Internal
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Outline on Paradigms
& Social Theory
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External
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- Project: Multi Paradigmatic
Analysis |
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THEORIES ARE SETS OF EXPLANATIONS |
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A theory is an explanation of cause & effects that encompasses
relationships btwn 2 or more facts |
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A theory is a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually
involving one or more cause effect relationships |
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Theories are made up of verifiable statements about reality that, with
the right information, can be tested |
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Ideally, a theory can be tested through research |
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PARADIGMS ARE SETS OF THEORIES |
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Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape
& underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including
the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories |
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A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations
of why society is the way it is |
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While theories can be tested & either verified or dismissed, paradigms
can neither be tested or verified & this their existence may rely on
science as well as tradition |
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A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or
viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects: |
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a. a set of questions to be asked about the subject |
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b. a general theoretical approach explaining the
nature of the subject |
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c. a set of values relating to the subject |
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d. a set of theories concerning a common theme |
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There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common
sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different
paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of
understanding |
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Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition
of ideas within or between societies |
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Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies,
or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period |
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In relation to sociological theory, paradigms are general images &
assumptions of reality which shape theory |
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THE STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL PARADIGM FOCUSES ON COOPERATIVE ASPECTS
OF SOCIETY |
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Structural functionalism (S-F), conflict theory, & symbolic interactionism
shape their paradigmatic image by focusing on 'How is social order possible?'
which was an important question for social scientists & philosophers
in the transition from the traditional to the modern era, i.e. in the 1600s
& later |
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The paradigm of S-F was developed by Durkheim, then the Chicago
School, then by Parsons & Merton, & continues to evolve today |
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The paradigm of S-F is a general theoretical approach that develops
a set of questions, values, & theories on: |
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a. the consensus on norms & values |
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b. the processes & outcomes of socialization |
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c. a biological, systemic & holistic view of society |
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d. social systems & their needs & functions |
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THE CONFLICT THEORY PARADIGM FOCUSES ON COMPETITIVE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY |
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The paradigm of conflict theory was developed by Marx, then
Mills, then Dahrendorf, & continues to evolve today |
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The paradigm of conflict theory is a general theoretical approach that
develops a set of questions, values, & theories on the: |
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a. conflicting values in society which yields a societal
discensus |
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b. development & outcome of false consciousness which
results from socialization as shaped by societal power struggles &
biases |
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c. competition among grps, esp btwn & w/in classes |
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d. domination of the upper classes & general grp over
individual needs |
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THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST PARADIGM FOCUSES ON INDIVIDUALS' CONSTRUCTION
OF SOCIETY |
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The paradigm of symbolic interactionism was developed by Mead,
then Cooley, then Blumer, & continues to evolve today |
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The paradigm of conflict theory is a general theoretical approach that
develops a set of questions, values, & theories on the: |
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a. social construction of the self, identity, ideology,
etc. |
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b. aggregation of the social construction of the self
which creates the social construction of reality, & thus society |
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c. interaction of the processes & outcomes of the
social construction of the self & reality |
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WEALTH, POWER ETC. IS A CENTRAL PART OF SOME BUT NOT
ALL SOCIAL SCIENCE PARADIGMS |
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Wealth, power, etc. is a central part of many, but not all of the paradigms
in the social sciences |
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Thus wealth, power, etc. is included in the classification of
theories below in addition to several other values |
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Because there is no clear consensus on values, scientific or otherwise,
in the social sciences, any given set of values & structures used to
classify theories is simply one example of a process of theoretical classification
& cannot be considered a universal or comprehensive classification |
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Thus, no universal classification of social theory will be possible
until there is more harmony among competing paradigms & until the social
sciences develop into a more exact science |
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Historically, wealth & stratification have been heralded
& chastised |
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Many ancient religions denounce wealth & stratification while many
do not discuss it |
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In the Old Testament, Amos, Micah, Isaiah denounce wealth |
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Aristotle believed that wealth & stratification represented
the natural order |
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In the Age of the Enlightenment, 17th - 18th Century, Locke,
Rousseau, Monte & others believed that the concentration of wealth
was at the least, a social problem, & at worst, the root of most social
conflict |
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Early Sociologists Saint Simon, Comte, Bonald, and Maistre
recognized wealth & stratification as an important to understanding
society but they had inconsistent positions on its inevitability |
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Sociology is generally made up of three paradigms: Functionalism,
Conflict Theory & Symbolic Interactionism |
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One fundamental question is frequently asked by all paradigms:
How
is social order possible? Stratification is one answer |
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In light of the 3 sociological paradigms, we ask, how does stratification
& injustice occur? |
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Paradigms embrace Value Sets that allow their classification
as either Critics or Apologists
of modern, industrial, stratified society which result in their viewing
society as exhibiting either a Critical Culture
or an Uncritical Culture |
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Paradigms embrace Social Structures that allow their classification
into either seeing society as primarily operating on the basis of Conflict
or Order ( Cooperation ) Structure
which means they view society as exhibiting either a Conflict
Structure or a Cooperative Structure |
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Link
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Table: Value & Model
Assumptions in Social Science Paradigms |
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Table: A Typology of Paradigms |
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Link
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THE CRITICAL CULTURE / ORDER STRUCTURE PARADIGM
FOCUSES ON
THE POWER OF CULTURE & COOPERATIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES |
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Cell 1: Critical Culture Order
Structure Paradigm combines the Critical Value assumptions
or CULTURE
w/ an Order/Cooperative Model of society or STRUCTURE |
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The Critical Order Paradigm views society as exhibiting Critical
Culture & a Cooperative Structure |
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No modern school is associated w/ the Critical Order Paradigm |
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The Critical
-Order Paradigm of Maistre
& Bonald opposed the Enlightenment ideals & viewed society as a
whole |
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1. Unjust inequality ( stratification ) is not
inevitable ( at least not to the present degree ) |
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The appearance of the inevitability of stratification comes from the
fact that all of history has witnessed stratification |
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But stratification did not exist in Hunter - Gatherer Society &
it does not exist at high levels in all societies |
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2. There is an optimistic view of human nature
based on theory, history & anthropology |
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Recently Humanistic Psychology has supported an optimistic view of
human nature w/ its view of the higher nature or needs of individuals |
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3. Better, more just societies are the goals of the social
sciences |
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Failure to act, or the belief that the current order of things is natural,
is merely support for the status quo |
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The social sciences should be activist & try & change the world |
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The downside of social scientists being activist is that science itself
is a neutral weapon & could be used for good or ill |
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4. Society is held together by a consensus of norms
& values |
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There is no conflict of ideology or interests |
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5. There is a holistic view of society |
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Thus we have equal influence for both the economy or base & the
culture |
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Status is often seen as more important than class or income |
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Thus income is determined by the prestige of a position |
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6. There is a focus on a social system w/ needs of
its own & thus the conflict that does occur is bad for the system |
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The needs of society supersede the needs of individuals |
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Thus some people must be at the bottom of the hierarchy & a few
at the top |
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Link
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THE APOLOGIST CULTURE / ORDER STRUCTURE PARADIGM
FOCUSES ON
NON POWER ORIENTED CULTURE & COOPERATIVE ASPECTS OF STRUCTURES |
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Cell 2: The Apologist Culture Order
Structure Paradigm combines apologetic
(uncritical) value assumptions ( little or no criticism of the status
quo ) or CULTURE w/ an Order/Cooperative Model of society
or
STRUCTURE |
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The Apologist (Uncritical) - Order Paradigm combines an Uncritical
Culture & a Cooperative Structure |
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1. Stratification ( i.e. unjust inequality ) is inevitable
because
(a) human nature is selfish
(b) it necessary for social system, i.e. a quality
of the system |
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Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed &
because any features that exist in society must be functional |
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2. The distrust of human nature is based on analyses
of theory, history & anthropology |
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Freudian psychology also supports the idea of our animal human nature,
that must be controlled by society |
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3. There are
no goals for social analysis because
the social sciences are value free |
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Thus the social sciences are merely to report & describe the functioning
of society & not work to or advocate change |
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To advocate change is to exhibit the ultimate hubris or self serving
pride in thinking that 'I know what is best for society' |
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4. Society is held together by a consensus of norms
& values |
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There is no conflict of ideology or interests |
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5. There is a holistic view of society |
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Thus we have equal influence for both the economy or base & the
culture |
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Status is often seen as more important than class or income |
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Thus income is determined by the prestige of a position |
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6. There is a focus on a social system w/ needs of
its own & thus the conflict that does occur is bad for the system |
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The needs of society supersede the needs of individuals |
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Thus some people must be at the bottom of the hierarchy & a few
at the top |
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Link
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THE CRITICAL CULTURE / CONFLICT STRUCTURE PARADIGM
FOCUSES ON
POWER IN CULTURE & COMPETITIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES |
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Cell 3: The Critical Culture Conflict
Structure Paradigm
embodies a Critical analysis of value
assumptions or CULTURE & a Conflict based analysis of
the operation of society or STRUCTURE |
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The Critical - Conflict Paradigm embodies a Critical
Culture & a Conflict Structure |
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This paradigm is commonly associated w/ Marx -> Mills -> Dahrendorf |
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This characterization is typically associated w/ Conflict Theory |
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1. Unjust inequality ( stratification ) is not
inevitable ( at least not to the present degree ) |
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The appearance of the inevitability of stratification comes from the
fact that all of history has witnessed stratification |
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But stratification did not exist in H - G Society & it does not
exist at high levels in all societies |
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2. There is an optimistic view of human nature
based on theory, history & anthropology |
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Recently Humanistic Psychology has supported this view w/ its view
of the higher nature or needs of individuals |
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3. Better, more just societies are the goals of the social
sciences |
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Failure to act or the belief that was is is natural is merely support
for the status quo |
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The social sciences should be activist & try & change the world |
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The downside of this is that science itself is a neutral weapon &
could be used for good or ill |
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4. Society is held together by
conflict & power,
& not a consensus of norms & values |
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The consensus is an illusion or is itself the result of ideology, i.e.
world views imposed by the elites control of education, the media etc. |
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5. There is a focus on the parts & processes w/in
a society, & not society as a whole, where all structures have
equal influence |
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Understanding the economy & its impact on all the other social
structures & culture is key to understanding how society operates |
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6. Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes
or interest groups |
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Society may operate as a system w/ needs of its own, but when those
needs are controlled by a group of elites then society becomes a setting
for struggles btwn classes or interest groups |
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Link
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THE APOLOGIST CULTURE / CONFLICT
STRUCTURE FOCUSES ON
NON POWER ORIENTED CULTURE & COMPETITIVE SOCIAL STRUCTURES |
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Cell 4: The Apologist Culture Conflict
Structure embodies an Apologist, or uncritical analysis
of value assumptions
or CULTURE & a Conflict based analysis
of the operation of society or STRUCTURE |
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The Apologist (Uncritical) - Conflict Paradigm embodies an Uncritical
Culture & a Conflict Structure |
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Weberian theory is commonly associated w/ this paradigm |
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1. Stratification ( i.e. unjust inequality ) is inevitable
because
(a) human nature is selfish
(b) it necessary for social system, i.e. a quality
of the system |
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Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed &
because any features that exist in society must be functional |
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Stratification cannot be optional since it has always existed &
because any features that exist in society must be functional |
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2. The distrust of human nature based on analysis
of theory, history & anthropology |
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Freudian Psychology also supports the idea of our animal human nature,
that must be controlled by society |
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3. There are
no goals for social analysis because
the social sciences are value free |
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Thus the social sciences are merely to report & describe the functioning
of society & not work to or advocate change |
|
|
To advocate change is to exhibit the ultimate hubris or self serving
pride in thinking that 'I know what is best for society' |
|
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4. Society is held together by
conflict & power,
& not a consensus of norms & values |
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The consensus is an illusion or is itself the result of ideology, i.e.
world views imposed by the elites control of education, the media etc. |
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5. There is a focus on the parts & processes w/in
a society, & not society as a whole, where all structures have
equal influence |
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Understanding the economy & its impact on all the other social
structures & culture is key to understanding how society operates |
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6. Society is a setting for struggles btwn classes
or interest groups |
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Society may operate as a system w/ needs of its own, but when those
needs are controlled by a group of elites then society becomes a setting
for struggles btwn classes or interest groups |
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See Also: Early American Stratification Theory: the Lynds
& Warner |
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See Also: Occupational Prestige |
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Functional Theory is often traced from Durkheim to the
Chicago
School to Parsons & Merton |
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Conflict Theory is often traced from Marx to Mills
to Dahrendorf |
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Weberian Theory straddles several issues of concern to both
functionalism & conflict theory |
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