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 Review Notes on  LU 6:  Union Organizing Campaigns
External
Links
  Syllabus 
Link
  Resources 
Link
 
Outline on LU  6:   Union Organizing Campaign
  
Link
 Organizing   
Link
           Framework for Organizing 
 
Link
           The Organizing Campaign   
Link
 The NLRB   
Link
           Factors Considered by the NLRB that Affect Bargaining Unit Determination 
 
Link
           The NLRB & Organizing 
 
Link
 Membership Trends   
Link
           Why the Middle & Working Classes Have Not Organized   

 
Internal
Links

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 An Overview of  Organizing
External
Links
Link
 -  Video:  Norma Rae 
Link
 
 -  Project:  Organizing Tactics 
Link
  Organizing wkrs is the process of bringing wage earners together into a union   
  In some cases, the wkrs themselves form a union to increase their bargaining power   
  In other cases, an existing union decides to organize the employees of a particular plant or industry   
  The union sends men & women called organizers to persuade wkrs to join   
 
 Unions have the right to exclusive representation 
 
 
 Like the American Congress & Presidency, unions have a winner take all policy 
 
  Unions do not want to share the privilege of representing the wkrs with any other grp   
  Most unions insist on being the sole representative of a particular group of employees   
  The practice of being the sole representative for wkrs is called the principle of exclusive jurisdiction   
  The National Labor Relations Board conducts secret ballot elections at firms to determine which union wkrs want, if any   
 
 Under the law, only one union may represent a bargaining unit 
 
 
 In the Parliamentary System, in Europe & many other nations, in a district, parties receive candidates in  proportion to their share of the vote 
 
 
 They then must build a coalition to elect the Prime Minister, which is equivalent to the American Presidency 
 
  Unions have several reasons for organizing, including that: 
 
  a.  it is easier to get wage benefits if more workers are organized because this increases monopoly power of Labor 
 
  b.  organizing increases financial resources available to the union 
 
  c.  organizing is a means to increasing union effectiveness & power 
 
  Campaigns to organize begin at the local or national level 
 
  National level campaigns target specific firms & send professional organizers 
 
  Organizers sometimes apply for jobs at the firm they are trying to organize 
 
  Most organizers attempts begin at the local level when some worker voices interest 
 
  The Labor Movement was conservative & cautious in the 1980s & 1990s because of declining membership, the corporate anti union strategy, an unfriendly political environment, & a difficult economic environment   
  The Labor Movement has become bolder & more innovative in the 2000s because it determined that failure to "join the battle" was not a safe haven   
  ORGANIZING STRATEGIES:  THE CORPORATE CAMPAIGN & THE INSIDE GAME   
  Two new Labor organizing & bargaining strategies are now in practice, including the corporate campaign & the inside game   
  The corporate campaign expands union activity outside the workplace by targeting a corporation's network w/ traditional organizing & bargaining tactics such as distributing literature linking the target corp. w/ wage cuts, unsafe work practices, layoffs, shutdowns, discrimination, sexual harassment, or whatever issue the workers have w/ the corp   
  In a corporate campaign, the union may address the financial backers of the corp., consumers, & the public   
  Some unions have closed accounts w/ the lenders of the target corp to pressure corps to come to terms w/ their wkrs (Peterson, Lee, and Finnegan, 1992)   
  Public boycotts of lenders can be encouraged   
  Negative publicity can have a strong effect on the target corps   
  The inside game is a bargaining tactic whereby union members utilize informal shop floor activities to demonstrate workers' resolve, power, & issues   
  The inside game may use the old tactic of "work to rule" where workers follow procedures to the letter of the standard operating procedures   
  Working to rule slows down production dramatically   
  Workers may stop work & collectively discuss grievances w/ supervisors, especially grievances about safety issues   
  The inside game operates in the gray area btwn appropriate procedures & sanctionable offenses   
  For the inside game, workers may wear union buttons or a single color of style of clothing to build solidarity & bolster courage   
 
 The advantage of the inside game is much like the sit down strike, the wkrs gets to stay on the job & draw pay while pressuring the corp   
  A union tries to get all the wkrs in a plant or industry to join the union 
 
  In some establishments, the union & the employer agree to set up a union shop   
  In a union shop, the employer can hire anyone but they must eventually join the union   
  But new employees must join the union w/in a certain period or pay the equivalent of union dues   
  The arrangement of joining or paying dues spreads the cost of union representation evenly among the employees, who also share any benefits the union wins   
  But individuals who oppose the union must contribute to it against their wishes   
  Twenty one states, most of them in the South, have laws banning union shops   
  Laws banning union shops are called right to work laws because they guarantee a person's right to obtain employment without joining or supporting a union   
  A business that employs both union & nonunion wkrs is called an open shop   
  Union dues are higher in most open shops than in union shops because fewer people share the cost of union representation   
  In a closed shop, which is now generally illegal, the employer could hire only union members   
  During the 1800s & early 1900s, many employers insisted that their wkrs sign a promise not to join a union   
  An agreement promising not to join a union was called a yellow dog contract   
  The Norris LaGuardia Act of 1932 said that an employee could not be sued in fed court for breaking a yellow dog contract   
  As a result of the inability to sue to enforce yellow dog contracts, such agreements became unenforceable and gradually disappeared   

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on the Framework for Organizing
External
Links
  Authorization Cards
 
  By law, a union needs 30% of the workers to sign authorization cards to get an election
 
  If 50% +1 of the workers sign authorization cards, then the union can directly request recognition
 
  Firms usually will not recognize a union even when the election is won
 
  If the union believes it has won recognition, but the employer denies it, the union can picket for 30 days & then petition the NLRB for recognition
 
  When a union pickets in order to ask the employer for union recognition, this is called recognitional picketing
 
  After the 30 days of recognitional picketing, the union can petition the NLRB for recognition
 
  If the union loses a petition to the NLRB for recognition based on recognitional picketing, then further picketing is illegal
 
  Representation Elections
 
       Certification elections are held to establish a Union
 
      Consent elections are held so that the parties can agree on a Bargaining Unit
 
       A board directed, aka a petition election, aka a petition is where the NLRB Regulatory Director determines the bargaining unit
 
       A decertification election is held to remove Union representation
 
       A raid election is held when 30%  of the workers indicate they prefer a different union
 
       An election may only be held once a year
 
  There are several avenues to election
 
     A Union may petition the NLRB for a representation election
 
     The NLRB tallies authorization cards
 
     If neither 30% of the workers nor the firm contests the unit size, then the NLRB schedules an election  
     The makeup of the bargaining unit is frequently contested  
     If the union wins a representation election, then the union is certified for at least one year  
     If the union loses a representation election, then the workplace is in nonunion status for at least 1 year  

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on the Organizing Campaign
External
Links
  Firms generally have no distribution or solicitation rules, and these may impact organizing efforts
 
  Early organizing may be done secretly
 
  Most firms prohibit any solicitation on the premises
 
  This keeps organizers out
 
  The rules on solicitation do not apply to workers so workers may sell raffle tickets or give out union information
 
  Early in plant support for organizing is valuable & critical
 
  In organizing, the Union may take advantage of quasi public areas such as parking lots, areas in front of the factory, etc. to be able to contact workers
 
  Three Goals of Organizing
 
  a.  Obtain signed authorization cards 
 
  b.  Obtain voluntary recognition or an NLRB directed election
 
  c.  Obtain a successful contract
 
  Organizing Tactics:
 
  Community Action:
 
  Communities often assist in the organizing effort so it is beneficial to the Union to get local people on their side  
  Corporate Campaigns are designed to inform customers of the firm's behavior 
 
  The aim of a Corporate Campaign is to put pressure on the corporation  
  Old tactics in organizing include the use of  handbills, letters, mass meetings, button holing 
 
  New tactics in organizing include one on one rank and file intensive campaigning
 
  Unions need an experienced cadre of organizers to implement these tactics
 
  Firms have Tactics to Defeat the Union Organizing Effort
 
  Firms often hire anti-union consultants  
  Firms present large scale worker communications on laws & rights  
  Firms organize small group discussions around labor issues  
  Firms organize individual interviews to see what workers think about labor issues  
  Labor Law forbids interfering w/ organizing, but firms know the rules & push them to the limit  
  a.  Firms sometimes transfer out workers who they believe might be pro union & they sometimes transfer in workers who they believe might be anti-union  
  b. Firms often offer raises at the first hint of organizing by a union  
  c.  Firms use scare tactics to prevent organizing   - etc.  
  Many firms are pro-actively anti-union  
  Many firms have early warning systems to detect union activity  
  Undecided workers tend to vote for the company rather than the union  
  The typical worker will be exposed to much more info from the firm than from the union  

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the  National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB )  estb 1935
External
Links
Link
 -  Bibliography   
  Introduction:  
  The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) was created as an independent agency by Congress in 1935 to administer the National Labor Relations Act, often called the Wagner Act  
  The mission of the National Labor Relations Board is to regulate the relationship btwn Labor & Mgt., primarily, by regulating the rights of workers to organize  
  The NLRB works to correct or prevent unfair labor practices committed by either employers or unions  
  The NLRB was established by the Wagner Act in 1935  
  The NLRB administers the Wagner Act, but does not work out conflict btwn it & other laws
 
  Working out the conflict btwn the Wagner Act & the numerous other  labor laws is a task for the Courts, & Congress
 
  The NLRB is: 
 
  -  an independent or free standing agency  
  - not in the DOL
 
  - not accountable to the Secretary of Labor
 
  - not accountable to the President
 
  NLRB  Jurisdiction:
 
  The NLRB regulates for & non profit employers, hospitals & other healthcare orgs, & the USPO
 
  The NLRB does not initiate action; only responds to complaints
 
  The NLRB gives priority to representation cases, 45,000 cases per year
 
 
 Major Functions of the NLRB
 
  When a union represents 30 per cent or more of a group of employees covered by the National Labor Relations Act, the NLRB conducts secret ballot elections to determine whether employees wish to be represented in collective bargaining  
  There are FOUR major functions of the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) 
     Note:  these are provisions in 2002, & have been amended by various laws		  
  A major function of the Nat Labor Relations Board is to:  
  a.  - investigate violations of the NLRB's rules & regs
 
  b.  - determine whether employees desired representation
 
  c.  - determine which union was the employee's choice
 
  The NLRB supervises representation elections  
  d.  - hear & rule on alleged unfair labor practices
 
  The NLRB determines & resolves unfair labor practices  
  Structure of the NLRB  
  The NLRB is composed of 5 members appointed by the President, approved by the Senate
 
  While the NLRB is considered to be an "independent agency" as is the Federal Reserve Board, all members are political appointees  
  Terms last 5 years & are staggered
 
  Each board member serves a five year term & the general counsel has a four year term  
  Thus a President cannot have a majority until his/her 3rd year in office
 
  And a President cannot have a total Board, unless reelected
 
  Members may be reappointed  
  One member is designated the Chair
 
  The NLRB's main offices are located in Washington, DC  
  The board has 33 regional offices, 52 field offices & petitions for elections & charges of unfair labor practices are filed at regional offices  
  The NLRB delegates authority to Regional Directors
 
  The NLRB has a General Council (lawyer)
 
  The NLRB is headquartered in Washington, DC, has 31 Regional Offices & 11 Field Offices 
 
  Btwn 1935 & 1974, the NLRB processed 300,000+ cases of which 190,000+ were unfair labor practices
 
  By 1967 more than 67 mm workers had voted in NLRB elections
 
  The Board Members act primarily as a quasi judicial body in FOUR areas: 
 
  a.  Decides cases on formal records
 
  b.  Reviews findings of fact & decisions by the NLRB's administrative law judges (formerly called trial examiners)
 
  c.  Reviews cases of unfair labor practice  
  d.  Reviews Regional Director decisions in representation cases  
  The NLRB has no independent power of enforcement, but may seek enforcement in the US courts of appeals  
  Parties aggrieved by the NLRB may seek judicial review  
  The NLRB certifies a union  
  The NLRB will conduct a Board supervised election to determine the majority status of a labor union, provided there is an adequate “showing of interest” on the part of  30 % of the employees in the affected group  
  Filing a Complaint  
  If a complaint is made, found not to have merit, it's dismissed  
  2/3's of complaints are dismissed, but can be appealed  
  Of the remaining 1/3 of the complaints,  90% are settled  
  Of the 10% of complaints not settled, they are heard by Administrative Law Judge  
  The Judge's ruling on complaints can be appealed to NLRB  
  3 member panel in the NLRB decides cases on the appeal of complaints  
  If there is non-compliance w/ NLRB decision, parties may petition to US Court of Appeals for enforcement  
  The NLRB issues THREE types of decisions, including:
a.  cease & desist orders
b.  bargaining orders
c.  decisions to make a worker whole for an illegal action by mgt		  
  The NLRB hears THREE major case types, including those:
a.  which are representation disputes, which is most of them
b.  which are complex or unsettled issue w/ no clear precedent
c.  issues that (usually) mgt. wishes to stall (until new President, Congress elected, or some other reason)		  
  The Politicization of the NLRB  
  Thus, members of the NLRB often represent, to a degree, the political views of the President who appointed them
 
  The appointments are political & reflect party in the White House
 
  The 5 year, staggered terms tries to lesson major swings
 
  The general counsel is powerful, & so the appointment here is important
 
  Thus, the politics of the NLRB swings back & fourth according to who wins the White House
 
  The politicization of the NLRB has the advantage that the NLRB is responsive to the changing political climate
 
  The politicization of the NLRB has the disadvantage that the NLRB is inconsistent, making the implementation of regulations chaotic
 
  The Inconsistency of the NLRB  
  Unions are often frustrated by the inconsistency of the NLRB 
 
  The NLRB is inconsistent in its
 
  a. interpretations of labor law
 
  b. delays in elections
 
  c. delays in hearing unfair labor practices cases
 
  Many unions believe the use of strikebreakers should be outlawed
 
  While strikebreakers have always been legal, the NLRB has considered outlawing them at times  
  Most Canadian provinces prohibit strikebreakers 
 
  Unions contend 10% of organizers are fired illegally
 
  The NLRB contends 1.7% of organizers are fired illegally  
  The NLRB notes that vast majority of its cases are handled quickly, but some do drag on
 

 
Internal
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 Outline on the Factors Considered by the NLRB that Affect Bargaining Unit Determination
External
Links
  There are FIVE factors affecting bargaining unit (BU) determination
 
  In determining the make up of a BU, the NLRB considers
a.  legal constraints
b.  constitutional jurisdiction
c.  the union's desired BU		 d.  the firm's desired BU
e.  the NLRB's philosophy
 
  a.  Legal constraints
 
  S 9(b) Taft Hartley:   
  Amended Taft Hartley, 1974  
  b.  Constitutional jurisdiction
 
  In determining the make up of a bargaining unit, unions concentrate on certain occupations, industries, or geographic areas
 
  The union's concentration on certain occupations, industries, or geographic areas is changing & more unions are diversifying:
 
  The UMWA, under Lewis, organized in a wide area of industries, areas, & occupations
 
  After Lewis' tenure, the UMWA only organized miners
 
  Today, the UMWA is diversifying again
 
  The Teamsters re affiliated w/ the AFL CIO reducing raiding & increasing diversification  
  c.  The union's desired bargaining unit  
  The union's desired bargaining unit is affected by the likelihood of success in organizing & bargaining
 
  The union must balance what it wants for a bargaining unit w/ what it can get via a representation election
 
  A Bargaining Unit must be winnable & be worth winning (have power, enough members, generate wealth, etc.)
 
  d.  The firm's desired bargaining unit
 
  The Firm wants Bargaining Units that the Union may not win or may be weak  
  The Firm might want small, independent Bargaining Units to minimize the effect of a strike  
  e.  The NLRB's philosophy is considered   
  The NLRB's philosophy considers EIGHT factors in Bargaining Unit Determination  
 
 i.  Community of Interests:  Common worker interests include:
 
 
 - wages
 
 
 - hours
 
 
 - benefits  
 
 - work conditions     - etc.
 
 
 No benchmarks have ever been established for these common work factors
 
 
 ii.  Geographic & physical proximity
 
 
 iii.  The Firm's administrative or territorial divisions also known as the Use Unit 
 
  In determining the Bargaining Unit, the NLRB uses a unit w/in a uniform personnel or Human Resources mgt. area  
 
 iv.  Functional Integration denotes the number & type of workers necessary to core production
 
 
 v.  The level of interchange of workers btwn plants
 
  If the level of interchange of workers btwn plants is high, the NLRB is more likely to make it one unit  
 
 vi.  Bargaining History which is also known as Precedent
 
  In examining the Bargaining History, the NLRB examines what has typically been done w/ this type of firm, workers, etc.  
 
 vii.  Worker's desires
 
  The NLRB may allow workers to decide for or against inclusion in a particular Bargaining Unit  
 
 viii.  Extent of organization
 
  The NLRB chooses the Bargaining Unit with the greatest amount of organization and allows for the fullest freedom for the workers  
 
 Craft Severance
 
 
 The Amended Taft Hartley dictates that a separate craft may be allowed to form a separate union
 
 
 The NLRB allows severance where any of the following organizational characteristics exists:
 
  Severance is allowed where there:  
 
 a.  is a high level of skill, functional differentiation, or traditionally different job
 
 
 b.  is a short bargaining history
 
  Severance is not allowed where there is a likelihood of disruption w/ severance  
 
 c.  is distinct separateness
 
 
 d.  are historically different bargaining units in the industry
 
 
 e.  is low integration in production
 
 
 f.  is a high degree of experience required
 
 
 Other Issues in Unit Determination
 
 
 a.  Accretion: 
 
  Accretion is where a new facility is included in the unit or when an existing unit gains workers from another union  
 
 b.  Reorganization & reclassification
 
 
 c.  Successor organizations: 
 
  A successor org is when a new organization is formed that succeeds or replaces the old organization  
  A successor org may result from a buy out, a bankruptcy or any other form of corporate reorganization  
  Unless a successor org clause is included in the contract, if a new firm buys the plant, the union must re certify, but these clauses are atypical  
 
 Accretion, reorganization & reclassification, & successor organizations are all used against labor
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on the NLRB & Organizing
External
Links
  -  Project:  Organizing 
Link
  IN ORGANIZING, THE NLRB HAS THE RESPONSIBILITY OVER AUTHORIZATION CARDS, CERTIFICATION, UNFAIR CAMPAIGN PRACTICES 
 
  It is the responsibility of the NLRB to validate authorization cards 
 
  It is the responsibility of the NLRB to oversee certification & decertification elections 
 
  It is the responsibility of the NLRB to rule on unfair campaign practices by either labor, the firm, or both 
 
  DURING ORGANIZATION, INTERROGATION OF WKRS IS REGULATED 
 
  Firms may usually interrogate a worker, even during an election campaign 
 
  During a campaign, a firm may not interrogate when the 
 
  a.  firm has history of hostility to labor 
 
  b.  info is likely to be used against an individual 
 
  c.  questioner is hi level mgr. 
 
  d.  interrogation is intimidating 
 
  e.  respondents are fearful 
 
  A common difficulty for the union is proving a labor abuse by management on organizing issues to the NLRB 
 
  DURING ORGANIZATION, COMMUNICATION W/ WKRS IS REGULATED 
 
  Again, firms have the right to communicate to workers, whether or not a campaign is occurring 
 
  During a campaign, if the firm presents anti-union views in a meeting, then the union must get equal time 
 
  During a campaign, the firm cannot make new promise regarding any working conditions   
  But the firm can point out that under negotiation, all conditions are negotiable (implying things may get worse)   
  The NLRB has reversed itself 3 times on whether campaign distortions are an unfair labor practice   
  Today, there is no requirement for truthfulness because   
  - The NLRB does not want to judge every campaign statement   
  - The NLRB assumes workers are "politically astute" & can determine truthfulness for themselves   
  The 24 Hour Rule holds that there may be no captive audience presentation w/in 24 hours of an election by the union or the firm   
  Because neither the firm nor the union would have time to offer any rebuttal, no organizing presentations may be offered w/in 24 hours of an election 
 
  DURING ORGANIZATION, THE EFFECTS OF UNFAIR PRACTICES ARE ESP CONSEQUENTIAL  
  Unfair practices in union elections are much more common than in public elections   
  Unfair practices in union elections have a significant impact, i.e. they occur too often   
  In 31 campaigns, the  NLRB found problems in 22 of them:   
  12     ordered election reruns   
    9     issued bargaining orders   
    1     issued other remedies   
  THE NLRB MAY SET ASIDE ELECTIONS & GIVE BARGAINING ORDERS IF UNFAIR PRACTICES ARE GRIEVOUS   
  Bargaining orders are given when the NLRB orders the firm to recognize union & begin bargaining   
  The NLRB sets aside elections & gives bargaining orders because it considers the conduct of the firm as very coercive & it believes there is a demonstrated majority for the union   
  THE IMPACT OF NLRB REMEDIES IS IN THE EYE OF THE BEHOLDER:  LABOR SEES IT AS WEAK; MGT SEES IT AS OVERLY BURDENSOME  
  From the perspective of labor, on the whole, the NLRB does too little, too late & is thus ineffective   
  Even if NLRB orders a rerun of an election, unions don't win as often as in a normal election   
  Bargaining orders do not guarantee a contract, since the firm may drag out negotiations   
  Only about 39% of bargaining orders resulted in contracts   
  The NLRB can give cease & desist orders in the event of unfair practices   

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on  Union Membership Trends 
External
Links
 
 -  Project:  Factors Affecting Union Elections 
Link
Link
 The Table on Union Membership shows that participation in the Labor Movement grew until the 1950s, declined slowly until the 1980s then rapidly declined & has recently stabilized   
Link
 The Table on International Union Membership shows that in 1994, the US had the lowest union membership of any industrialized country   
Link
 The Table on International Comparisons in Union Membership shows that the US has the lowest rate of unionization of all the industrialized Western nations & that Sweden & Denmark have the highest rate   
 
 ELECTION OUTCOMES IN 1996 
 
 
 219,073 workers were eligible to vote in 3,277 NLRB representation elections 
 
 
 2,792 of the elections were requested by the union, the workers, or the firm for initial representation 
 
 
 485 of the elections were filed by workers for decertification 
 
 
 Over half of the elections were in firms w/ less than 30 workers 
 
 
 Unions won 47% of certification elections 
 
 
 Firms won   54% of certification elections 
 
 
 Unions won 31% of decertification elections 
 
 
 Firms won 69% of decertification elections 
 
  ELECTION OUTCOMES IN 1998   
  250,726 workers voted in 3,795 NLRB conducted representation elections   
  3,339 elections were requested by unions, employees, or employers for initial representation   
  456 of the elections were filed by workers for decertification   
  Over half of the elections were in firms w/ less than 30 workers   
  Unions won 49 % of all elections   
  A review of election success by Unit Size indicates that in 1998   
  Unions won over 50 % of the elections where the unit size was less than 30 members   
  Unions won btwn 40 & 50 % of the elections where the unit size was btwn 30 & 200 members   
  Unions won only 18 % of the elections where the unit size was over 1000 members   
 
 Unions win more in white collar units 
 
 
 Independent unions win more than AFL CIO affiliated unions 
 
 
 Workers gain more in wage increases than the cost of organizing & bargaining 
 
 
 MEMBERSHIP VARIES BASED ON THE PERCEIVED STRENGTH/WEAKNESS OF THE UNION 
 
  Firms may believe the union is weak because of: 
 
  a.  low membership   
  b.  little activity in bargaining   
  c.  lack of activity by national union representatives   
  d.  major changes in the workforce   
  FACTORS AFFECTING UNION ELECTIONS INCLUDE: UNION, ENVL & INDIVIDUAL FACTORS   
  UNION FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTIONS INCLUDE: SIZE, AFFILIATION, & DEMOCRACY  
  a.  Size:  The smaller the unit, the better the union's chances of winning an election   
  b.  Unaffiliated unions win elections more often than affiliated unions   
 
 c.  Larger, more democratic unions win more elections 
 
  ENV FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTIONS INCLUDE:  HOMOGENEITY, SKILL LEVEL, RIGHT TO WORK LAWS, WKPLACE SATISFACTION, JOB SECURITY  
  a.  The more homogenous the workforce, the easier it is to increase membership size   
  b.  Units with a lower skill requirement have a greater chance for the union to win the election   
  c.  State right to work laws decrease union chances for a large membership   
  d.  Private sector workers want workplace changes & are often dissatisfied   
  e.  Public sector workers are more concerned w/ job security   
  INDIVIDUAL FACTORS AFFECTING ELECTIONS INCLUDE: RACE, IMMIGRATION STATUS, FAMILY VALUES, FAMILY HISTORY, ASSOC W/ LABOR, IDEOLOGY  
  a.  The major race difference in the Labor Mvmt is that African Americans have the strongest preference for a union of any racial or ethnic group   
  b.  Recent immigrants are the most difficult to organize   
  c.  Strong family values increase an individual's preference for a union   
  d.  A family history in the union increases an individual's preference for a union   
  e.  A positive association w/ a union increases an individual's preference for a union   
  f.  A Marxist / humanistic ideology increases an  individual's preference for a union   
  THE TREND IN MEMBERSHIP IS UPWARD IN ABSOLUTE NUMBERS, BUT DOWNWARD AS % OF WKFORCE   
 
 Membership has fallen in absolute numbers btwn 1979 & 1999 
 
 
 Even though membership has fallen, there were many more certification than decertification elections 
 
 
 Firms win both certification & decertification elections more frequently than do unions 
 
 
 And the numbers of decertification elections have increased dramatically 
 
 
 There has been a decline in heavy industry, and heavy industry was highly unionized 
 
 
 See Also:  Deindustrialization 
 
 
 The size of bargaining units have decreased 
 
 
 Higher union wages have TWO major costs 
 
  a.  the workers & the firm must be more productive than non-union workplaces   
  b.  the firms are more vulnerable to down sizing   
 
 Technology is continually cutting jobs 
 
 
 Changes in the characteristics of the workforce has affected union membership 
 
 
 Bender (1997, Journal of Labor Research) found that changes in race & sex composition of the workforce & increased firm resistance both had little effect on membership 
 
 
 However increased professionalization has resulted in decreased size of potential bargaining units & has therefore decreased union membership 
 
  However increased education has resulted in decreased size of potential bargaining units & has therefore decreased union membership   
  However increased numbers of service jobs has resulted in decreased size of potential bargaining units & has therefore decreased union membership   

 
Top  

Table on US Union Membership 1930 - 1999
Year
Total Wkrs
in millions
Union
in millions
% in Unions
1930
29.4
3.4
12%
1935
27.1
3.6
13%
1940
32.4
8.7
27%
1945
40.4
14.3
36%
1950
45.2
14.3
32%
1955
50.7
16.8
33%
1960
54.2
17.0
31%
1965
60.8
17.3
28%
1970
70.9
19.4
27%
1975
76.9
19.6
25%
1980
87.5
20.1
23%
1985
94.5
17.0
18%
1988
101.4
17.0
17%
1990
102.4
16.8
17%
1998
116.7
16.2
14%
 1999
  
16.2
 
2000
  
16.6
13.9%
2005
    
15.4%
2007
    
12.4%
The Table on Union Membership shows that participation in the Labor Movement grew until the 1950s, declined slowly until the 1980s then rapidly declined & has recently stabilized 
Green denotes the high in union membership in absolute numbers & in percentage, respectively.  Note that unions peaked in power from 1945 to 1955 when union membership percentages were the highest 

 
Top
  
Table on International Union Membership, 1994 
HS 0205
County % of Union Membership
US
   16 %
Japan
27
GDR
34
England
42
The Table on International Union Membership shows that in 1994, the US had the lowest union membership of any industrialized country 

 
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Table on International Comparisons in Union Membership
HS 0306
 
Percent of Total Civilian Wage & Salary Employees
Year
  US
Canada
Australia
 Japan
Denmark
Germany
  Italy
Sweden
  UK
Average
1955
33
31
64
36
59
44
57
62
46
48
1960
32
30
61
 33
63
40
34
62
45
44
1965
28
28
46
36
63
38
33
68
45
43
1970
27
37
43
35
64
37
43
75
50
46
1975
22
34
48
35
72
39
56
83
53
49
1980
22
35
47
31
86
40
62
88
56
52
1985
17
36
47
29
92
40
61
95
51
52
1990
16
36
43
25
88
39
65
95
 46
50
1995
14
37
35
24
80
29
44
91
33
43
2000
15
32
32
23
77
29
39
86
33 
 41 *
2005
15.4
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2007
12.4
                  
The Table on International Comparisons in Union Membership shows that the US has the lowest rate of unionization of all the industrialized Western nations & that Sweden & Denmark have the highest rate (Lesch *)

 
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 Outline on   Why the Middle & Working Classes Have Not Organized
External
Links
  -  Project:  Why People Don't Get Involved   
  THE MID & WKING CLASSES HAVE NOT ORGANIZED BECAUSE:   
  [Note that all of these reasons are intertwined & influence each other]  
  1.  COMPETITION MAKES SACRIFICE FOR THE GROUP DIFFICULT  
  The mid & wking classes have not organized because the present socio economic political system (SEP Sys) makes it hard to sacrifice for the group, the greater good, when you are fighting for survival  
  2.  THERE IS A LACK OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE REASONS TO ORGANIZE, & HOW TO ORGANIZE  
  The mid & wking classes have not organized because the non upper classes lack basic knowledge of the workings of the SEP Sys  
  See Also:  The Theories of the Social Sciences  
  See Also:  Conflict Theory  
  3.  THERE IS A LACK OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT HOW TO CHANGE THE SYSTEM   
  The mid & wking classes have not organized because the non upper classes lack basic knowledge of how to change the SEP Sys  
  See Also:  Social Change  
  4.  THE UC IS ORGANIZED & PURSUES ITS OWN INTERESTS & OPPOSES ACTION BY THE MC & WC  
 
 The mid & wking classes have not organized because the upper class has it's own interest, & pursues them; the UC has class consciousness; the UC has opposing interests to the non- upper classes; the UC is better organized & funded than any of the lower classes;  the UC works to preserve their own ideology & disseminate it to the non upper classes
 
  See Also:  Class & False Consciousness  
  See Also:  Ideology  
  5.  THEY HAVE FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS  
  The mid & wking classes have not organized because the non upper classes have false consciousness in that they support the interests of the UC  
  6.  THEY PURSUE THE "AMERICAN DREAM" AS INSTITUTIONALIZED BY THE UC  
 
 The mid & wking classes have not organized because non upper class culture reflects the culture of the UC as embodied in the "American Dream" & this is a culture that socializes people to pursue institutionalized goals via institutionalized methods, & it is not a culture of revolution, must less even radical change
 
  See Also:  Culture  
  See Also:  Working Class Culture  
  7.  THERE IS A WIDE RANGE OF DIVERSITY IN THE MC & WC WHICH MAKES UNITARY CONSCIOUSNESS / ACTION DIFFICULT   
 
 The mid & wking classes have not organized because working class diversity embodies diverse values which represent diverse interests over riding the goal of improvement for all
 
  8.  DIVERSE INTERESTS OF RACE, ETC., ARE EXPLOITED BY THE UC  
 
 The mid & wking classes have not organized because racial, ethnic, & gender differences are exploited by the upper class
 
 
 See Also:  Split Labor Mkt Theory  
  9.  THE HORATIO ALGER MYTH, THAT WE CAN ALL GET AHEAD, IS STILL OPERATIVE   
 
 The mid & wking classes have not organized because the Horatio Alger Myth, where we see the upper class as something to attain, not something to change, & other main stream values are actually the knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms, i.e. culture of the upper class  
  10.  THEY ARE ESSENTIALLY SATISFIED WHERE THEY ARE FOR MUCH OF THE TIME  
 
 The mid & wking classes have not organized because the non upper classes of the 1st world have the power to institute change but are essentially satisfied, or not exploited to the stage of wanting to fight for change 
 
  The inaction of the non upper classes in relation to social change because of their relative satisfaction is often called pacification   
  11.  THE LOWER CLASSES AROUND THE WORLD DO NOT HAVE THE POWER TO FOSTER CHANGE   
  The mid & wking classes have not organized because the non upper classes of the semi periphery & periphery are essentially dissatisfied to the stage of wanting to fight for change, but they do NOT have the power to do so  

The End
 
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