR Factors which determine Job Satisfaction & their sub-factors
Satisfaction & Alienation are determined by
    1. Job tasks (determined by organization & structure of the economy)
    2. Characteristics of organization (autonomy, responsibility, etc)
    3. Individual differences
    4. Individual expectations

   1. Job tasks (determined by organization & structure of the economy)
        1.1  Technology on the job
        1.2  Organization of the industry
        1.3  Meaningful products
   2. Characteristics of organization (autonomy, responsibility, etc)
        2.1  Self-direction
        2.2  Belongingness
        2.3  Pay
        2.4  Size
        2.5  Promotions
        2.6  Unions
        2.7  Types of wkplaces
   3. Individual differences
        3.1  Gender
        3.2  Race
        3.3  Stage of development / personality
        3.4  Age
        3.5  Tenure
   4. Individual expectations
        4.1  Commitment
        4.2  Ideology 
        4.3  Expectations about any of the factors above
        4.3  Gen expectations
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Blauner's  Inverted U-Curve of Technology & Alienation
      shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

                     |  Machine                  *         Assembly
                     |  Tending              *        *     Line
                     |                        *                *
                     |                  *                            *
                     |               *                                    *
Level of         | Craft   *                                          *       Continuous
Alienation      |         *                                                  *    Process
                     |     *                                                           *
                     |  *                                                                    *
                     |*________________________________________*_
                      Printing      Textiles         Autos        Chemicals

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Outline on
Alienation at Work
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Mills:  1953:  work has no intrinsic meaning: 
Marx, et al, have inherited their view of work from a previous age: 
        the age of old middle class & industrial. artisan
Habermas:  1980:  work is part of humanity; 
     but equally vital part is social activity: communicative action:
       1.  We are social / herd animals who need interaction
       2.  We need free interaction w/ others
       3.  Communication:  verbal & nonverbal ( talk, music, acting... )
See Habermas Link
The outcomes of alienation at work include the segmentation of life: 
We work to earn money; after work we try to establish & preserve humanity
“Each day men and women sell little pieces of themselves
  in order to try to buy them back each night and weekend with the coin of ‘fun.’”
                                                                                                     C. Wright Mills
Studs Terkel in Working ( 1972 ) and in other publications 
       ethnographically catalogues many experiences of alienation at work
Le Masters in Blue-Collar Aristocrats ( 1975 ) shows that skilled, blue-collar workers 
       who work under condition like those of independent artisans 
      are more satisfied & have higher positive feelings & identity.
There is a positive relationship between alienation & position in the stratification system: 
Higher positions have less alienation because they offer more control, freedom, expression
Jencks et al, 1972:  show that job satisfaction is positively related to 
      occupational status, income, education & occupational category
Kalleberg & Griffin demonstrate that 
    a.  occupational skill level shows a weak relation w/ job fulfillment
    b.  ownership shows a strong relation w/ job fulfillment
    c.   authority shows a  strong relation w/ job fulfillment
Kohn found that occupational self-direction was most strongly correlated to alienation
Employers, managers and workers are in a hierarchy of fulfillment
Japanese workers generally are less alienated than American workers 
      because Japanese management techniques are designed to give workers more control. 
The effects of alienation or satisfaction at work carries into other aspects of life
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Outline on Work
The physical conditions at work include safety, health, physical stress & psychological aspects of work
The physical conditions at work are influenced by one's position in the stratification system
US mines are among the most dangerous:  200 killed per year
1980s:  Reagan cut the Occupational Safety & Health Administration ( OSHA ) by 25% 
      effectively reducing government intervention & regulation
1988:  10,700 work related deaths:  70,000 permanently disabled
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Review:  Stratificaton
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