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 SC Lecture Review Notes 1:  Theory, Research, & Methods
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  Intro to Theory, Research, & Methods 
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 Paradigms 
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       Paradigms & Social Theory 
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 Intro to Methods 
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       Social Laws 
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       The Development of Sociology
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 Outline on an  Introduction to Theory, Research & Methods
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 WE 'KNOW' WHAT WE KNOW BASED ON SEVERAL SOCIAL SCIENCE WORLDVIEW STRUCTURES INCLUDING, BROADLY, TRADITION (OF CONSENSUS) & SCIENCE 
 
  How do we know what we know?  
  The fundamental basis of knowledge is agreement / consensus   
  Other way of knowing things is through direct experience & science as a way of knowing is becoming more prominent compared to consensus or agreement   
 
 We establish experiential reality by direct experience 
 
 
 We establish agreement reality by, for example when we are told something & we agree, or everyone seems to agree something is real 
 
 
 Both of these processes seem very real & we need them both to survive 
 
 
 We generally know what is real & what is not real by processes related to: 
 
 
 a.  the experiential (& this may have an emotional component) 
 
  b.  pure faith 
 
  c.  science as we practice it, or as we simply accept a scientific finding 
 
  d.  the process of logic, including 'mental experiments' 
 
  Science employs both logic &  empirical support 
 
  Methods is a sub field of epistemology:  the philosophy of knowing 
 
  NATIVE HUMAN INQUIRY IS THE FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE, BUT SCIENCE ATTEMPTS TO SYSTEMATIZE PARTICULAR PROCEDURES / STRUCTURES TO REACH A CONSENSUS BASED TRUTH AMONG SCIENTISTS 
 
  We want to predict the future &  understand the past in order to act in the present 
 
  We use causal &  probabilistic reasoning 
 
  Causality assumes that events are caused or preconditioned by other events; ie, a chain of causality... connecting the dots   
  Probabilistic reasoning recognizes that effects or outcomes occur more often when causes occur than when they do not   
  We can predict w/o understanding, &  we can understand w/o being able to accurately predict (we only understand part of the situation)   
  Science is simply a more rigorous native human inquiry; though some would disagree with this   
  Science focuses less on understanding that on predicting because understanding transcends into asking why?   
  Science focuses on direct experience   
  But knowledge is shared through agreement   
  Two forms of secondhand knowledge are tradition and authority   
  TRADITION MAY BE THOUGHT OF AS INHERITED CULTURE & MUCH OF WHAT WE 'KNOW' IS BASED ON TRADITION   
  Tradition was our first form of knowledge   
  Many things learned by tradition have been proven or disproved by science   
  Farming, ranching, food gathering, natural birth control, war are all strongly grounded in tradition   
  Knowledge is cumulative and inherited and the jumping off point for the development of more knowledge   
  But tradition can also be detrimental   
  AUTHORITY IS THE BASIS OF MUCH 'KNOWLEDGE;' WE BELIEVE OR 'KNOW' SOMETHING B/C SOMEONE WE RESPECT SAID IT   
  “Knowledge” forced on us by others   
  Knowledge delivered by a "superior"   
  Acceptance of knowledge depends on the status of the discoverer/authority   
  Authority can also assist or hinder human inquiry   
  Beware of  experts speaking outside their field of expertise   
  The foundations of social science include: 
 a.  theory (not philosophy)
 b.  social regularities
 c.   the examination of aggregates, not individuals or individual units 
 d.   a language that includes the interaction of variables 		  
  THERE ARE NINE COMMON ERRORS IN HUMAN INQUIRY   
  There are nine common errors in human inquiry, including: 
1.  Inaccurate Observation 
2.  Over generalization
3.  Selective Observation 
4.  Made Up Information 
5.  Illogical Reasoning 
6.  Ego Involvement in Understanding 
7.  The Premature Closure of Inquiry 
8.  Mystification 
9.  To Err is Human 		  

 
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Outline on  Paradigms: Shifting & Competing
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  -  Project: Paradigms 
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  -  Video:  Sociological Perspectives 
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  INTRODUCTION: THE SCIENTIFIC CULTURE OFTEN ACTS AS IF THERE ARE NO ANOMALIES   
 
 The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies   
  The values / beliefs of science include the ideas that: 
a.  there is progress 
b.  science is cumulative, "brick by brick" we construct science base upon agreed on facts 		  
  Theories are the infrastructure, But people are working on different buildings, i.e. paradigms   
  And all the bricks (facts) must be used   
  Facts that do not fit a theory are called anomalies   
  All theories have anomalies:  i.e. they cannot explain everything   
  The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies   
  A PARADIGM IS A SET OF THEORIES   
  Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape & underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories   
  A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations of why society is the way it is   
  A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects:   
  a.  a set of questions to be asked about the subject   
  b.  a general theoretical approach explaining the nature of the subject   
  c.  a set of values relating to the subject   
  d.  a set of theories concerning a common theme   
  There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of understanding   
  PARADIGMS COMPETE W/ EACH OTHER -- TO ESTABLISH 'TRUTH'   
  Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition of ideas within or between societies   
  Astronomy: collapsing universe vs. expanding universe 
Paleontology:  great comet vs. predation cold blooded vs warm blooded dinosaurs 
Biology:  Darwinians vs. evolutionary shock 
Sociology:  Functionalism vs. Conflict Theory     vs. Symbolic Interactionism 		  
  PARADIGM SHIFTS OCCUR AS PARADIGMS 'WIN OR LOSE' & A NEW 'TRUTH IS ESTABLISHED'   
  Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies, or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period   
  Examples: 
- world views changed from geo centric to helio centric 
- polytheism to monotheism 
- flat to round world 
- earth centric to helio centric 
- magic to science 
- demons to mental illness 
- creationism to evolution 
- Newtonian physics to Einsteinian physics 		  
  Paradigms are also known as perspectives, schools, school of thought, etc.   
  Science does not embrace "one truth" because human truth is always contested & relative, rather, what is true is constantly changing, but we act as if science is one truth   
  Because there is no absolute truth, & because people have competing ideas on what  is closest to truth, we have paradigms   
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 Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, & Disciplines   
 
 Sociology is a multiple paradigm science:  functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism 
 
  Theories & paradigms provide a conceptual formulation that provides a logical explanation or framework for all the facts, i.e. the objective info gained through observation & experiment   
  Theories must be validated in the same way that a hypothesis is validated   
  SCIENTIFIC LAWS ARE FOUND W/IN FEW PARADIGMS   
  Paradigms & laws are not validated in the way that theories & hypotheses are validated   
  Paradigms & laws are validated when the consensus of the scientific community, when the preponderance of theoretical evidence supports them   
  While a single experiment or piece of evidence may serve to validate a theory of hypothesis, it takes evidence, theoretical validation, & the consensus of the scientific community to validate a paradigm or law   
  NATURAL LAWS APPEAR TO HAVE NO ANOMALIES   
  Basic principles or natural laws are theories that stand out as precisely predictable with no known exceptions:  gravity, laws of thermodynamics, etc.   
  There seems to be only tenuous/contentious theories in the social sciences, but also in some physical sciences such as env science   
  Principles or laws are limited to those of chemistry, physics, etc.   
 
 FOR KUHN, PARADIGMS SHIFTS ARE 'SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS' THAT CHANGE PERCEPTIONS OF REALITY   
  Thomas Kuhn wrote about paradigm shifts wherein a veritable scientific rev occurs that essentially deposes an old paradigm, such as Newtonian physics, & replaces it w/ a new one, i.e. Einsteinian physics   
  Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962, in which he held that new paradigms displace old paradigms altering our significant portions of truth as defined by science, & possibly the general populations view of everyday existence   
  See Also:  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 
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  A paradigm shift is a new set of theories that comes along & explains all facts to a superior degree, displacing the old paradigm   
  An example of a paradigm shift is seen in where Einsteinian physics replaced Newtonian Physics because it could explained nuclear fission better & other anomalies better   
  As of the present there have been no paradigm shifts in the social sciences nor in some newer physical sciences such as ecology, though each has multiple, competing paradigms   

 
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Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, Disciplines
  
Paradigm
Set of theoretical assumptions that shape & underlie explanations of why society/the world is the way it is 
Examples: 
The Expanding Universe 
Functionalism
FB MC TF \/
Theory
Explanation of cause & effects that encompasses relationships btwn 2 or more facts 
Examples: 
Suicide is caused by isolation/lack of integration 
Racism is taught/learned 
Crime is caused by frustrated expectations 
Poverty is caused by the concentration of wealth		  
Law
Theory or part of a theory that is well established & therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community 
There are no laws in the social sciences 
Examples: 
Nothing can move faster than light 
To every action, there is an equal & opposite reaction		  
Discipline A recognized area of academic exploration 
Examples: 
sociology 
biology 
literature
FB MC TF /\

 
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 Outline on  Paradigms & Social Theory
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  -  Project:  Multi Paradigmatic Analysis 
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  THEORIES ARE SETS OF EXPLANATIONS  
  A theory is an explanation of cause & effects that encompasses relationships btwn 2 or more facts   
  A theory is a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more cause effect relationships  
  Theories are made up of verifiable statements about reality that, with the right information, can be tested  
  Ideally, a theory can be tested through research  
  PARADIGMS ARE SETS OF THEORIES   
  Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape & underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories
 
  A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations of why society is the way it is
 
  While theories can be tested & either verified or dismissed, paradigms can neither be tested or verified & this their existence may rely on science as well as tradition  
  A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects:
 
  a.  a set of questions to be asked about the subject
 
  b.  a general theoretical approach explaining the nature of the subject
 
  c.  a set of values relating to the subject
 
  d.  a set of theories concerning a common theme
 
  There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of understanding
 
  Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition of ideas within or between societies
 
  Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies, or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period
 
  In relation to sociological theory, paradigms are general images & assumptions of reality which shape theory
 
  THE STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL PARADIGM FOCUSES ON COOPERATIVE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY   
  Structural functionalism (S-F), conflict theory, & symbolic interactionism shape their paradigmatic image by focusing on 'How is social order possible?' which was an important question for social scientists & philosophers in the transition from the traditional to the modern era, i.e. in the 1600s & later
 
  The paradigm of S-F was developed by Durkheim, then the Chicago School, then by Parsons & Merton, & continues to evolve today
 
  The paradigm of S-F is a general theoretical approach that develops a set of questions, values, & theories on:
 
  a.  the consensus on norms & values  
  b.  the processes & outcomes of socialization  
  c.  a biological, systemic & holistic view of society  
  d.  social systems & their needs & functions  
  THE CONFLICT THEORY PARADIGM FOCUSES ON COMPETITIVE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY   
  The paradigm of conflict theory was developed by Marx, then Mills, then Dahrendorf, & continues to evolve today  
 
 The paradigm of conflict theory is a general theoretical approach that develops a set of questions, values, & theories on the:  
  a.  conflicting values in society which yields a societal discensus  
  b.  development & outcome of false consciousness which results from socialization as shaped by societal power struggles & biases  
  c.  competition among grps, esp btwn & w/in classes  
  d.  domination of the upper classes & general grp over individual needs  
  THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PARADIGM FOCUSES ON INDIVIDUALS' CONSTRUCTION OF SOCIETY   
  The paradigm of symbolic interactionism was developed by Mead, then Cooley, then Blumer, & continues to evolve today  
  The paradigm of conflict theory is a general theoretical approach that develops a set of questions, values, & theories on the:  
  a.  social construction of the self, identity, ideology, etc.  
  b.  aggregation of the social construction of the self which creates the social construction of reality, & thus society  
  c.  interaction of the processes & outcomes of the social construction of the self & reality  
  WEALTH, POWER ETC. IS A CENTRAL PART OF SOME BUT NOT ALL SOCIAL SCIENCE PARADIGMS   
  Wealth, power, etc. is a central part of many, but not all of the paradigms in the social sciences  
  Thus wealth, power, etc. is  included in the classification of theories below in addition to several other values  
  Because there is no clear consensus on values, scientific or otherwise, in the social sciences, any given set of values & structures used to classify theories is simply one example of a process of theoretical classification & cannot be considered a universal or comprehensive classification  
  Thus, no universal classification of social theory will  be possible until there is more harmony among competing paradigms & until the social sciences develop into a more exact science  
 
 Historically, wealth & stratification have been heralded & chastised  
  Many ancient religions denounce wealth & stratification while many do not discuss it  
  In the Old Testament, Amos, Micah, Isaiah denounce wealth  
  Aristotle believed that wealth & stratification represented the natural order  
  In the Age of the Enlightenment, 17th - 18th Century, Locke, Rousseau, Monte & others believed that the concentration of wealth was at the least, a social problem, & at worst, the root of most social conflict  
  Early Sociologists  Saint Simon, Comte, Bonald, and Maistre recognized wealth & stratification as an important to understanding society but they had inconsistent positions on its inevitability  
  Sociology is generally made up of three paradigms:  Functionalism, Conflict Theory & Symbolic Interactionism  
  One fundamental question  is frequently asked by all paradigms: How is social order possible?  Stratification is one answer  
 
 In light of the 3 sociological paradigms, we ask, how does stratification & injustice occur?   
  Paradigms embrace Value Sets that allow their classification as either Critics or Apologists of modern, industrial, stratified society which result in their viewing society as exhibiting either a Critical Culture or an Uncritical Culture  
 
 Paradigms embrace Social Structures that allow their classification into either seeing society as primarily operating on the basis of Conflict or Order ( Cooperation ) Structure which means they view society as exhibiting either a Conflict Structure or a Cooperative Structure  
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 Table:  Value & Model Assumptions in Social Science Paradigms  
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 Table:  A Typology of Paradigms  
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 THE CRITICAL CULTURE / ORDER STRUCTURE PARADIGM FOCUSES ON 
THE POWER OF CULTURE & COOPERATIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES		  
  Cell 1:  Critical Culture Order Structure Paradigm combines the Critical Value assumptions or CULTURE w/ an Order/Cooperative Model of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Critical Order Paradigm views society as exhibiting Critical Culture & a Cooperative Structure  
  No modern school is associated w/ the Critical Order Paradigm  
  The Critical -Order Paradigm  of Maistre & Bonald opposed the Enlightenment ideals & viewed society as a whole  
 
 1.  Unjust inequality ( stratification ) is not inevitable ( at least not to the present degree )  
  The appearance of the inevitability of stratification comes from the fact that all of history has witnessed stratification  
  But stratification did not exist in Hunter - Gatherer Society & it does not exist at high levels in all societies  
 
 2.  There is an optimistic view of human nature based on theory, history & anthropology  
  Recently Humanistic Psychology has supported an optimistic view of human nature w/ its view of the higher nature or needs of individuals  
 
 3.  Better, more just societies are the goals of the social sciences  
  Failure to act, or the belief that the current order of things is natural, is merely support for the status quo  
  The social sciences should be activist & try & change the world  
  The downside of social scientists being activist is that science itself is a neutral weapon & could be used for good or ill  
 
 4.  Society is held together by a consensus of norms & values  
 
 There is no conflict of ideology or interests  
 
 5.  There is a holistic view of society  
 
 Thus we have equal influence for both the economy or base & the culture  
 
 Status is often seen as more important than class or income  
 
 Thus income is determined by the prestige of a position  
 
 6.  There is a focus on a social system w/ needs of its own & thus the conflict that does occur is bad for the system  
  The needs of society supersede the needs of individuals  
  Thus some people must be at the bottom of the hierarchy & a few at the top  
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 THE APOLOGIST CULTURE / ORDER STRUCTURE PARADIGM FOCUSES ON 
NON POWER ORIENTED CULTURE & COOPERATIVE ASPECTS OF STRUCTURES 		  
 
 Cell 2:  The Apologist Culture Order Structure Paradigm combines apologetic (uncritical) value assumptions ( little or no criticism of the status quo ) or CULTURE w/ an Order/Cooperative Model of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Apologist (Uncritical) - Order Paradigm combines an Uncritical Culture & a Cooperative Structure  
 
 1. Stratification ( i.e. unjust inequality ) is inevitable because
    (a) human nature is selfish 
    (b) it necessary for social system, i.e. a quality of the system		  
 
 Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed & because any features that exist in society must be functional
 
 
 2.  The distrust of human nature is based on analyses of theory, history & anthropology  
 
 Freudian psychology also supports the idea of our animal human nature, that must be controlled by society  
 
 3.  There are no goals for social analysis because the social sciences are value free  
 
 Thus the social sciences are merely to report & describe the functioning of society & not work to or advocate change  
 
 To advocate change is to exhibit the ultimate hubris or self serving pride in thinking that 'I know what is best for society'  
 
 4.  Society is held together by a consensus of norms & values  
  There is no conflict of ideology or interests  
 
 5.  There is a holistic view of society  
  Thus we have equal influence for both the economy or base & the culture  
  Status is often seen as more important than class or income  
  Thus income is determined by the prestige of a position  
 
 6.  There is a focus on a social system w/ needs of its own & thus the conflict that does occur is bad for the system  
  The needs of society supersede the needs of individuals  
  Thus some people must be at the bottom of the hierarchy & a few at the top  
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 THE CRITICAL CULTURE / CONFLICT STRUCTURE PARADIGM FOCUSES ON 
POWER IN CULTURE & COMPETITIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES 		  
  Cell 3:  The Critical Culture Conflict Structure Paradigm embodies a Critical analysis of value assumptions or CULTURE & a Conflict based analysis of the operation of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Critical - Conflict Paradigm embodies a Critical Culture & a Conflict Structure  
  This paradigm is commonly associated w/ Marx -> Mills -> Dahrendorf  
  This characterization is typically associated w/ Conflict Theory  
 
 1.  Unjust inequality ( stratification ) is not inevitable ( at least not to the present degree )  
  The appearance of the inevitability of stratification comes from the fact that all of history has witnessed stratification  
  But stratification did not exist in H - G Society & it does not exist at high levels in all societies  
 
 2.  There is an optimistic view of human nature based on theory, history & anthropology  
 
 Recently Humanistic Psychology has supported this view w/ its view of the higher nature or needs of individuals  
 
 3.  Better, more just societies are the goals of the social sciences  
  Failure to act or the belief that was is is natural is merely support for the status quo  
  The social sciences should be activist & try & change the world  
  The downside of this is that science itself is a neutral weapon & could be used for good or ill  
 
 4.  Society is held together by conflict & power, & not a consensus of norms & values  
  The consensus is an illusion or is itself the result of ideology, i.e. world views imposed by the elites control of education, the media etc.  
 
 5.  There is a focus on the parts & processes w/in a society, & not society as a whole, where all structures have equal influence  
  Understanding the economy & its impact on all the other social structures & culture is key to understanding how society operates  
 
 6.  Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups  
  Society may operate as a system w/ needs of its own, but when those needs are controlled by a group of elites then society becomes a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups   
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 THE APOLOGIST CULTURE / CONFLICT STRUCTURE FOCUSES ON 
NON POWER ORIENTED CULTURE & COMPETITIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES 		  
 
 Cell 4:  The Apologist Culture Conflict Structure embodies an Apologist, or uncritical analysis of value assumptions or CULTURE & a Conflict based analysis of the operation of society or STRUCTURE  
  The Apologist (Uncritical) - Conflict Paradigm embodies an Uncritical Culture & a Conflict Structure
 
  Weberian theory is commonly associated w/ this paradigm
 
  1. Stratification ( i.e. unjust inequality ) is inevitable because
    (a) human nature is selfish 
    (b) it necessary for social system, i.e. a quality of the system		  
  Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed & because any features that exist in society must be functional
 
  Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed & because any features that exist in society must be functional
 
  2.  The distrust of human nature based on analysis of theory, history & anthropology
 
  Freudian Psychology also supports the idea of our animal human nature, that must be controlled by society
 
  3.  There are no goals for social analysis because the social sciences are value free
 
  Thus the social sciences are merely to report & describe the functioning of society & not work to or advocate change
 
  To advocate change is to exhibit the ultimate hubris or self serving pride in thinking that 'I know what is best for society'
 
  4.  Society is held together by conflict & power, & not a consensus of norms & values
 
  The consensus is an illusion or is itself the result of ideology, i.e. world views imposed by the elites control of education, the media etc.
 
  5.  There is a focus on the parts & processes w/in a society, & not society as a whole, where all structures have equal influence
 
  Understanding the economy & its impact on all the other social structures & culture is key to understanding how society operates
 
  6.  Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups
 
  Society may operate as a system w/ needs of its own, but when those needs are controlled by a group of elites then society becomes a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups  
  See Also:  Early American Stratification Theory:  the Lynds & Warner
 
  See Also:  Occupational Prestige
 
  Functional Theory is often traced from Durkheim to the Chicago School to Parsons & Merton
 
  Conflict Theory is often traced from Marx to Mills to Dahrendorf  
  Weberian Theory straddles several issues of concern to both functionalism & conflict theory  

 
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Table: Value & Model Assumptions in Social Science Paradigms
Kerbo 0404
Value Assumptions  on  CULTURE
Critical CULTURE
    Views culture as exerting / expressing power in society
1.  Inequality is not inevitable ( at least not to the present degree )
2.  There is an optimistic view of human nature
3.  Better, more just, societies are the goals of the social sciences
Apologist ( Uncritical ) CULTURE
     Views culture as an epiphenomenom, i.e. cannot exert or express power in society 
1.  Inequality is inevitable ( "natural" )
2.  There is a distrust of human nature
3.  No goals:  sociology should be value free
Model Assumptions on STRUCTURE
Conflict STRUCTURE
     Views structure as a terrain of conflict through which groups compete
1.  Society is held together by conflict & unequal power
2.  Focus on parts & processes w/in the society
3.  Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes or interest groups
Order ( Cooperation ) STRUCTURE
      View structure as a mechanism through which social goals are cooperatively accomplished
1.  Society is held together by consensus of norms & values
2.  Holistic view of society
3.  Focus on a social system w/ needs of its own

 
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Table:  A Typology of Paradigms
Kerbo 0404
 Model of Society: 
STRUCTURE           \/
Value Assumptions on CULTURE
 
Critical
Apologist
Cooperation
 1.  Critical Culture Order Structure  Paradigm 2.  Apologist Culture Order Structure Paradigm
  Focuses on the power of culture & cooperative social structures  Focuses on non power oriented culture & cooperative aspects of structures 
 
 No modern theory is associated w/ this Paradigm Functional Theory (Durkheim, Parsons)
 
Conflict
 3.  Critical Culture Conflict Structure Paradigm 4.  Apologist Culture Conflict Structure  Paradigm
 
 Focuses on the power of culture & competitive social structures  Focuses on non power oriented culture & competitive social structures 
 
 Ruling Class Theory (Marxism) Power Conflict Theory (Weber)
  Post Modernist Paradigms focus on the power of culture ( Critical Culture Paradigm), but deny that any structure exists ( contra the Order Structure Paradigm & the Conflict Structure Paradigm )
Kerbo 0404 Source:  Adapted from Hermann Strasser (1976) 
The Normative Structure of Sociology:  Conservative & Emancipatory Themes in Social Thought.  London:  Routledge & Kegan Paul.

 
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  An Introduction to   Methods: How the Social Sciences are Done
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 -  Project:  Surveying 
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  For Macionis, there are 3 types of methods in the social sciences including scientific methods, critical methods, & interpretative methods; however in practice most social scientist employ many of these types simultaneously   
  THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO GENERATE EXPLANATIONS & MAKE PREDICTIONS   
  Science is a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation   
  Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, meaning facts  we verify with our senses   
  Scientific methods of the social sciences are the most widely used & are what we are using when we speak of hypothesis, theories, statistics, validity, etc.   
  THE INTERPRETATIVE METHOD  IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO UNDERSTAND THE MEANINGS PEOPLE EXPERIENCE   
  For many social scientists, science as it is practiced today to study the natural world, misses a vital part of the social world: meaning   
  Human beings do not simply act; we engage in meaningful action   
  Weber, who pioneered this framework, argued that the focus of sociology is interpretation   
  See Also:  Weber   
  Interpretative sociology is the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world   
  The interpretative sociologist's job is not just to observe what people do but to share in their world of meaning & come to appreciate why they act as they do   
  CRITICAL SOCIOLOGY FOCUSES ON WHAT IS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND & EXERCISE SOCIAL CHANGE   
  The importance of social change in & of itself became noteworthy by Marx who rejected the idea that society exists as  a "natural" system w/ a fixed order   
  Critical sociology is the study of society that focuses on the need for social change   
  As Marx believed the point of the social sciences are not merely to study the world as it is but to change it   
  W/in the practice of critical methods, the general public often confuses social science findings w/ politics & so scientific social scientists object to taking sides, charging that critical social science is political & gives up any claim to objectivity   
  Critical methodologists would refute the objections of the so called scientific social scientists by noting that not only is critical social science political, but ALL science, whether it be natural or social, is political   
  METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ARE TOOLS FOR SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION   
  The deductive method of analysis begins w/ theory & builds a question ( hypothesis ) based on that theory   
  The hypothesis is usually tested using some form of the experimental method to test some part of the theory   
  The inductive method of analysis begins w/ gathering generalizations from data, & theory is then created to explain the generalizations   
  Research can be used to test a theory or generate a theory, but research cannot "find out the truth"   
  A theory is a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more cause effect relationships   
  Theories are made up of verifiable statements about reality that, with the right information, can be tested   
  Theory refers to a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more major cause effect relationships   
  Ideally, a theory can be tested through research   
  A law is a theory or part of a theory that is well established and therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community   
  A hypothesis is a research question, that always takes the form of a statement that must be able to be disproved   
  A hypothesis is a testable statement   
  When social scientists use research for theory testing, they usually make use of a hypothesis   
  A hypothesis always takes the form of a statement   
  A hypothesis usually involves some kind of cause effect relationship between two or more variables   
  A hypothesis is used because a theory is usually too large and complex to test at one time   
  A correlation is a relationship by which two or more variables change together   
 
 A concept is an abstract idea that represents some element of the world   
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 A variable is a concept that can take on different values or that has two or more categories from case to case   
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 Independent variables influence or cause the dependent variable & are sometimes called the predictor variable   
  The independent variable is the variable that the researcher thinks is the cause   
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 Dependent variables should be the effect in the cause effect relationship   
  The value of the dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable   
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 A positive correlation occurs when both variables change in the same direction   
  A negative correlation occurs when the variables change in opposite directions   
  A control variable is a variable that is held constant in order to observe the effect on two or more other variable   
  A spurious correlation is an apparent, although false, relationship btwn two or more variables caused by some other variable(s)   
  The control variable  is introduced to determine whether the relationship btwn the independent & dependent variables is spurious   
  MEASUREMENT IS THE PROCESS OF ASCERTAINING THE EXTENT, DIMENSIONS, 
QUANTITY, ETC. OF SOMETHING ESP BY COMPARISON TO A STANDARD 		  
  1.  An operational definition is a precise statement of the measuring of a variable or of the categories of a variable for purpose of measurement   
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 2.  Reliability is established when the researcher is using a method that demonstrates consistency of the measurement; the method produces the same results if it is used repeatedly or if a different investigator uses it   
  Professor Hairball has repeated his study on hair magazines every year for ten years.  He has always gotten the same results.  Therefore, Hairball believes his study is very reliable   
  Reliability is the consistency of the measurement   
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 3.  Validity indicates that the researcher is measuring the concept they intended to measure; that the methods utilized yield accurate info about the phenomenon being studied   
  Validity is established by  measuring the concept you intend to measure   
  The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & journalistic accounts in newspapers, magazines, on the TV news, the internet, etc.   
  The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & humanistic accounts of social phenomenon such as novels, an expose', videos, docudrama, etc.   
  Social scientists such as post modernists, et al, believe that if social science is to be effective, it must connect w/ the subject, i.e., the phenomenon being studied, & the object, i.e. the person or people examining the research   
  An emotion laden research project is not necessarily unreliable or invalid, but special care must be taken 
 
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 4.  Constructs are concepts that are abstract and at least to some extent must be formulated by the researcher   
  Constructs are created by researchers when they are attempting to measure abstract concepts such as intelligence 
 
  Examples of constructs include intelligence, happiness, power, satisfaction, quality of life, etc.   
  PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH STEM FROM THE FACT THAT PEOPLE REACT TO BEING STUDIED   
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 Reactivity is the tendency of people being studied to react to the researcher or to the fact that they are being studied   
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 The Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity where people being studied attempt to please the researcher   
  The Placebo effect is a form of reactivity where people, as a result of being studied, behave differently, i.e. as the test subjects do, when in fact nothing has changed   
  Objectivity is a state of complete personal neutrality in conducting research   
  Bias is non objectivity in research; personal involvement in conducting research whether intentional or unintentional   
  THE USE OF EXISTING DATA SOURCES IS THE METHOD OF USING INFO THAT HAS BEEN COLLECTED BY OTHERS TO CONDUCT RESEARCH   
  Sometimes a social scientist need not collect original data to study an issue or a problem b/c the necessary data have already been collected   
  There are various public & private data archives such as the US Census, the National Opinion Research Ctr (NORC), Gallup, the Inter University Consortium for Political & Social Research (ICPSR), & thousands more   
  Professional orgs often conduct surveys of participants in their professions & sometimes make such data available to researchers w/ related interests   
  An example of the use of an existing source would be continuing a survey that was started 50 yrs ago, & using the data from the old survey as a comparison or bench mark from which to judge data info from the new survey   
  General library research, using books & journals to write a research paper or construct the research background for the present research is also a form of using existing sources 
 
  THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF PRIMARY RESEARCH METHOD IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IS THE SURVEY:  ASKING A POPULATION SET A SERIES OF QUESTIONS BY A RESEARCHER WHO THEN ANALYZES THE ANSWERS   
  A survey is the method of selecting a particular subject & compiling a series of questions that will best resolve any research objectives, ie questions or postulates, that will satisfy the query   
 
 An example of a survey is one that the military uses to evaluate the command climate of a unit of soldiers   
  The survey is the most widely used method in sociology   
  The kinds of surveys are the:
- closed end questionnaire 
- open end questionnaire 
- telephone interview 
- personal interview 		  
 
 DIFFERENT QUESTION TYPES MEASURE DIFFERENT SOCIAL MATERIAL 
 
  Fixed response questions in a survey are like multiple choice exam questions   
  The Likert scale form of surveying gives a clear range of choices on a 5 or 7 point scale 

Strongly Agree   Agree    Neutral / No Opinion    Disagree     Strongly Disagree 
     ______          _____                _____                    _____             ______ 
 

  
  In open ended questions the respondent states or writes an answer to the question in their own words.  (Similar to an interview)   
  There are FOUR types of questions typically used in surveys & interviews, including: 
- Background  (demographics) 
- Activities 
- Knowledge 
- Sentiments (opinions, values, attitudes, feelings, etc.) 		  
  When writing survey questions, 
- use short statements 
- begin w/ 'easy' questions 
- use 'hard' questions near the end of the survey 
- end w/ open ended questions 		  
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 Sampling is the random selection from a general population to establish a sample group, which should represent the entire population   
  AN EXPERIMENT IS A SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION IN A CONTROLLED / LIMITED SITUATION   
  Experiments are carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom   
  An example of an experiment is testing the integrity of a group of men against a group of women by placing money on a sidewalk & observing what % would pick the money up & keep it compared to who would turn it in, or ask who dropped the money in the first place   
  The steps in the experimental process include:
Sampling to determine the 
Control & experimental groups 
Pre-test 
Experimental manipulation 
Post-test 
Debriefing 
Analysis 		  
 
 The experimental group goes through an experience or manipulation 
 
  The control group does not experience a manipulation of an independent variable & receives the pre-test & post-test   
  Lab experiments are done in setting w/ almost total control by researcher   
  The TWO types of field experiments are natural experiments & social experiments   
  In natural experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a natural event, or the tabulation data before & after a natural event   
  In social experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a social policy   
  INTERVIEWS ARE ORAL SURVEYS   
  The strength of an interview over a survey is that researcher can follow leads to unplanned questions   
  In structured interviews, the questions are pre planned   
  In unstructured interviews, the unplanned questions follow the flow of the conversation   
  FIELD OBSERVATION IS ATTENTIVENESS TO SOCIAL MATERIAL TO MEASURE IT IN SOME MANNER   
  The FOUR qualities of field observation include obtrusiveness, unobtrusiveness, participant & non participant   
  In obtrusive field observation, the researcher is seen, recognized as a researcher;  open or overt   
  In unobtrusive observation, the researcher is hidden or not recognized as a researcher;  secret or covert   
  In participant observation, the researcher is, during the research, participating in the activities of the subjects   
  Participant observation allows the researchers to observe a person or a group of people in their everyday activities   
  An example of this would be going to a Baptist church on Sunday to see how people in that area worship   
  In non participatory observation, the researcher is not participating; remains separated, aloof   
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 Content analysis is an analysis of narrative data from open ended surveys, interviews, books, press, media, etc.) that looks for regularity   
  Statistical analysis is an analysis of existing data (census, govt records, etc.) or data you have collected (surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.) to determine correlations   
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 Multivariate analysis is the sorting out many factors to determine most important factors   

 
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Examples of Variables

  age                    religion                     education level            env concern
  gender              political party             race                           satisfaction in the workplace
  income             marital status             occupation                  effective decisions


 
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Examples of Independent & Dependent Variables

Abuse & stress
Lack of social integration & suicide
Number of autos & global warming
Education & environmental concern
Income & environmental concern
Openness & satisfaction in the workplace
Number of guidelines to follow & effective critical decision making


 
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Examples of Positive & Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation:  both variables change in same direction
Ed level is positively correlated w/ income
Negative Correlation:  a situation where one variable increases & the other decreases
Ed level is negatively correlated w/ poverty rates


 
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Example of Constructs

ideal type of bureaucrat
Weber:  rational, power in the office, tenure, salary, entrance exams & appointment from within


 
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Table on Variable Measurement Types
 
Difference
Rank Order
Equal Space
Zeroed
Examples
Nominal
Yes
      
Deviance Committed
Ordinal
Yes
Yes
    
Hi Lo SES
Interval
Yes
Yes
Yes
  
Temperature
Ratio
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Income
Scale
Yes
  
Yes
  
Race
Gender

 
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Example of Validity

IQ   Many people question the validity of IQ tests. 
 


 
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Example of Reactivity

Hawthorne effect:  form of reactivity:  people being studied attempt to please the researcher: 
From H Motor Wiring Room:  young women & young male researchers


 
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Sampling: the random selection from a general population to establish a Sample Group, which represents the entire population

Sample Group:  a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire population.

The basic way to obtain a representative sample is by a random draw from everyone in the population in question. 

No matter how small your population, you almost always need 50 people in order to have a scientifically valid sample.

1,100 is enough for most major survey firms to survey the US 

Thus if you divide your sample into different groups, you need even more people. 
If you want to compare men & women:  50 of each
If you want to compare lower income, middle income & upper income men and women, how many do you need? 
6 groups:
50 lo income men
50 lo income women
50 mid income men
50 mid income women
50 hi income men
50 hi income women
300 total


 
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Example of Content Analysis

Violence & TV:  perform content analysis on top 10 novels  & top 10 TV shows of each decade to determine amount of violence.  Is there a correlation? 


 
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Example of Multivariate Analysis

Divorce:  age at marriage; class, ed, race of spouses; income of each; expectations; children; urban/rural; love; sex; length of marriage; etc.


 
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 Outline on  Social Laws
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  THERE IS A HIERARCHY OF THE VALIDITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE FINDINGS   
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 There is somewhat of an agreed upon hierarchy in methods indicating the authority & acceptability of ideas / knowledge including the range of: 
- social laws
- paradigms
- theories
- concepts
- hypothesis
 
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 Social laws are the most widely accepted knowledge 
 
  Social laws are felt to be absolute & irreversible   
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 Today, there are no social "laws"
 
  But for each of us, behavior, beliefs, & ideology becomes so fixed, that we act as if there are social laws   
  The concept of the spirit as used by early social thinkers, embodies Monte’s understanding of the distinctive character of a system of social laws  
  MONTESQUIEU PROPOSED THE IDEA OF SOCIAL LAWS & HELD THAT THEY HAVE PARTICULAR QUALITIES   
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 Montesquieu proposed that one of the qualities of social laws is that:  
  1.  they are the necessary relations arising from nature of things  
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 2.  they apply to nature & to people
 
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 3.  they underlie all things, human, natural, & divine
 
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 4.  philosophy's task was to discover these laws
 
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 5.  laws about human nature were extremely complex, hence the need for the scientific method & ideal types
 
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 6.  knowledge of the laws would ease ills of society
 
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 Monte believed customs emerge spontaneously while social laws are estb in a formal & explicit fashion
 
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 Monte believed that social laws are spontaneous & natural, but formal  
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 Monte’s conception of social laws is itself ambiguous because laws can be at variance w/ what a society needs because of the limits of human knowledge, errors, & chance events  
  TODAY, THERE ARE NO UNIVERSAL SOCIAL LAWS   
  But while law's are universal, there are there are no truly universal laws in society  
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 We can reconcile the apparent lack of universal social laws by recalling that there can be laws, and/or ideal types which are generally true  
  But it is difficult to generalize, so each must be tailored to fit the particular situation  
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 Monte believes that intellectual freedom is intact despite the apparent determinism implied by social laws  
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 People are not passive creatures, evolving or developing automatically, rather we are active players who attempt to understand & influence our env & ourselves  
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 Reflexive social theorists, post modernists & others do not accept the existence of social laws  
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 Monte’s ideas on intellectual freedom are similar to many contemporary social theorists in that they see no conflict btwn social laws & freedom  
  SOCIAL SCIENTISTS ATTEMPT TO BRIDGE THE GAP BTWN DETERMINISM & INDIVIDUALISM   
  Monte & contemporary social theorists try to bridge the gap btwn social determinism & individualism, including:   
  a.  Anthony Giddens' concept of reflexive sociology   
  b.  in econ, the Rational Man Theory  
  c.  in psych: the 100th Monkey Syndrome  
  d.  Karl Weick's organizational theories   
  e.  Post Modernists who practically deny any structural forces  
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 All theories do not try to bridge the gap btwn social determinism & individualism, but some, such as Giddens, Weick, & post modernists focus on the social forces / free will interaction  
  THERE ARE COMMONALTIES BTWN THEORIES OF DETERMINISM & THEORIES OF INDIVIDUALISM   
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 What all of the theories that bridge the gap btwn determinism & individualism have in common is that:   
  a.  some people discover a new relationship, principle, or law in a particular field   
  b.  people learn this knowledge at different rates due to exposure, intelligence, access to power & resources...   
  c.  people act in accordance w/ this new knowledge   
  d.  people's reaction based on the new knowledge about an 'old' law or relationship often tends to negate the original law   
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 Thus social laws are laws so long as people follow them
-  out of ignorance
-  out of agreement
-  from being forced		  
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 Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolutions  in 1962 in which he contrasts normal research & the new paradigm research when the old paradigm becomes transparently inadequate  

 
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Example of Monte’s ambiguity of Social Laws

Monte felt that democratic republican societies had made mistakes in developing slavery

Domination of one race by another was believed to be a "nat law" based on Darwin, but Monte did not accept it


 
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 Outline on the  Development of Sociology
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  SUMMARY: 
Sociology began around the 1700s w/ influences from earlier social philosophy 
St. Simon is known as the Father of Sociology 
Sociology was influenced by Enlightenment ideals 
Durkheim established sociology as an academic discipline 
Around 1900, the 1st sociology dept. in the US was established in Chicago 
The Chicago School focused on activism, social work & social reform 
Functionalism developed during WW2 & reflected the conservatism of the nation 
Conflict theory, which was more radical, developed during the Vietnam era 
Today sociology focuses on many diverse areas 
 
 
 SOCIOLOGY BEGAN AROUND THE 1700s, INFLUENCED BY EARLIER SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY  
  Early sociology was influenced by social philosophers such as Hobbes     1588  -  1679  
  Sociology began around the 1700s w/ influences from earlier social philosophy  
  Early sociologists began applying the scientific method to the study of society, groups, etc. & believed that society could be improved  
  Saint Simon        1760 - 1825        is considered the father of sociology  
  Auguste Comte         1798 - 1857    coined the term "sociology"  
  Comte believed that the major goal of sociology was to understand society as it actually operates  
  Comte saw sociology as the product of a three stage historical development including the: 
a.  theological stage, in which thought was guided by religion
b.  metaphysical stage, a transitional phase
c.  scientific stage, which we have not totally entered yet		  
  The scientific stage would be guided by positivism: a way of understanding based on science  
 
 SEVEN SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTED THE EARLY SOC SCIENCES, 
JUST AS SOC FACTORS AFFECT THE SOC SCIENCES TODAY
 
  1.  Population explosions  
  2.  The Enclosure Movement & urbanization  
  3.  Religious changes during the period of 1300 - 1700 resulted in unified Western Christianity being shattered at the hands of Luther, et al, in the 1500s in a social change called the Reformation  
  4.  Growth of science  
      - Industrial Revolutions  
  5.  Political revolutions, especially in England, the US, & France, affected the early social sciences  
  a.  The political revolutions that affected the early social sciences were characterized by democratization, the fall of monarchy, & the rise of "the rabble," aka the middle class  
  b.  Rise of capitalism  
  c.  Rise of socialism in Europe, and especially in Russia:   1907-1917 and before  
  6.  "Modern" social problems:  Joseph Gusfield notes that Sociology emerged as a force to deal w/ social problems such as urbanization, poverty, crime, etc.  
  7.  The Enlightenment, which was a 100 yr. span from English Revolution ( 1642 ) to the French Revolution ( 1789 ) affected the early social sciences  
  Sociology was influenced by Enlightenment ideals  
  Enlightenment thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, Wollstonecraft, et al were influential  
  Out of all of these factors, the 3 major social changes during the 17th & 18th Cs that were important to the development of sociology include:
a.  the rise of industrial technology
b.  the growth of cities
c.  political change, including a rising concern w/ individual liberty & rights as manifesting in the US & French revs		  
  EARLY SOCIOLOGY HAD 'AGREEMENT' ON NINE TENETS & THUS THERE WAS MORE 
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS THAT THERE IS IN THE CONTEMPORARY SOC SCIENCES 		  
  1.  Society was seen as the most important unit of analysis  
  Society is more than individual  
  The individual is produced through socialization  
  2.  The group was seen as an important unit of analysis & the most important units of analysis include the family & the workplace  
  3.  The parts of society are interrelated through complex relationships on multiple levels  
  4.  Social change is a threat  
  5.  Society was functional & therefore there is little use in looking at the negative aspects of society  
  6.  The small social units of society, e.g., the family, the workplace, religious groups, etc. are essential or vital for the operation of society  
  7.  Industrialization, bureaucracy, urbanization, immigration, etc. disorganize society  
  8.  The non rational is bad or dysfunctional for society  
  9.  The social sciences, including sociology, should support the existing social arrangements, such as hierarchy, in society  
  DURKHEIM ESTABLISHED SOCI AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE   
  Emile Durkheim was pivotal in founding sociology as an academic social science because he established the use of the scientific method to study social phenomenon such as suicide & founded the first sociology dept. in the University of Paris   
  Durkheim's pivotal study entitled Suicide, which examined the social factors contributing to 'the most personal act' was instrumental in helping people understand the influence of social influences & the thus the value of the soc sciences   
  THE CHICAGO SCHOOL WAS THE 1st AM SOCI DEPT, ESTBED SOC WK & ACTIVISM, & USED CHICAGO AS A LAB   
  In 1893, the first sociology dept. in the US was established in Chicago  
  The Chicago School brought sociology into America prior to & after 1900 & established the social work & activist directions   
  The Chicago School was also known as the Ecological School  
  At the Chicago School, the focus on social problems & the researchers used Chicago as a laboratory  
  The focus of the Chicago School on social problems predated functionalism & conflict theory  
  The Chicago School focused on social deviance, which was defined as a violation of society's norms or rules for appropriate behavior & became synonymous with the term social problems  
  The Chicago School focused on activism, social work & social reform
 
  The theory of Chicago School held that:
 
  - social problems were caused by factors external to the individual, that is, they were "ecological"
 
  - the person had little or no control and little or no responsibility for social problems as seen in Chicago
 
  - the cause of social problems was unhealthy social environment of inner city
 
  - social problems can be solved by integrating the groups in the unstable areas into mainstream
 
  - American life is a melting pot
 
  FUNCTIONALISM FOCUSES ON THE REGULATING / HOMOGENIZING ASPECTS OF SOCIETY  
  Functionalism developed during WW2 & reflected the conservatism of the nation
 
  Functionalism developed in the US & this period of conservatism in US occurred as radicalism in Europe developed
 
  Harvard sociology reigned from the turn of the century to the 1950s & changed the direction of sociology from a social work / activist direction to one that was more conservative, keeping in times w/ the public attitude as a result of WW2, in the form of functionalism
 
  CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSES ON THE COMPETITIVE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY THROUGH CLASS ANALYSIS   
  Conflict theory evolved from Marxism & was too radical for the US until it was toned down & began class analysis in the US in the 1940s  
  Conflict theory has roots in the US in the 1940s & 50s in the Am Left & such theorists as C Wright Mills, but did not become influential until the 1960s
 
  Conflict theory, which was more radical, developed during the Vietnam era
 
  The 1950s - mid 1970s saw the American form of Marxism arrive in the form of conflict theory, radicalizing sociology, questioning the conservative functionalism of the previous era
 
  While conflict theory had been in Europe for decades, it arrives in US in the 1950s  
  Conflict theory reflects development of the Civil Rights Movement, Vietnam Protests, Feminist Movement, Environmental Movement, etc.  
  THE POST VIETNAM ERA AGAIN BROUGHT A RETURN TO A CONSERVATIVE DIRECTION FOR SOCIOLOGY   
  Since the Post Vietnam era:
- conflict theory & functionalism have both lost influence
- no clear replacement theory for conflict theory or functionalism has emerged
- most Sociology has become a hybrid of both conflict theory & functionalism		  
  TODAY SOCIOLOGY FOCUSES ON MANY DIVERSE AREAS   
  From the 1980s to the present there has been the growth of a plurality of fields in sociology, including:
- feminism
- criminology
- post-modernism
- organizational sociology
- urban sociology
- environmental sociology, etc.		  

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