Rev IS 3 Socialization

- Supplement: Putting the Social into Science. Forget about Nature vs. nurture. The answer lies in between. Nicholas A. Christakis. Time Magazine. Dec. 19, 2011 p. 28.

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INTRO: FERAL, AS COMPARED TO NORMAL CHILDREN, DEMONSTRATES THE POWER OF SOCIALIZATION

Is the existence of Feral Children a myth or fact?

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Tableau on Feral Children

Harlow's experiments w/ baby monkeys demonstrates the devastating effects of social isolation during early stages of life

Monkeys raised in isolation from other monkeys did not develop normally

Artificially inseminated female monkeys who had been raised in isolation from other monkeys usually neglected or abused their offspring

When monkeys raised in isolation were given a choice, they preferred a soft, cloth artificial “mother” over a nursing, wire mother

Cases of children raised by animals have never been authenticated, but are very popular in myth

Institutionalized children who are deprived of interaction typically experience ongoing developmental & emotional problems, even if they receive all the necessary physical care

In relation to feral or neglected children, the total absence of interaction w/ other human beings produces personalities that cannot participate in human society

Babies whose parents largely ignore them over an extended time typically show poor intellectual development & high rates of personality difficulties

SOCIALIZATION IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY ARE TAUGHT TO PARTICIPATE IN THAT SOCIETY, LEARN THEIR ROLES, & DEVELOP SELF IMAGE

Socialization is the process whereby people learn, through interaction w/ others, that which they must know in order to survive & function w/in their society

The results of socialization are internalized

Internalization is the process whereby cultural or social psychological values, norms, attitudes, etc. are taken inside or to the inner part of the social self so that they become an integrated part of the social self indistinguishable from other facets of the self & personality

Internalization in relation to socialization is to unconsciously accept or assimilate the attitudes & behavior of one's culture or peer group.

An example of internalization in relation to socialization is that a woman who believes that women are intellectually inferior to men might be said to have internalized the sexist attitudes of the dominant culture

SOCIALIZATION IS A LIFELONG PROCESS

Socialization is a lifelong process through which we are "taught" roles & "develop" a self image

Socialization is the lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential & learn culture

Social experience is also the foundation for the personality, a person's fairly consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, & acting

Socialization is essentially the same as learning or imprinting, aka "deep learning"

The processes of socialization are generally “natural” processes in that we are largely unaware of them

There is debate is sociology about the relative importance of nature versus nurture in shaping human behavior. This debate could be characterized biology versus socialization

Those who believe that an individual's genetic or hormonal makeup shapes human behavior would come down on the nature side of the nature versus nurture debate

Those who believe that social forces are the most important in shaping human behavior would come down on the nurture side of the nature verses nurture debate

Symbolic interactionist theories of socialization weigh heavily on the side of nurture

The processes of socialization affect our personality, that is, Socialization goes deeper than education

The majority of the processes of socialization occur before “consciousness,” i.e. before age 5

All schools of thought agree that what happens in childhood has maximal influences throughout a person's life because it is in childhood that people first develop their patterns of thought & behavior

But the processes of socialization do continue throughout life

The adult life cycle presents us w/ numerous new situations that require the learning of new roles

Social scientists do not accept the notion that all behavior in adulthood is a product of childhood experiences

Our socialization may be “correct” or “incorrect” based on its congruence w/ the prevailing culture & subcultures in which we live

SOCIALIZATION FUNCTIONS TO HELP PEOPLE MEET NEEDS, PROVIDE INTERACTION, LEARN ROLES, & LEARN NORMS

Socialization has FOUR functions

a. Socialization functions so people can to meet physical needs: coop hunter gatherers

b. Socialization functions to provide needed interaction

Normal human development is impossible w/o human interaction

c. Socialization functions so people can learn social roles

How well we perform in a role affects our self esteem

d. Socialization functions so people can learn norms

Childhood socialization is sometimes referred to as primary socialization

	THERE ARE 6 PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION, INCLUDING SMIPNN
	1. SELECTIVE EXPOSURE IS THE CONTROLLING OF THE INFLUENCES TO WHICH ANOTHER IS EXPOSED
	Selective exposure is the process of exposure to those behaviors & attitudes considered desirable & sheltered from those regarded as undesirable
	Maximization of good influences is selective exposure socialization
	Examples: the V Chip; a father talking to his 11 year old son, "No, you may not watch Baywatch." Friends choosing what music to listen to; CNN's coverage of the news
Link	2. MODELING IS THE DEMONSTRATION OR ACTING OUT OF BEHAVIOR
	Modeling is imitating the behavior of significant others & role models
	Modeling begins w/ observing the behavior of another & w/ retention of images of such behavior in a person's memory
	After observing a behavior, one imitates, or reproduces that behavior
	Eventually, however, imitation goes beyond mere habit, & it is repeated in situations beyond that in which it was originally observed
	Examples: The little boy, dressing up like Dad & going off to work, or girls watching cheerleaders
Link	3. IDENTIFICATION IS AN EXTREME FORM OF MODELING WHERE THE OTHER ESTABLISHES AN EMOTIONAL BOND W/ THE MODEL
	Identification is seeing ourselves as the same as someone who nurtures us
	Identification is the positive feelings toward an individual that lead a child to want to be like that person
	Example: The little boy, day-dreaming of being a great baseball player The little girl, day-dreaming of being President
	4. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT INCLUDES REWARDS & REMOVAL OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
	A friendly slap on the back or an invitation to join a group activity may be reward for an approved action or viewpoint
	5. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT INCLUDES PUNISHMENTS & REMOVAL OF POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
	Positive & negative reinforcement socialization may also be known as reward & punishment socialization
	Reinforcing correct behavior is reward & punishment socialization
	Example: “You are such a good girl, eating w/ your fork like a grown-up!”
Link	6. NURTURANCE IS SUPPORT, AFFECTION, ETC.
	Nurturance is a special form of reward & punishment which is the support, affection, etc., or lack of, given by a significant other role model
	Development of strong positive feelings towards another w/ whom one has a primary relationship is nurturance
	Loving your child is an example of nurturance
Link	Individuals, groups & the social structures are the agents of socialization
	There are both manifest & latent functions of socialization by social structures
Link	Table on Manifest & Latent Socialization by AOS
	- Project: socialization by the social structures
Link	Methods of socialization by social structures How do each of these social structures apply SMIPNN?
	Socialization occurs in the home, in school, on the job, etc.
	Socialization takes place in each of the 10 social institutions
	Agents of socialization rarely give a person the same messages about what kind of person they are
	But the AOSs may preach one thing & do another
	PEOPLE, GRPS, & SOCIAL STRUCTURES ALL ACT AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION, I.E. THEY PARTICIPATE IN THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION
Link	Table on the Methods of Socialization of the Social Structures
Link	1. PEERS AS AN AOS become influential about age 2 & are the most influential on tweens & teens
	Peer groups are those whose members have interests, social position, & age in common
	Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of social learning directed toward gaining a desired position & commonly occurs among peers
	Peers are the social structure that is the most likely to ostracize
	It is in junior high & high school years that the Peer agent of socialization has its greatest influence, as young people seek to establish their independence
Link	2. FAMILY AS AN AOS is the most important in the childhood years
	Not all family learning results from intentional teaching by parents; children also learn from the type of environment adults create
	The family also gives children a social identity & thus in part, social identity involves race
	Socialization w/in the family also varies markedly by social class
	The family is the social structure that is the most likely to use selective exposure
	In the early years, the years is the most important agent of socialization
	The institution w/ a profound effect not only on children's knowledge, but also on their self image, their understanding of reality, & their mode of reasoning, is the family
	In the home, Girls learn expressive skills ( nurturing, communication ) that are later useful in the workplace
	In the home, Boys learn instrumental skills ( work, goal oriented ) that are later useful in the workplace
	Children need not be told they are good at everything; a balanced self image is much healthier than one that cannot accept any shortcomings
	Parents’ socialization of kids depends on their job experience; e.g., LC teaches obedience & the UC teaches initiative
	The job dependent socialization by Parents often influences or leads to occupational inheritance

Link	3. RELIGION AS AN AOS lost influence at mid century, but is now regaining influence
	Religion as an AOS varies widely since fewer than half of Americans participate in it weekly
Link	4. THE ECONOMY / WORK AS AN AOS is, for such theorists as Marx, & to a certain extent Weber, & others, one of the most important agents of socialization, & may be even more influential than the family / parents
Link	Formal socialization in the workplace is called orientation
	Informal socialization in the workplace is called occupational culture
	Occupational culture encompasses such factors at dress, sociability, pace of work, length of breaks, & much more
	Workers must learn the job culture (a job's shared knowledge, beliefs, values & norms) on dress, sociability, performance, attitude, etc. or risk ostracism or failure
Link	5. GOVERNMENT AS AN AOS is becoming more pervasive
	The govt socializes us in general to national commitment, patriotism, & specifically to a particular policy
	The govt uses formalized processes of socialization such as speeches: JFK: Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country"
	The govt uses informal processes such as sloganeering: My Country, Right or Wrong! America: Love It or Leave It!
	Because of govts' past excesses, many fear govt over socialization via the "Big Brother" Syndrome
Link	6. THE MILITARY AS AN AOS socializes members & citizens to loyalty, honor, sacrifice, etc.
Link	7. CHARITY AS AN AOS socializes people to the ethic of giving, the value of helping, & the belief that some are deserving of others' help
Link	8. EDUCATION AS AN AOS is expanding from secular knowledge to cultural beliefs
	Schools join w/ families in socializing children into gender roles
	In education, children learn "a hidden curriculum" including how to work, punctuality, orderliness, etc. which prepares them for the world of work
	Some researchers say the hidden curriculum in school is more influential than what is learned
	The hidden curriculum is based on race, gender, class, looks, apparent intelligence, sociability, etc. in that children are socialized based on race, gender, class, etc.
	The hidden curriculum passes on important cultural values
	For most children, school is their first experience w/ bureaucracy
Link	9. THE MEDIA AS AN AOS socializes people to mass & popular culture which is heavily influenced by the profit motive of the media itself & those commercial interests that utilize it
	The mass media are impersonal communications aimed at a vast audience & also shape socialization
	The influence of the media is growing dramatically
	In recent decades the media has become, perhaps, the most influential agent of socialization
	National surveys show that the average household has at least one TV set turned on for more than eight hours each day & that people spend half their free time watching television
	Years before children learn to read, television watching is part of their daily routine
	Liberals note that racial & ethnic minorities are largely invisible in the medium or included only in stereotyped roles; the latter charge
	Conservatives note that television & film industries are dominated by a cultural elite
	The public is concerned about the amount of violence & crudeness on television & other media
Link	10. LEISURE / RECREATION AS AN AOSsocialize people to take & enjoy leisure w/out guilt, to live a consumptive lifestyle, & to live more for today rather waiting until retirement

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Tableau on Feral Children
The existence of Feral Children is both myth & fact.
1. lived wild
2. abused: complete neglect

The Wild Girl of Champagne

1700s in the Champagne region of France

She was guessed to be 10 to 18 yrs. old when discovered
stealing apples from a tree in 1731

Reportedly had a small body covered only by rags & animals skins

Amazed everyone by skinning & eating rabbits & chickens... raw, entrails & all

The girl was eventually transferred to a hospital & later to a convent.

She could not adapt to a sedentary lifestyle & civilized food

She lost all her teeth & lost her previously robust health

She was named Angelique Memmie LeBlanc

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Table on Manifest & Latent Socialization by AOS

Social Institutions

Socialization is a:

Peers

latent function

Family

manifest function

Religion

manifest function

Econ/Work

latent function

Govt / Politics

latent function

Military

latent function

Charity

latent function

School

manifest function

Media

latent function (one way?)

10.

Leisure / Recreation

latent function

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Table on the Methods of Socialization of the Social Institutions

Social Institutions
( PF REG M CEML )

Method of Socialization
( SMIPNN )

Peers

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Family

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Religion

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Econ/Work

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Govt / Politics

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Military

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Charity

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Education

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

Media

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

10.

Leisure / Recreation

1. Selective Exposure	4. Positive Reinforcement
2. Modeling	5. Negative Reinforcement
3. Identification	6. Nurturance

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b. Modeling
Demonstration or acting out of behavior
Children, esp, imitate behavior especially of Significant Others & Role Models
As a child we model almost everyone & everything around us
Teens & adults also imitate
But we model only those people/things that we feel are important to us

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c. Identification
While we model almost everyone as a child, & important people as an adult, we only identify w/ those who inspire or nurture us
Strongest examples
Heroes
Lovers
Identification is a subset or type of modeling
Identification is a more powerful version of modeling
We may model our favorite boss, religious leader, actor
but we may or may not id w/ them

Almost all children identify w/ parents

Some say: we have no models / heroes today...... true?

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f. Nurturance
Giving.... care help affection attention ( listening )
The lack of nurturance is extremely powerful
Ostracism is one of most powerful social weapons
Greater than punishment

We develop strong positive feelings toward person acting as an AOS because any of previous 5 methods of socialization can be seen as nurturance
Example: how can punishing a child be seen as nurturance? Tough Love

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Individuals, groups & the Social Structures are the Agents of Socialization

They act as importance influences on
- knowledge
- beliefs
- values CULTURE
- norms
- attitudes (what we "consciously" believe)
- & thus behavior
We get conflicting messages

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1. Peers as AOS
Peers as an AOS become influential about age 2 & are the most influential on tweens & teens
It is in junior high & high school years that the Peer agent of socialization has its greatest influence, as young people seek to establish their independence
- children “choose” their own SOs
- demand tremendous conformity
- greatest influence

1. Selective Exposure	Let's do that; don't do that-- it's nerdy
2. Modeling	Hey, watch me!
3. Identification	Leader of the pack Big brother/sister complex; Best friend
4. Positive Reinforcement	You did great!!
5. Negative Reinforcement	You are a jerk!! gossip, ostracism
6. Nurturance	Hey, it's ok... that person is just a &#@%! YOU are cool

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2. Family as AOS

In the early years, the family is the most important agent of socialization
The family is the social structure that is the most likely to use selective exposure
The institution w/ a profound effect not only on children's knowledge, but also on their self image, their understanding of reality, & their mode of reasoning, is the family
The child's world is the parents’
- truth is what the parents say
- boys & girls are given different messages
- different ages are given different messages (parents change)

1. Selective Exposure expose kids only to what they want to

2. Modeling kids see "real parents"

3. Identification kids id or reject parents based on many factors

4. Positive reinforcement Hug, $$ for report card, candy, Good Job!

5. Negative reinforcement Time out, grounding, spanking

6. Nurturance Some parents very warm; give attention every day
Help; support all the time
Appropriate pos & negative rein

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3. Religion as AOS
Religion as an agent of socialization varies widely since fewer than half of Americans participate in it weekly
Focus on moral socialization & ultimate goals
- use of religion as AOS varies widely
- half of Am attend church once a week
- historically lost influence; is on a come-back

1. Selective Exposure	Exposure mostly to own religious doctrine May be taught other religious doctrine is wrong / evil
2. Mod	Religious objects are models; religious leaders are models
3. Identification	Religious objects: cannot over identify: sacred
4. Positive reinforcement	Heaven; rewards on Earth
5. Negative reinforcement	Hell; oblivion; reincarnation; justice on Earth
6. Nurturance	Religious leaders, gods, flock nurture us; church is a community

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4. Econ / Wk as AOS
Most imp form of adult socialization
- socialize us to “higher needs:” recognition, fulfillment, SA

1. Selective Exposure	Exposure to KBVN of that workplace Start or don't start on time Wk late until job is done
2. Modeling	Other workers model behavior in selective exposure
3. Identification	Id w/ boss, co-workers, union, one group of workers, no one
4. Positive reinforcement	Pay, benefits, responsibility, autonomy
5. Negative reinforcement	Berated in front of others, nasty memo, no raise, promo
6. Nurturance	Usually from other workers, Mentoring = nurturance from senior worker/boss

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Formal socialization in the workplace
Entry level intros; Orientation
UVaW: 1 week of orientation: Meet all top level mgrs. Meeting w/ all new Professionals; Meet w/ Department;
OJT: large variation among workplaces
Becoming more prevalent in US;
Europe, Japanese way ahead
US more likely to assume worker is prepared for wk
& offer little training OJT

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5. Govt as AOS
Builds on / employs loyalty
- Complicated system that “the people control”
- becoming ever more rationalized/effective
- becoming ever more pervasive (its everywhere)

1. Selective Exposure	Provides much info on our govt W/holds much info on our govt W/holds info on other forms of govt
2. Modeling	Idea of citizenship
3. Identification	For decades, US political leaders were idolized Some still are; most are not Continue to idolize past leaders
4. Positive reinforcement	Govt now advertises to make us feel good about govt obligations: what census is for Offers honors
5. Negative reinforcement	Govt has most power to punish, along w/ family
6. Nurturance	Via advertising, makes us feel good, e.g. Nat Guard is there Govt can offer assistance: Nat Guard, social sec, etc.

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6. Military as AOS
Boot camp

1. Selective Exposure	Total exposure to mil way of life
2. Modeling	DI is direct model; mil way of life
3. Identification	Id w/ model soldier; soldier as hero
4. Positive reinforcement	Rest, food, praise, graduation, end to boot camp
5. Negative reinforcement	Physical & verbal abuse, more wk, Mot Training, brig
6. Nurturance	Team; trained to be nurtured by other soldiers

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7. Charity as AOS

1. Selective Exposure	We are usually exposure to everyday life Exposure to what is hidden: others need help Exposure to happy person who has contributed
2. Modeling	Model of one who is helping
3. Identification	Super model of one who is helping Sister Teresa, movie star, etc.
4. Positive reinforcement	Feel good, duty, do unto others
5. Negative reinforcement	Feel bad, do unto others, this could happen to you
6. Nurturance	Gratefulness of peers, & those you helped

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8. Education as AOS

School: 1st major separation from home life
    1st evaluation based on performance/
     vs. unconditional support given in home
- knowledge
- mode of reason: rationality, not traditional
- self image
- obedience: much of school/work/life is following rules
- beliefs & values of society
- understanding reality

1. Selective Exposure Exposure to some know, but not others;
Exposure to know, but not BV

2. Modeling Teachers strong model for youth
Less so for adults
Learn about models in other sectors

3. Identification As child, may id w/ early teacher
As adult, may find respected mentor,
   but this is rare today

4. Positive reinforcement Grades, praise, self respect

5. Negative reinforcement Grades, flunk

6. Nurturance Teachers can nurture, students can nurture

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9. Media: - one way socialization, generally
- gaining influence
- becoming ever more rationalized/effective
- becoming ever more pervasive (its everywhere)

1. Selective Exposure	Debate: does media reflect society's culture or feed a culture to society?
2. Mod	1,000's of role models
3. Identification	Adulation for stars
4. Positive reinforcement	Media offers us social rewards for conforming
5. Negative reinforcement	Pun: opposite of reward is true
6. Nurturance	Use to relax & validate self

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10. Recreation / Leisure as AOS: - most imp of adult child socialization
- socializes us to “higher needs”

1. Selective Exposure	Advertising, prime time
2. Modeling	We model athletes: good & bad
3. Identification	We id w/ athletes, good & bad
4. Positive reinforcement	Reward self w/ recreation, leisure & for success in recreation, leisure
5. Negative reinforcement	Pun self, others for failure
6. Nurturance	We recreate to relax & achieve

Internal
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Outline on the Nature - Nurture Debate

External
Links

- Supplement: Putting the Social into Science. Forget about Nature vs. nurture. The answer lies in between. Nicholas A. Christakis. Time Magazine. Dec. 19, 2011 p. 28.

Link

BECAUSE AS A SOCIETY WE TEND TO INDIVIDUALIZE, MOST PREFER TO ACCEPT NATURE AS THE CAUSE OF 'WHY WE ARE THE WAY WE ARE,' BUT NURTURE IS A POWERFUL FORCE

Common sense often indicates that we are very much a part of our genetic heritage, while soci insight indicates that in fact our social & psychological selves are a function of current circumstances, nature, & nurture which do not operate independently but interact to produce a developmental process which creates the self

The self is a composite of rational reactions to stimuli, nature, & nurture

The self is a composite of near term or immediate reaction to present stimuli via behaviorist / rationalist "calculations" of a reward & punishment schedule

Rational reactions to stimuli create behaviors, thoughts & feelings which become integrated into the self as if we are constantly forced to defend ourselves against an imminent threat over a long period of time, it changes us

Or if we are exposed to an open, loving, intellectual environment over a long period of time, it changes us

BECAUSE OF THE ROLE OF DOMINANT & RECESSIVE GENES, & THE LARGE NUMBER OF DESCENDANTS WE EACH HAVE, OUR GENETIC HERITAGE IS MORE COMPLEX THAN MOST REALIZE

The self is a composite of nature in that we can gain particular traits from our parents, grand parents, & so on & because some genetic traits are recessive, they may not become apparent for generations

Our genetic heritage is very complex in that going back 10 generations, each person has 512 direct descendants, going back 20 generations, each person has 524,288 direct descendants

Each person living today has a genetic heritage that goes back to the beginning of time, but each person's genetic heritage for the last 1000 yrs, or approximately 20 generations includes over half a million direct descendants

The self is a composite of nurture in that how we are raised esp in childhood, but throughout life has an indelible impact on the creation of the self

A century ago, people mistakenly believed that humans were born w/ instincts that determined their personality & behavior

In the biological sciences the role of nature in the development of the self has its root in the works of Mendel, Darwin, & other early scientists

Charles Darwin's study of evolution led people to think that human behavior was instinctive, simply our "nature"

People trying to understand cultural diversity frequently misunderstood Darwin's thinking

The prevailing ethnocentric view helped justify colonialism

In the social sciences, the role of nurture in the development of the self has its root early psychologists such as Pavlov & Freud & early sociologists such as Comte & Durkheim

In the twentieth century, biological explanations of human behavior came under fire

The psychologist John B. Watson developed a theory called behaviorism, which held that behavior is not instinctive, but learned

Today, social scientists are cautious about describing any human behavior as instinctive

NURTURANCE / SOCIALIZATION IS A LARGE PART OF OUR HUMANITY THAT IMPACTS US AS A SPECIES, AS SOCIETIES, AS GROUPS, & AS INDIVIDUALS

Nurture is our nature in that we "naturally" socialize our children & peers as every grp & society acts as a model for others & rewards & punishes them for behavior & beliefs appropriate for that grp or society

It is important to understand that immediate stimuli, nature, & nurture do not run parallel, i.e. are not independent of each other, rather they interact, each process affecting the other

For example, nurturance, esp in early childhood, actually changes the physical structure of the central nervous system as neurological pathways that are utilized grow & pathways that are not utilized shrink

The self is a product of the integration of immediate stimuli, our biological nature, & our socialization

Internal
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Outline on Socialization & the Life Course

External
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PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION OCCURS IN CHILDHOOD & THE TEENS, & ALSO CONTINUES THROUGHOUT LIFE AS WE EXPERIENCE THE CHANGING CIRCUMSTANCES OF EACH STAGE

An overview of the life course reveals that our society organizes human experience according to age: childhood, adolescence, adulthood, & old age

Socialization has the same functional processes at each age or stage of life, but the content or "goal" is different at each stage

PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION OCCURS DURING CHILDHOOD, I.E. WE LEARN THE FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMANITY & OUR SOCIETY FROM FAMILY & CLOSE FRIENDS

Childhood became an increasingly separate phase of life w/ industrialization

Childhood is currently becoming shorter & children are gaining more rights

The primary agent of socialization (AOS) in childhood is the family

DURING ADOLESCENCE, PEERS & THE 'GENERALIZED OTHER' (SOCIETY) SOCIALIZES US MORE THAN THE FAMILY

Adolescence is often a period of social & emotional turmoil reflecting cultural inconsistency

Adolescence is a time of social contradictions when people are no longer children but not yet adults

Like all phases of the life course, adolescence varies w/ class position

The primary AOS in adolescence is the peer group & education

DURING ADULTHOOD, PEERS & SPECIFIC SOC STRUCTURES IN WHICH WE PARTICIPATE, E.G. THE WORKPLACE, SOCIALIZE US

Adulthood is divided into several stages that largely depend on marriage / parenting & economic / work experiences

Early adulthood involves working toward goals set earlier in life

Middle adulthood is characterized by greater reflectiveness

DURING OLD AGE, PEERS & THE 'HIGHER GENERALIZED OTHER' SOCIALIZE US & WE ARE MORE LIKELY TO QUESTION PREVIOUS SOCIALIZATION / LIFE CHOICES

Old age begins in the mid sixties but varies across societies & one's experience of old age depends on one's health

The US is currently experiencing an increase in the elderly population which is having an ever greater impact on society as a whole

The aging of the American population is one focus of gerontology, the study of aging & the elderly

Aging & Biology

As we age, the body undergoes a series of biological changes, most of which are viewed negatively by our culture

Recently our culture has embraced more positive images of old age, such as the beautiful older woman or buff older man

Most elderly people are not disabled by their physical condition

Aging is also accompanied by a few psychological changes

THE CULTURE OF EACH SOCIETY VIEWS THE ELDERLY IN A DIFFERENT LIGHT, VALUES THEM DIFFERENTLY, ETC.

Aging is not just a physical process in that culture shapes how we understand growing old

A pre industrial society is usually a gerontocracy, a form of social organization in which the elderly have the most wealth, power, & prestige

Today the elderly still have more power & wealth than any other age group but this is shifting as new wealth & power is more readily accessible

Conversely, today, the abuse of the elderly is a widely recognized problem

A problem of industrial societies is ageism, prejudice & discrimination against the elderly

Not surprisingly, growing old is challenging & means living w/ less income, but today the US elderly population is doing better than ever

Our society values the elderly less than tradl societies for a number of reasons, including that we highly value youth, ed today tends to making older skills obsolete, we do not need the knowledge of the elderly, the elderly consume a large proportion of resources, etc.

THE CULTURE OF EACH SOCIETY VIEWS DEATH & DYING IN A DIFFERENT LIGHT, VALUES IT DIFFERENTLY, ETC.

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identifies five stages in coming to accept death: denial, anger, negotiation, resignation, & acceptance

Today, fear & anxiety about death are common, but greater acceptance is likely in the future

Modern society is at a difficult juncture in that as a spiritual society, we long to understand / accept death, but as a rational / technical society we seek to avoid it, even eliminate it

THE LIFE COURSE OF EACH CULTURE HAS PATTERNS & VARIATIONS THAT DEPEND ON SOCIALIZATION & THE HISTL EXPERIENCES OF THAT CULTURE SO THAT EACH GENERATION, & EACH REGION OF THE GLOBE HAS A DIFFERENT LIFE COURSE

Although linked to the biological process of aging, essential characteristics of each stage of the life course are socially constructed

Each stage presents characteristic problems & transitions

General patterns relating to age are always modified by social variables such as race & gender

People's life experiences vary depending on when they were born

A cohort is a category of people w/ a common characteristic, usually their age

In sum, the youth cohorts are generally gaining adult like quals faster in some respects such as purchasing power, but are lasting longer in that people desire to hang onto their youth

In the mid age cohorts people are again embracing youthful activities but also trying to experience retirement like leisure experiences such as extended vacations

The older cohorts are remaining active in both play, & if they choose, work

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Overview of George Herbert Mead 1863 - 1931

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- Biography & Major Works

THE SELF EMERGES AS A RESULT OF INTERACTION W/ THE ENV & OTHERS

Mead is the most important thinker of the Chicago School & of symbolic interactionism

Mead taught that people & their environment created the unity of the individual

Mead emphasized natural emergence of self & mind w/in the social order

For Mead, the emergence of self & mind comes about as a result of interaction w/ the environment & other beings

The self emerges from social experience & this social experience is based on the exchange of symbols

THE "I" & THE "ME" REPRESENT THE INSTINCTUAL & SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE SELF

When fully developed, the self is composed of the "I" & the "me"

The I is the self as subject & the me is the self as object

See Also: Mead on the Genesis of the Self

WHILE BEHAVIORISTS' VIEW OF SOC INTERACTION WAS MECHANICAL, MEAD ADDED PEOPLE'S UNDERSTANDING / CONSCIOUSNESS

Mead's work must be contrasted against psychological behaviorism

Mead accepted may of the tenets of psychological behaviorism, but also reject many others

Mead adopted the focus on the actor & his/her behavior

Mead accepted behaviorism's focus on observable behavior, rewards, & punishments

Mead & Cooley did not accept the behaviorists insistence on excluding any examination of the consciousness of the Actor

The term symbolic interactionism was not used during Mead's life, but his work on consciousness & Simmel's interest in action & interaction served as the foundation for that school

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George Herbert Mead 1863 - 1931

American pragmatist, philosopher, & social psychologist
b South Hadley, MA
Educated at Oberlin College, Harvard University, & in Europe
Taught at the University of Chicago from 1894 - 1931
Influenced by theory of evolution & the social nature of experience & behavior
At the U of Chicago in the 1920's, Mead worked w/ colleagues
Charles H. Cooley, W. I. Thomas, and others to develop field of Symbolic Interactionism

Timeline on Mead: The Mead Project, Dept of Soc, Brock U, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1 Link

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Major Works of Mead

Mead published very little. His students compiled his work

Mind, Self and Society. 1934, 1962

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Outline on Mead on the Genesis of the Self 1863 - 1931

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- Project: Play at Playing

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- Project: The Generalized Other & Ethical Dilemmas

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- Video: Cooley & Mead 5:36

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- Video: Cast Away: Hanks & Wilson 22:45

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NEARLY ALL SOC SCIENTISTS BELIEVE THAT PEOPLE DEVELOP AS THEY AGE, MEANING THAT EACH OF US COULD BE DIFFERENT THAN WE ARE TODAY, BASED ON THE SOCIALIZATION / DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF THAT WE EXPERIENCE ESP IN REFERENCE TO OUR SOs & GOs

Mead worked in the paradigm of symbolic interactionism & is generally viewed as one of its founders

The genesis of the self is accomplished through socialization & goes through FOUR stages

Self is composed of TWO components: the I & the me

The I is the spontaneous, unsocialized, unpredictable self has awareness of a separate identity

The me is the socialized part of individual
The I continues to exist
The self develops attitudes, behavior, & beliefs in order to fit in to society
( Compare to Freud )

For Mead, there are FOUR stages in the development of the self, including
- the tabula rasa stage
- the imitative stage
- the play stage
- the game stage

1. THE TABULA RASA STAGE: ESSENTIALLY A BLANK SLATE, CAN ONLY IMITATE, & HAVE NO IDENTITY circa birth

Tabula rasa means blank slate

The concept of the tabula rasa denotes that people are born without certain predispositions to develop any particular type of personality

During the tabula rasa stage a baby can only do simple imitation

Only the I exists

We believe that babies believe that only they exist. The world is under their control

During the tabula rasa stage, we have little or no identity

2. THE IMITATIVE STAGE: CAN ONLY IMITATE SOs, 'ME,' I.E. IDENTITY BEGINS EXISTENCE circa birth to 2 yrs.

During the imitative stage, we can only imitate others, especially significant others (SO), but the me begins existence

For Mead the concept significant other denotes people w/ whom one has a regular, face to face, emotional connection

The I continues to exist

In the me, the individual carries society w/ them

Child can copy / imitate & plays imitation games

3. THE PLAY STAGE: TAKE ON ROLES OF SOC, INTERACT IN STRUCTURED ACTIVITY W/ SOs; 'ME,' I.E. IDENTITY IS ESTABLISHED circa 2 to 4 yrs.

In the play stage, the child can take on roles of others, especially SOs

The me is more developed

Socialization begins through interaction w/ the SO

The Socialization that is achieved through the interaction w/ the SO:
- establishes sense of self, that is, a distinct identity & an awareness of that identity
- others are seen as having a separate identity
- learn social norms from (a) messages & (b) role models
(SOs from whom child learns to play a role)
- child wants to play 'real games,' but only w/ his or her flexible rules

During the play stage, we develop a sense of identity

4. THE GAME STAGE: TAKE ON COMPLEX ROLES OF THE GOs; ABLE TO CONCEPTUALIZE THE OPINION OF 'SOCIETY' circa 5 yrs. & older

In the game stage, a child can take on the complex roles of generalized others (GO)

The generalized other is the classes of people w/ whom a person interacts on the basis of generalized roles rather than on individual characteristics

The GO is interaction based on general roles of that individual rather than on specific traits

The GO represents actual games; the rules, standards of performance or the attitude of entire community

According to Mead, children at the game stage learn that certain positions are occupied by a variety of people & that people in similar social positions frequently behave alike

Children in turn are expected to behave in particular ways toward people w/ particular social positions

The me has gained all of it's capabilities, but still needs more socialization/knowledge

The child moves beyond interacting w/ particular individuals & interacts w/ roles

The child moves from interacting w/ SOs to interacting w/ generalized others

At the game stage, the child has generalized from the behavior and expectations of particular individuals to those of anyone playing various roles that relate to whatever role the child is playing at the time

The child has gone from interacting with SOs to a new and higher stage of interacting w/ the GO

Games are a metaphor for all organized activity: family, work, etc.

In the game stage, one plays actual games & is truly concerned about rules, performance

In the game stage, the child wants to appear grown-up

In the game stage, one becomes concerned w/ the attitude of the entire community

During the game stage, a person is expected to behave in particular ways toward people w/ particular social positions

According to Mead, children at the game stage learn that different people behave differently, & that different people also expect children to behave in different ways

Children do not yet really understand that how they are expected to behave toward people

AT OUR HIGHEST STAGE OF DEV, THE SELF EVALUATES THE SELF

In the game stage, the self evaluates the self from the point of view of GOs & not merely from point of view of discrete others

The evaluation of the self from the point of view of the GOs is the capacity for abstract thinking, objectivity, & morality

While play requires only pieces of selves, games require a coherent self

The self allows the individual to be a more efficient member of the society and offers greater coordination of society

But the self is not a conformist robot because each self has a unique biographical make-up which shapes the self

SOME PEOPLE DEVELOP THE CONCEPT OF A 'HIGHER COMMUNITY' IN THAT THEY RELATE TO A GO WHOM THEY BELIEVE IF MORE MORAL THAN SOCIETY TODAY

People have multiple Generalized Others & Selves which provide them w/ an internal dialogue/debate that allows for moral reasoning

People can only react against society by setting up a higher sort of society which “out-votes” the one they find

To set up a 'higher society,' people must encounter the society of the past, present & future

For Mead, institutions, social structures, etc. are common responses of the community

The community often acts in an identical way to people

Institutions need not destroy or oppress the individual; in fact, many are flexible, progressive & foster individuality

Education is the process where the common habits of the community are internalized

Mead said, "The self, as that which can be an object to itself, is essentially a social structure, & it arises in social experience… it is impossible to conceive of a self arising outside of social experience” .

Mead's statement that the self is a social structure that arises in experience indicates that he thought nurture was the primary source of human behavior

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An Overview on Charles Horton Cooley 1864 - 1929

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- Biography & Major Works

THE LOOKING GLASS SELF TAKES ACCT OF OTHER'S IMPRESSION OF US & OUR OWN IMPRESSION OF US

Cooley had an interest in the nature of consciousness

Cooley saw consciousness as integrally related to it's social context

Cooley's view of a social consciousness contrast's w/ Mead's view that consciousness is, at some level, independent of it's social context

Cooley developed his understanding of a social consciousness in the concept of the Looking Glass Self

PRIMARY GRPS ARE FAMILY & CLOSE FRIENDS; SECONDARY GRPS ARE ACQUAINTANCES OR LESS

Cooley also explored the nature of primary & secondary groups, where the former is characterized by intimate, face to face, regular contact that plays a key factor in linking the actor to the larger society

Critical primary groups include the family & the peer group

W/in the primary groups of the family & the peer group, the individual grows into a social being

It is w/in the primary group that the looking glass self emerges & the ego centered child learns to take others into account &, thereby, to become a contributing member of society

BEHAVIORISM COULD NOT ACCT FOR HOW WE INTERPRET OUR & OTHER'S ACTIONS & RESPOND TO THEM

Cooley & Mead rejected a behaviorist view of humanity where people blindly & unconsciously respond to external stimuli

Cooley & Mead's views directly contradicted the behaviorism that was important at that time (and remains a major force in psychology today) which held that psychologists should ignore people's consciousness, feelings etc. & instead focus only on observable behavior

For Cooley & Mead, people had consciousness & a Self

Cooley urged sociologists to try & put themselves in the place of those they were studying through a method called sympathetic introspection

Through sympathetic introspection, sociologists could understand meanings & motives that are at the base of social behavior

Cooley & Mead believed the focus of sociology should be on such social psychological phenomena as consciousness, action, & interaction

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Charles Horton Cooley

1864 - 1929

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Major Works of Cooley

Charles Horton Cooley. Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. (1909).

Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1956.

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Outline on Cooley's Looking Glass Self 1864 - 1929

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- Project: Communications & the Looking Glass Self

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- Project: Video: The Looking Glass Self & the Iron Jawed Angels

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- Video: Cast Away

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- Project: Video: Cast Away

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THE LOOKING GLASS SELF DENOTES THAT OUR 'SELF' IS THE RESULT OF WHAT OTHERS THINK OF US & WHAT WE THINK OF OURSELVES

Cooley developed his understanding of a social consciousness in the concept of the looking glass self

The essential characteristic of social conduct, according to Cooley, was “taking the attitude of the other” toward one's own conduct

We are a mirror for ourselves
One's consciousness is a reflection of what one thinks others think of them
Our self is a reflection of the messages we get from others

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Proverb:
A person is made up of three things:
    1. what a person thinks of themself
    2. what others think of them
    3. the real person
How can this be? Aren't we one or the other?
What is meant by this?
Is it correct?
Which part is correct?

Cooley posits EIGHT major points on the development & action of the self

1. THE LOOKING GLASS SELF IS THE CONCEPTION THAT OUR SELF IMAGE DEVELOPS THROUGH TWO WAY SOCIALIZATION

Our self image develops through socialization

Socialization is the process by which we hold up a mirror to ourselves & others hold up a mirror for us

2. OUR BEHAVIOR IS OVER DETERMINED

Our behavior is over determined in that we get 1000's of messages everyday about who we are & who we should be

3. THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF MESSAGES WE RECEIVE VIA THE MIRROR & OTHERS

Messages can be conflicting, (in)accurate, good/bad, explicit, implicit, supportive, damaging,

Messages can be about the self, others, knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, etc.

We gets messages from ourselves

We interpret the many diverse messages we receive based on our past experience & the situational norms

We gets messages from ourselves, SOs, RMs, GOs, social institutions, & the general public

4. IN THE MIRROR, WE DEVELOP SELF FEELINGS

We imagine how we appear

We imagine what others' judgment of us is

We develop self feeling out of our self perception & our perception of others' judgments

Children try to imagine what other people think about how they are doing in their various roles & look for explicit & implicit messages from others to find out

Once they get such messages they develop ideas about what kind of person they are based on their interpretation of these messages, effecting employing the looking glass

The looking glass self allows us to act rather than simply respond to stimuli

5. THE LOOKING GLASS IS A RESERVOIR & IT STORES EVERY MESSAGE ( Alice's mirror )

The reservoir theory of personality has SIX features

i. Messages form a reservoir in us, in that we forget nothing

ii. We are the sum of all the good, bad, & neutral messages we have received

iii. Messages during childhood are imprinted

iv. Messages in adulthood are also important

v. The types of messages all mix together & the majority rules, w/ the exception of powerful messages

vi. Our personality is the result of the "interaction" of all the messages we receive

6. BAD MESSAGES ESSENTIALLY GET DILUTED IN A RESERVOIR OF GOOD MESSAGES

7. A GOOD UPBRINGING IS THE RESULT OF POSITIVE MESSAGES, ATTENTION , EMOTIONAL SUPPORT, PRAISE, RECOGNITION OF LIMITATIONS

7. For Cooley, a "good upbringing" is the result of FIVE social processes

a. sufficient positive messages

b. sufficient attention

c. emotional support

d. credit, praise, responsibility

e. reassurance that everybody is not good at everything

8. EXCESSIVE CRITICISM, SOME GREAT FAILURE BY THE SELF, OR SOME GREAT FAILURE BY AN SO MAY LEAD TO LOW SELF ESTEEM & / NEUROSIS

For Cooley, we do not necessarily have an accurate understanding or view of the self

For Cooley, our limited view of the self is our self image

For Cooley, our self image is our sense of what kind of person we are

Therapy, healthy personal growth, a challenge, a truth telling friend/lover, etc. brings our self image closer to our self

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Old Proverb: A person is made up of three things:
       1. what a person thinks of themself
       2. what others think of them
       3. the real person
What is meant by this?
Is it correct?
Which part is correct?

Cooley believes the self is the result of
       1. what a person thinks of themself
       2. what others think of them
            &
       3. "the real person" is a misnomer: no such thing:
               we are in a constant state of being which is a negotiation btwn
               what we believe ourselves to be
               & what we believe others believe us to be

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An Overview of Sigmund Freud 1856 - 1939

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- Biography & Major Works

WE EACH HAVE AN ID WHICH EMBODIES THE LIFE & DEATH INSTINCTS, CALLED EROS & THANATOS RESPECTIVELY

Introduction: Freud is the most famous psychologist & his theory of repressed sexuality shocked & titillated Victorian Europe. Freud was an Austrian physician who revolutionized ideas on how the human mind works. He advanced the fields of psychiatry & psychology. His work has helped millions of mentally ill patients. Freud's theories have brought new approaches in child rearing, education, & sociology and have provided new themes for many authors & artists. Most people in Western society view human behavior at least partially in Freudian terms.

Freud believes we are socialized primarily

a. during childhood

b. by the development of superego

c. when the superego internalizes the of norms of society

Freud recognized that each person is born with various natural drives that he called instincts, such as the need to satisfy sexual desires & the need to be aggressive

Freud though at first that we had only one Instinct, but revised his theory to include TWO instincts

Eros is the instinct that creates love, sex, life, creativity; aka the sex drive, aka the life drive and is not always 'good'

Eros is the need for sex... but more than this:

Eros is the need for having children.... but more than this:

Eros is the need for creation

For much of his life, Freud believed eros was the only instinct, but Nazism & the impending WW 2 changed that: Freud added his second drive, thanatos

Thanatos is the instinct that creates hate, killing, death, destruction & is not always 'bad', & was added later in Freud's career

Freud's theory of psycho dynamics is a surprisingly social theory!

For Freud, the major influence on our personality is our parents

His stress on the importance of childhood helped teach the value of giving children an emotionally nourishing environment

Most social scientists accept his concept that an adult's social relationships are patterned after early family relationships

PSYCHO DYNAMICS DENOTES THAT OUR TOTAL PERSONALITY IS THE RESULT OF INTERACTION W/ THE ID (INSTINCTS) & THE EGO (CONSCIOUSNESS), AS 'REFERRED' BY THE SUPEREGO (THE CONSCIENCE)

Freud divided the mind into three parts: (1) the id, (2) the ego, & (3) the superego

The dynamic in the psyche is the id vs. superego w/ the ego refereeing

Freud believed that we have an unconscious; i.e. part of our psyche to which we do not have direct access

Each part of the mind, & the drives interact in unique manner, through a unique development, to produce a unique personality

It is impossible to totally repress a drive, this energy must be expressed in either a socially or socially unacceptable way

The id is the part of psyche containing the natural drives, i.e. the instincts, believed to be present in some form, from infancy on

The id is the part of psyche that is a product of natural drives

The id is the part of psyche which embodies both the life & death drives including sex, hunger, aggression, etc.

Freud believed we have no direct access to the id because it is so powerful/terrible

Freud's id is similar to Mead's I

The superego is the part of psyche containing the internalization of parents' norms

The superego embodies requirements of society that cause us to control our aggression & our pleasure seeking

The superego may also be thought of as the conscience which arises from messages we get from others about what is/is not acceptable (norms)

A person's ideas of right & wrong, learned from parents, teachers, & other people in authority, become part of the person's superego

The superego is the part of the psyche which is the result of socialization

The superego is the part of our personality that internalizes norms & expectations of society & significant others

Freud's superego is similar to Mead's me

We have limited awareness of the superego

The ego is the part of psyche containing the balance between the id & the superego

The ego resolves conflicts btwn instincts & external reality

The ego determines socially appropriate ways to obtain physical satisfaction or to express aggression

The ego is the part of psyche that we have most direct access to

The ego resolves conflict or mediates btwn the id & the superego

All people have some conflict among the three parts of the mind, but certain people have more conflict than others

For example, the superego might oppose angry behavior & in that case, the id & the superego would clash. If the parts of the mind strongly oppose one another, psychological disturbances result

The id & superego remain in conflict, but in a well adjusted person, the ego manages these opposing forces

Culture, in the form of superego, represses selfish demands, but often the competing demands of self & society result in a compromise that Freud called sublimation, which changes selfish drives into socially acceptable behavior

Transactional psychology revised Freudian psychology viewing the id, the superego, and the ego as the child, the parent, and the adult, respectively

Transactional psychology then looks at the functioning & malfunctioning of the psyche as one would look at any relationship w/ children, parents, & adults

PSYCHO SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT OCCURS AS OUR SEXUAL EXPERIENCE W/ OUR OWN BODY IS RESOLVED BY OUR CONSCIOUS MIND

We all go through psycho sexual stages

We are not born "complete;" i.e. we do not "naturally" develop

Development is a complex process that can easily go awry

He theorized that sexual functioning begins at birth, & that a person goes through several psychological stages of sexual development

There are FIVE psycho sexual stages: ( OAPLC )

Stage	Approximate age	Need fulfillment goal
a. Oral	birth to 1 yrs.	fulfilling needs
b. Anal	1 to 3 yrs.	control things for needs
c. Phallic	3 to 5 yrs.	control power to attain needs
d. Latency	5 to 12 yrs.	no development
e. Genital	12 yrs. and on	establish mature, mutual relationships

Freud's theories on sexual development led to open discussion & treatment of sexual matters & problems

Freud believed the normal pattern of psycho sexual development is interrupted in some people

People who had interrupted psycho sexual development become fixated at an earlier, immature stage

He felt such fixation could contribute to mental illness in adulthood

THE UNCONSCIOUSNESS IS AN OCEAN OF THOUGHTS, FEELINGS, INSTINCTS THAT ALWAYS INFLUENCE US, LIE BELOW CONSCIOUSNESS, BUT MAY OCCASIONALLY INTRUDE INTO CONSCIOUSNESS

Freud observed that many patients behaved according to drives & experiences of which they were not consciously aware

Because people were unaware of their drives & experiences, he concluded that the unconscious plays a major role in shaping behavior

Freud recognized that in general people were only aware of the thoughts & emotions of the ego, & had only a dim or unconscious perception of the cognition in the id & superego

Freud showed the crucial importance of unconscious thinking to all human thought & activity

Freud established the theory that unconscious motives control much behavior

Freud also concluded that the unconscious is full of memories of events from early childhood

Freud noted that if memories were especially painful, people kept them out of conscious awareness

He used the term defense mechanisms for the methods by which individuals handled painful memories

Freud believed that patients used vast amounts of energy in forming defense mechanisms

Tying up energy could affect a person's ability to lead a productive life, causing an illness that Freud called neurosis

Freud also concluded that many childhood memories dealt w/ sex

He believed that his patients' reports of sexual abuse by a parent were fantasies reflecting unconscious desires

	MENTAL ILLNESS RESULTS FROM PROBLEMS W/ THE DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESS OR W/ OVER REPRESSION OF THE LIFE OR DEATH DRIVES
	Freud saw TWO Sources of Mental Illness
	1. Mal development results from unresolved or inappropriate id & super ego conflict
	Fixation occurs when one remains at a lower psycho sexual stage, often accompanied by over attention on some object or person
	For Freud, one form of mal development occurs when one becomes fixated at any of the lower stages of psycho sexual development
	Regression is the returning to an early psycho sexual stage
	Sociopath is a person with no sense of right or wrong - no sense of guilt - no sense of remorse - no Superego
	A sociopathic personality results from under socialization
	2. For Freud, one of the sources of mental illness is the repression of the sex & death drives
	Freud believed society over repressed our instincts of eros & thanatos
	Thus society has a "surplus of eros & thanatos"
	This instinctual energy always finds a way out, a way to express or manifest itself
	Freud recognized, & many still agree today, that instinctual energy is transformed into socially acceptable practices such as rewarding work, art, etc.
	Instinctual energy that is not transformed either becomes manifest in mental illness or social ills such as crime & violence
	Some social theorists of Freud's time & today modify Freud & say that instinctual energy can be transformed to only a certain extent
	People & society continually transform instinctual energy into socially acceptable expressions, but they also need direct expressions of eros & thanatos in love & sex and competition & victory, respectively
	In his day, Freud & most theorists in the Vienna School, examined the etiology, i.e., the origin & development, of mental illness which resulted from the suppression of the instincts
	Neurosis is essentially a mental illness characterized by “mild” problems such as insecurity, paranoia, anxiety, compulsion, etc.
	Psychopathologies are a more serious form of mental illness than neuroses
	In schizophrenia the person develops multiple personalities where some fulfill needs, & some do not
	Mania may be characterized by bi polar episodes of elation & depression
	People develop manic personalities that can fulfill needs
	Depressive personalities generally cannot fulfill needs & may lead to suicide, though some people have found outlets to depression through artistic expression
	THE CRITIQUES OF FREUD POINT OUT THAT THE THEORY IS CULTURE BOUND, MAKING IT PATRIARCHAL & WESTERN GERMANIC
	Many psychologists give an even greater role to social factors than Freud
	Freud's theory is culture bound, i.e. suitable primarily for Western civilizations
	Erikson said that Freud's stages were society specific, i.e. western Germanic oriented
	Psychologists give an even greater role to social factors, including - Jung - Erikson - Piaget - Kohlberg - Maslow - Rogers
	Psychoanalytic feminism has developed a critique of Freud
	Feminists attacked Freud because he seemed to believe that in some respects women were inferior to men
	For example, he thought that women had weaker superegos than men and were driven by envy
	The feminist critique of Freud holds that his theory is has a Western bias & is patriarchal
	For feminists, Freud's depictions of women's desire to be like men is a reflection of women being denied, & wanting power
	For feminists, Freud's phallic stage is patriarchal projection (interpretation) of equating maleness w/ power & authority & thus it is natural for women to be fixated on men, because men had the power
	Other people challenged the theory that patients' memories of early sexual abuse reflected fantasies rather than actual experiences
	As a result of such criticism, most scholars & psychoanalysts now take a more balanced approach to Freud's theories
	People use the ideas & techniques from Freud that they find most useful without strictly following all of his teachings
	ON TREATMENT, FREUD DEVELOPED HYPNOTIC, FREE ASSOCIATION, & DREAM INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES
	At first, Freud treated neurotic patients by using the hypnotic techniques he had learned from Charcot & the Austrian physician Josef Breuer
	But he later modified the hypnotic approach & simply had patients talk about whatever was on their minds, which he call free association
	By free associating, that is, by speaking freely, the patient sometimes came upon earlier experiences that contributed to the neurosis
	Often, however, the painful feelings that caused the neurosis were held in the unconscious through defense mechanisms
	Freud then analyzed the random thoughts that had been expressed during free association
	He analyzed random thoughts in an effort to penetrate the patient's defense mechanisms
	He also interpreted the patient's dreams, which he believed contained clues to unconscious feelings
	Freud talked w/ the patient about the person's earlier experiences in order to understand the root of their problems
	He paid particular attention to transference, the patient's shifting of painful feelings, hostility or love, for example, toward Freud himself
	If the psychoanalyst could help the patient understand & deal w/ unpleasant feelings or painful memories, the symptoms of the neurosis might then disappear

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Sigmund Freud 1856 - 1939

BORN May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia
1881    Earns medical degree
1885    Appointed lecturer in neuropathology, University of Vienna
1886    Begins private neurology practice in Vienna; marries Martha Bernays
1900    Publishes The Interpretation of Dreams
1910    Establishes International Psychoanalytic Association
1938    Emigrates from Vienna to London to escape Nazi persecution
1939    Dies Sept. 23, 1939 in London

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Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia, which is now a region in the Czech Republic. His father was a wool merchant who had 8 children of which Freud was the oldest. When Freud was 4 yrs. old, they move to Vienna, Austria.

There, he graduated from med school in 1881. Later he studied neurology, the study & treatment of the nervous system. In 1885, Freud went to Paris to study under Jean Martin Charcot, a famous neurologist & hypnotist. Charcot worked w/ patients suffering from hysteria. Some hysterics appeared to be blind or paralyzed, but had no physical defects. Charcot found that their physical symptoms could be relieved through hypnosis.

In 1886, Freud returned to Vienna & began to work w/ hysterical patients. As he formed his theories, Freud used the term psychoanalysis for both his theories and his method of treatment. At first, in the 1890's, other physicians reacted with hostility. But Freud's ideas slowly gained acceptance & by 1910, he gained international recognition.

From 1910 to 1920, Freud's reputation grew. Two of his followers, Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung, split with Freud & developed their own theories. Freud modified his own ideas, & in 1923, he published many revisions. That same year, he learned he had cancer of the mouth. Despite the cancer, he continued his work. In 1938, the Nazis gained control of Austria & persecuted Jews. Freud was Jewish, his books were burned, & he was afraid for his life. The Freud's went to England to escape persecution. He died there of cancer on year later.

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Major Works of Freud

The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905)
Totem and Taboo (1913)
Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1917)
The Ego and the Id (1923)
Civilization and Its Discontents (1930)

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Freud & Art

In art & literature, Freud's theories influenced surrealism. Like psychoanalysis, surrealistic painting & writing explores the inner depths of the unconscious mind. Freudian ideas have provided subject matter for authors & artists. Critics often analyze art & literature in Freudian terms. Hence this surrealist Time magazine cover.

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Outline on Erik H. Erikson 1902 - 1994

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WE EVOLVE AS A RESULT OF OUR STRUGGLE W/ SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS & OUR SELF IDENTITY

Erik Erikson felt that children face dilemmas involving choices btwn the two opposites of social expectations & self identity

Erikson became best known for his ideas on how human beings develop a sense of identity, that is, the awareness one has of oneself as a whole person

WE ADVANCE THROUGH STAGES EACH OF WHICH OFFERS A CHALLENGE & RESULTS IN AN ADVANCEMENT OF THE PERSONALITY

Erikson based his ideas on the theories of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who emphasized the importance of early childhood for all later development

However, Erikson modified Freud's ideas, stressing the continual development of human beings throughout an eight stage life cycle

While Freud focused on the psycl & biological aspects of development, Erikson said that social & cultural influences also are significant to development

People acquire roles sequentially, which results in patterns of development that is seen as the individual life cycle

Each stage in the individual life cycle offers challenges & each resolution of the challenge shapes the personality

Best & Stern, 1977, call the socially regular & sequential acquiring of roles the sequential life plan

For Erikson, the individual life cycle develops as each person resolves a fundamental challenge or conflict in life
in order to mature or individuate

For Erikson, life is a series of dilemmas to be resolved in the context of social expectations & self identity

Erikson emphasized nurture in the context of natural development

Link

The Table on Erikson's Life Cycle, Work, & Personality Development demonstrates that people develop psychologically & socially throughout life & that the resolution of unique contradictions at each stage of life is carried out w/in many social structures

The dilemmas outlined in Erikson's theory are related more to social expectations & self identity than to natural drives

At each psychological stage, people face a dilemma or crisis as they make choices btwn the two components of social expectations & self identity

MEAD, COOLEY, & NOW ERIKSON DIFFER FROM PREVIOUS DEVELOPMENTALISTS IN THAT THEY SEE LIFE CHOICES AS IMPACTING PERSONALITY, RATHER THAN JUST LIFE EVENTS

As Mead & Cooley suggested, life choices that people make are largely a product of the social environment & messages that children & adults receive from significant others

See Also: Cooley

Children who are encouraged & receive positive messages about themselves tend to achieve healthy modes of adaptation

Children who are ignored or get excessively negative messages tend to adapt poorly

As children encounter the second stage of development, the autonomy / shame stage, they are trying out their physical skills through walking, climbing, manipulating objects, & toilet training

If children master these physical skills of the second stage of development & are given messages that they have done so, they become more autonomous & self confident

If children do not master these physical skills of the second stage or if they are given negative messages about their accomplishments, then they face shame & self doubt

A sense of inferiority often results & the child may either become compulsive about following fixed routines or reject all controls if they cannot master the life challenge they face

Erikson's theory is harmonious w/ that of Mead & Cooley in that the successful or unsuccessful resolution of life's dilemmas is largely based on the messages a child gets from his or her significant others

While an unresolved issue at one stage often has effects at later stages, there is always the possibility that it can be addressed successfully later in life

Erikson became widely known for his studies of adolescence, chiefly the idea of an adolescent identity crisis

Such a crisis may occur when an adolescent struggles with inner conflicts before gaining a sense of purpose & moving into adulthood

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Erik Homburger Erikson
1902 - 1994

Erikson, Erik Homburger (1902-1994), was an American psychoanalyst
Born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Parents were Danish
1933, graduated from Vienna Psychoanalytic Instit
1933, Erikson & family move to US
Taught at Harvard University, Yale University, and the University of California at Berkeley

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Major Works of Erikson

Childhood and Society (1950)
Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968)

Psychological Biographies:

Young Man Luther (1958), which depicts German religious reformer Martin Luther
Gandhi's Truth (1969), which focuses on the Indian spiritual and political leader Mohandas K. Gandhi

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Table on Erikson's Life Cycle, Work, & Personality Development

HS0303 PW

Age

Stage

Life Challenge

Social Structure: Area of Social Life

Infancy
0 - 1 yrs.

Trust / Mistrust

Who do I trust & why?

Religion

Toddlerhood
1 - 2 yrs.

Autonomy / Shame

What should I do for myself & why?

Law & Order via the Govt

Pre School
3 - 5 yrs.

Initiative / Guilt

What should I do for myself & why?

Work & Family

Preadolescence
6 - 11 yrs.

Industry / Inferiority

What should I achieve & why?

Work & Family

Adolescence
12 - 18 yrs.

Identity / Role Confusion

Who am I? Why am I here?

Work, Education:
Ideology & aristocracy;
Strat based on status

Young Adult
19 -

Intimacy / Isolation

Who is my community & why?

Family: Mate Selection;
Work & Family: Cooperation & Competition

Middle Adult

Generativity / Stagnation

Who do I nurture & why?

Family or Work

Older Adult

Integrity/ Despair

How do I judge myself & why?
Integrity helps one lose fear of death

Community

The Table on Erikson's Life Cycle, Work, & Personality Development demonstrates that people develop psychologically & socially throughout life & that the resolution of unique contradictions at each stage of life is carried out w/in many social structures

Childhood & Society, 1950

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Outline on Jean Piaget 1896 - 1980

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

PIAGET DERIVED A DEVELOPMENTAL COGNITIVE THEORY WHERE CHILDREN EXPERIENCE THE
SENSORIMOTOR,
PREOPERATIONAL,
CONCRETE OPERATIONS,
& FORMAL OPS STAGES
WHERE THE CHILD LEARNS TO MAKE JUDGEMENTS / RESOLVES ENVL ISSUES

There are two dominant types of cognitive theories of development, one of which is derived from the theory of Jean Piaget; the other which was derived from an analogy to information processing in computers

Piaget won fame for his studies of the thought processes of children

Piaget described how growing children change their ideas about number, cause, time, space, & morality

Children & adults develop schemas on number, cause, time, space, & morality

For Piaget a schema is a behavior sequence involving recognition of a stimulus in the environment, & the motor response to that stimulus based on the understanding of its meaning

Schemas continue to develop as new info becomes available & is assimilated into existing schemas, transforming them into new schemas

Schemas are often modified to accommodate new info that does not fit the existing schemas

Schemas become increasingly complex as info is added

For Piaget, infants begin w/ crude, action oriented mental schemas, go through a series of transformations, & reach highly abstract & generalized ideas

Piaget believed children pass through four periods of mental development & the development of reason including
- the sensorimotor stage
- the preoperational stage
- the concrete operations stage
- the formal operations stage

1. IN THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE, CHILDREN DEVELOP A PHYSICAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE ENV BY TOUCHING, SEEING, HEARING, & MOVING ( birth until 2 yrs. )

During the sensorimotor period, children obtain a basic knowledge of objects through their senses

In the sensorimotor stage, schemas involve purely physical object & properties

In the sensorimotor stage, children learn object permanence where they come to understand that even if an object is gone from sight, it is still there

In the sensorimotor stage, the children represent the world in terms of their own activities

2. IN THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE, CHILDREN LEARN TO REPRESENT SCHEMAS IN THEIR MINDS & ENGAGE IN SYMBOLIC PLAY ( 2 - 7 yrs. )

During the preoperational period children develop such skills as language & drawing ability

Children at the preoperational stage continue to look at things from their own viewpoint, not that of someone else

Children at the preoperational stage cannot take or understand someone else's viewpoint

For Piaget, children at the preoperational stage move to a limited set of generalizations based on their knowledge of specific cases

3. IN THE CONCRETE OPERATIONS STAGE, CHILDREN THINK IN TERMS OF CONCRETE, READILY VISIBLE OBJECTS & OF CAUSE & EFFECT ( 7 - 11 yrs. )

In the period of concrete operations, children begin to think logically

Children learn to organize their knowledge, classify objects, & do thought problems

Children at the concrete operations stage can draw conclusions about physical consequences of an action w/o always having to try it out

As understood by Mead, & affirmed by Piaget, children can respond to the roles of others, consider things from the viewpoint of others, play different roles, & play games

For Piaget, in the concrete ops stage, children move to a wide set of generalizations based on their knowledge of general cases

4. THE STAGE OF FORMAL OPERATIONS IS WHERE CHILDREN CAN THINK ABSTRACTLY ABOUT SUCH THINGS AS LOVE, HAPPINESS, WEALTH, INTELLIGENCE, & REMORSE ( 11 yrs. & on )

At this time, children begin to reason realistically about the future & to deal w/ abstractions

They can think in terms of future consequences & evaluate the probable outcomes of several alternative courses of action

Children can think in terms of future consequences & evaluate outcomes of several alternatives

Children at the stage of formal operations can evaluate their own thoughts & self image as well as abstract philosophical concepts

Abstractions are ideas about qualities & characteristics viewed apart from the objects that have them

MANY SOCIAL / CULTURAL INFLUENCES IMPACT COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT INCLUDING ENVL ACCESS & COGNITIVE STIMULATION

Piaget & most cognitive theorists believe the capacity to transition through the stages of mental development & moral reasoning is enabled & constrained by the wider culture of the society which brings the social & physical experiences necessary for development

Society determines the appropriate age at which children transition through mental & moral development

A culture, a social group, a family may enhance or limit a child's interaction w/:

- the physical env needed during the sensorimotor stage

- language & play needed during the preoperational stage

- the logic challenges & games needed during the concrete operations stage

- the abstractions needed during the formal operations stage

If society, one's social group, family, or parents do not provide the proper env, a child may not develop the cognitive skills of a particular stage of mental or moral development

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Jean Piaget
1896 - 1980

Piaget was born in Neuchatel, Switzerland. When he was 10, he published a scientific article on an albino sparrow. He published articles on mollusks at 15. He received a doctor's degree in the natural sciences in 1918 & then studied psychology. In 1921, Piaget began to do research in child psychology at the Rousseau Institute in Geneva. He served as its codirector from 1933 to 1971 & as director of the International Bureau of Education from 1929 to 1967. Piaget was a professor of psychology at the University of Geneva from 1929 until his death. In 1955, Piaget founded the Center for the Study of Genetic Epistemology, an organization that studies learning processes.

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Major Works of Piaget

Piaget & his associates published more than 30 volumes on this subject

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Outline on an Intro to Lawrence Kohlberg 1927 - 1987

External
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Link

- Biography & Major Works

Summary: Like Freud, Piaget, Maslow, etc., Kohlberg believes we go through developmental psychological stages. Kohlberg believes that we develop morality & that morality proceeds from a crude consciousness of local group rules to an ability to reflect on the needs of a universal morality for all humanity

Kohlberg built on Piaget's work to study moral reasoning; that is, how individuals come to judge situations as right or wrong

THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT INCLUDE THE PRECONVENTIONAL, CONVENTIONAL, & POST CONVENTIONAL

For Kohlberg, moral development involves 3 stages: the preconventional, conventional, & post conventional

Link

The Chart on a Summary of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development on demonstrates that moral development demonstrates that people think about moral issues in many different ways

IN THE PRECONVENTIONAL STAGE, THE CHILD OBEYS AUTHORITY TO AVOID PUNISHMENT

In stage 1, punishment avoidance, children think of what is right as that which authority says is right

In stage 1, punishment avoidance, doing the right thing is obeying authority & avoiding punishment

In stage 2, need satisfaction, children are no longer so impressed by any single authority; they see that there are different sides to any issue

In stage 2, need satisfaction, since everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests, although it is often useful to make deals & exchange favors w/ others

IN THE CONVENTIONAL STAGE, THE YOUNG BASE THEIR DECISIONS ON SOCIAL APPROVAL FROM VARIOUS TYPES OF PEOPLE / GRPS

At stages 3 & 4, young people think as members of the conventional society w/ its values, norms, & expectations

At stage 3, social approval, they emphasize being a good person, which basically means having helpful motives toward people close to one

At stage 4, law & order, the concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society as a whole

IN THE POST CONVENTIONAL STAGE, ADULTS FOLLOW PRINCIPLES & SOCIAL CONTRACTS

At stages 5 & 6, people are less concerned w/ maintaining society for it own sake, & more concerned w/ the principles & values that make for a good society

At stage 5, people establish social contracts which emphasize basic rights & the democratic processes that give everyone a say

At stage 6, people establish moral reasoning which define the principles by which agreement will be most just

MORAL EDUCATION ASSISTS PEOPLE THROUGH ALL STAGES, W/ A GOAL OF BRINGING ALL PEOPLE TO THE POST CONVENTIONAL STAGE

Moral education is instruction focused on questions of right & wrong

Moral ed also includes the development of values, the standards by which people judge what is important, worthwhile, & good

People receive moral ed from many sources, including their family, church, friends, & teachers, & even TV

Schools have always been involved in moral ed, either intentionally or unintentionally

THE CHIEF METHODS OF MORAL ED ARE INCULCATION, VALUES CLARIFICATION, MORAL DEV & VALUE ANALYSIS

The chief methods of moral ed are
a. inculcation
b. values clarification
c. moral development
d. value analysis

A combination of the chief methods of moral ed is an approach called comprehensive moral ed

An example of comprehensive moral ed is seen in many stories for young readers in schools include a moral lesson

During the 1970s, educators in the US began to develop special teaching methods to help students deal w/ moral questions

A. INCULCATION PLANTS VALUES IN THE MIND OF CHILDREN BY REPEATED ADMONITION

Inculcation is an effort to teach children the values that educators believe lead to moral behavior

The values that are typically inculcated in ed include honesty, compassion, justice, & respect for others

One way of teaching standards for values is to provide appropriate praise & punishment, i.e. typical socialization

Another means to teach standards for values is to have teachers reflect the desired values in their own behavior

B. VALUES CLARIFICATION FOCUSES ON COMPARING DICHOTOMOUS VALUES & DEVELOPING A DECISION MAKING PROCESS TO CHOOSE A VALUE OR VALUE SET

Values clarification helps students develop their own values & moral standards by teaching them a decision making process

The learning procedures stress setting goals, choosing thoughtfully from alternatives, & acting on one's own convictions

C. MORAL DEVELOPMENT HELPS STUDENTS IMPROVE THEIR ABILITY TO JUDGE MORAL QUESTIONS

The method of enhancing moral dev is based on the theory that people progress from lower to higher stages of moral reasoning

During moral dev, people progress from making moral decisions based on self interest, to seeking the approval of others, to following rules, to respecting the rights of others, & so on

At the highest level of moral dev, a person might oppose the laws of society if they conflict w/ moral principles that are even higher

One can stimulate moral dev primarily by discussing difficult questions called moral dilemmas

One classic dilemma is, "Should Jean Valjean steal food to feed his starving family?" as so aptly portrayed in Victor Hugos's Les Miserables

Moral dev can be stimulated through practice; e.g. establishing just orgs where people govern themselves according to the principles of fairness & justice

The practice of moral dev has mostly been done by teachers in schools, in which students govern themselves, & unfortunately has only been tried in a few business, religious orgs, soc mvmts, families, & other types of orgs

D. VALUE ANALYSIS HELPS STUDENTS APPLY TECHNIQUES OF LOGIC & SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION TO MATTERS INVOLVING VALUES

In analyzing values it is important to stress the importance of exploring all alternatives, of gathering & evaluating the facts, & of making a logical decision

Some people oppose the teaching of moral ed in schools

Those opposing moral ed believe that only the family & church should provide moral instruction

Those opposing moral ed argue that moral ed takes class time that should be used for such basic subjects as reading, writing, & math

Surveys indicate that most parents favor some form of moral ed in schools

Supporters of moral ed argue that the family & church need help in teaching moral behavior

Supporters of moral ed note that schools in a democratic society must teach such values as hard work, honesty, fairness, cooperation, tolerance, & respect if democracy is to succeed

CRITIQUE: KOHLBERG'S THEORY USED ONLY MALE SUBJECT, IS MOSTLY THEORETICAL & POSITS A STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT THAT FEW, IF ANY, PEOPLE ATTAIN

Kohlberg's theory is based on research using exclusively male subjects

While the entire framework is problematic because it is more based in theory than in research, the post conventional stage is esp subject to this criticism

A criticism of the post conventional stage is that there is very little research on it because according to Kohlberg's theory, few people attain it

A criticism of the post conventional stage is that it appears, theoretically, to be the embodiment of relativism in that achieving justice is difficult to measure & agree on

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Chart: Summary of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Stage

Level

Summary of Stages

Preconventional Level

Stage 1

Punishment avoidance

Avoid punishment or bad consequences; similar to Piaget's morality of constraint

Stage 2

Need satisfaction

Beh is OK if it satisfies desires

Conventional Level

Stage 3

Social approval

Beh is OK if approved by others

Stage 4

Law & order

Right & wrong defined on basis of rules & laws as set by society

Post conventional Level

Stage 5

Social contracts

Dev agreements, implicit or explicit entered into for mutual benefit
(look beyond letter of law to the spirit of the law)

Stage 6

Moral reasoning

Dev universal ethical principles linked to "higher order"

The Chart on a Summary of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development on demonstrates that moral development demonstrates that people think about moral issues in many different ways

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Lawrence Kohlberg

1927 - 1987

Kohlberg, who was born in 1927, grew up in Bronxville, NY, & attended the Andover Academy in MA, a private high school for bright & usually wealthy students. He did not go immediately to college, but instead went to help the Israeli cause, in which he was made the Second Engineer on an old freighter carrying refugees from parts of Europe to Israel. After this, in 1948, he enrolled at the U of Chicago, where he scored so high on admission tests that he had to take only a few courses to earn his bachelor's degree. This he did in one year. He stayed on at Chicago for grade work in psyc, at first thinking he would become a clinical psychologist. However, he soon became interested in Piaget & began interviewing children & adolescents on moral issues. The result was his doctoral dissertation (1958a), the first rendition of his new stage theory.

WC Crain. (1985). Theories of Development. Prentice Hall. pp. 118-136

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Major Works

6 Stages of Moral Development (from Kohlberg's Essays on Moral Development - Volume I) (by J. Craig: U. of Chicago)
Kohlberg's Moral Dilemas (at Haverford College)
Levels & Stages of Moral Development (by L. Gill & C. Magee: Pepperdine U.)
Levels & Stages of Moral Development: Examples (by L. Gill & C. Magee: Pepperdine U.)
Moral Development (Tutorial) (by M. Anderson: Cortland College)
Stages of Moral Development (by Kohlberg: 1971 - Comments by C. Kramar)

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Outline on Carol Gilligan 1936 - present

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

- Supplement: Gilligan

Link

MEN HAVE A RULE FOLLOWING MORALITY WHILE WOMEN HAVE A PERSON CENTERED MORALITY

Gilligan asserted that women have differing moral & psychological tendencies than men

Gilligan found that boys moral development reflects a justice model which stresses formal rules

Men think in terms of rules & justice & women are more inclined to think in terms of caring & relationships

Impersonal rules have long governed men's lives

Gilligan found that girls put more emphasis on caring & responsibility, & less on the rules

Gilligan does not adequately address the issue of the origin of the gender based differences that she has identified

Girls judge a situation in terms of personal relationships & loyalties

Personal relationships are more relevant to women's lives, while men will look to different criteria to judge a situation

FOR GILLIGAN KOHLBERG FOCUSED ON PRINCIPLED MORALITY & IGNORED A PERSON CENTERED MORALITY

Gilligan criticized Kohlberg's theory of moral dev because in his stage theory of moral development, the male view of individual rights & rules was considered a higher stage than women's point of view of development in terms of its caring effect on human relationships

Kohlberg's research on the moral development of children showed that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development than boys did

Gilligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg's basic study were largely male

The scoring method Kohlberg used tended to favor a principled way of reasoning that was more common to boys, over a moral argumentation concentrating on relations, which would be more amenable to girls

Kohlberg saw reason to revise his scoring methods as a result of Gilligan's critique, after which boys & girls scored evenly

A PERSON CENTERED MORALITY EMBODIES AN ETHICS OF CARE

In her studies of women, Gilligan asked four questions about women's voices, including:
a. who is speaking?
b. through what body are they speaking?
c. what story are they telling?
d. in what cultural framework is the story presented?

Gilligan believes there are three stages of moral development progressing from selfish, to social or conventional morality, & finally to post conventional or principled morality

Women must learn to tend to their own interests & to the interests of others

Women hesitate to judge because they see the complexities of relationships

Work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics that contrasts ethics of care to so called ethics of justice

Sara Ruddick drew upon Gilligan's hypothesis to support her belief that a female capacity for 'maternal thinking' could be harnessed as the foundation for a form of politics

Ruddick believes that the ethics of care is less conflictual & ultimately more benign than what she perceives as the present patriarchal structure

A CRITICISM OF GILLIGAN IS THAT SHE NEVER VALIDATED HER WORK W/ RESEARCH

A frequent criticism of Gilligan's work is that it has failed to produce the data for her research

Christina Hoff Sommers, in her book The War Against Boys notes that the In a Different Voice studies by Gilligan did not follow standard research protocol

Gilligan used small samples, her findings were not peer reviewed

Decades later, Gilligan has continued to resist letting other researchers see her data

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Carol Gilligan

1936 - present

Carol Gilligan received a B.A. in English literature from Swarthmore College, a master's degree in clinical psychology from Radcliffe College & a PhD in social psychology from Harvard U. Was named by Time Magazine as one of the 25 most influential Americans. She is now a visiting professor at the University of Cambridge, affiliated w/ the Center for Gender Studies.

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Major Works of Gilligan

Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory & Women's Development. 1982.

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Outline on Social Isolation

External
Links

- Supplement: Alone In the Crowd

Link

ISOLATION IS DETRIMENTAL & CAN EVEN BE USED AS PUNISHMENT, BUT WE ARE BECOMING FOR ACCUSTOMED TO IT AS WE LIVE MORE INDEPENDENT LIVES

Humans are animals who run in packs & require socialization for normal development & existence

The opposite of grp behavior & socialization is social isolation

Social isolation can take place in a number of manners & people usually think of physical isolation but there are many types

Ostracism is the process of shunning whereby an individual or grp is deliberately socially isolated by their community usually as a punishment

Urban isolation or being alone in the crowd is probably the most common form of social isolation, but it is also the newest

A SOCIO HISTL ANALYSIS OF ISOLATION SHOWS THAT UNTIL THE MODERN AGE, PEOPLE WERE RARELY ISOLATED

Urban isolation did not become common until the late 1800s w/ the rise of large cities & industrialization

For millennia, people lived in small rural villages or tribes

Villagers all had their family & extended family close by

Villagers grew up, went to school, worked, lived & eventually died w/ the same people

Villagers did not have to do anything to become a part of their society because they were simply born into the close knit, social fabric of a community

During the last 100 years, society has undergone profound changes that contribute to the problem of urban isolation

FACTORS LEADING TO ISOLATION INCLUDE MIGRATION, CHANGES IN FAMILY STRUCTURE, & MOVEMENT IN PURSUIT OF CAREERS

The sociological changes enhancing the possibility of living in isolation include the:

a. migration of the population to large cities since the indl revolution

b. loss of extended family as advances in transportation create an increasingly mobile society

c. breakdown of the nuclear family w/ the social acceptance of divorce

d. loss of history w/ people as close friends move away to pursue education, jobs & promotions

Society has not yet developed the coping strategies to deal w/ the factors leading to social isolation

RESEARCH ON ISOLATION SHOWS THAT HIGH LEVELS CAN BE DAMAGING

Research on the effects of social isolation has demonstrated the importance of socialization

All of the evidence points to the crucial role of social development in forming personality

Harry & Margaret Harlow's experimental work w/ rhesus monkeys demonstrated that social isolation disturbs monkeys' development

Isolated monkeys become depressed, violent, & can never learn to interact w/ other monkey's in a normal way

Studies of isolated children like Anna, Isabelle, & Genie further supports the conclusion that social isolation disturbs human development

AS A SOCIETY, WE ARE BECOMING MORE ACCUSTOMED TO ISOLATION

Today people are trying to adjust & deal w/ loss, loneliness, isolation, constant change, high paced stressful jobs, single parent families, blended families & the repeated necessity of rebuilding ones social support system

One key antidote for urban isolation is membership in grps that you find meaningful & enjoyable

The rise of social movements parallels the rise of urban isolation & the breakdown of traditional orgs such as the family & religion

Many people are not comfortable joining grps & even develop a fear of grps & / or crowds

But today more & more people are joining grps & soc mvmts as traditional primary relationships become more rare, modern primary relationships & secondary relationships are much more common

Primary relationships are those where we have regular face to face interaction that includes personal interaction

Secondary relationships are less frequent & the nature of the interaction is professional, instrumental, or utilitarian & not necessarily personal

The line btwn primary & secondary relationships is blurring & now we estb prof relations w/ those whom we are friends & we estb more personal relationships w/ acquaintance

The average number of secondary relations has sky rocketed while the number of primary relationships has either remained stable or dropped

Secondary relationships are useful in overcoming isolation & certainly primary relationships are useful, & each person has their own needs w/ respect to each type & dealing w/ their experience of isolation

Isolation is often a major contributing factor to school shootings, e.g. Columbine & VA Tech, & workplace violence

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Outline on Total Institutions

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TOTAL INSTITUTIONS ARE SETTINGS IN WHICH PEOPLE ARE ISOLATED FROM THE REST OF SOCIETY & MANIPULATED BY AN ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF

The purpose of a total institution ( TI ) is radical resocialization through the altering of an individual's personality through deliberate control of the environment

The process of radical resocialization has two stages where in the first, the TI breaks down the new individual's existing identity & second, the TI tries to build a new self

TIs are much more successful at breaking down the individual's self that in building a new self

Total institutions are
- any group or organization
- that has almost complete control
- over an individual or a group
- & that attempt to eliminate the effects of previous socialization
- & instill new socialization

ORDINARY INSTITS SUPPORT SOCIETY'S CULTURE, USE SMIPNN, EMBRACE MOST AOSs, & ALLOW LIMITED COMMITMENT

Ordinary Institutions socialize members &
1.   support the general culture of the society in which they are found
2.   use the processes of socialization ( SMIPNN ) in a limited manner
3.   are open in that they allow socialization from other or even competing AOSs
4.   allow limited commitment

TIs EMBRACE EXTREME METHODS OF SOCIALIZATION TO CREATE TOTAL COMMITMENT TO A NARROW SET OF SUBCULTURAL GOALS

Total Institutions socialize members &
1.   seek to eliminate previous socialization
2.   seek resocialization w/ new subcultural goals
3.   demand round the clock control
4.   often use fatigue, physical brutality, mental manipulation
5.   do not support the general culture of the society in which they are found
6.   use the processes of socialization ( SMIPNN ) in a totalistic manner
7.   are more or less closed: do not allow SMIPNN from any other AOSs
8.   demand full commitment

Link

The Table on a Comparison of Total Institutions & Ordinary Institutions demonstrates that the behavior of total institutions is ordinary behavior taken to the extreme

Link

The Table on Examples of accepted Total Institutions in society today demonstrates that there are many institutions in our society that have many of the qualities of total institutions

INTERROGATION & BRAINWASHING CANNOT ACHIEVE TOTAL PERSONALITY CHANGE / ROBOTIC CONTROL, YET, AS ENVISIONED IN SCIENCE FICTION

Brainwashing during the Korean war demonstrated that brainwashing is mostly ineffective, but can break a person

The context of brainwashing, or today, interrogation, is sleep deprivation, starvation, extreme brutality, freezing cold, boiling hot, isolation, humiliation

Ideological brainwashing was the most common type of brainwashing during the Korean War & the Vietnam War as seen in the attempt to get soldiers to accept the culture & philosophy of Korean Communism & the reject USA

During the Cold War there was a widespread fear of brainwashing

It is "difficult or impossible" to achieve the robotic control through brainwashing as depicted by Charles Bronson in "Telefone"

Movies such as the "Manchurian Candidate" which was remade in 2004 depict totally brainwashing or control, but are total fiction because such control is not possible w/ current technology

During the 1950s & later the CIA used LSD & other drugs to determine their usefulness in brainwashing

Any attempts at brainwashing, interrogation, torture, etc. utilize the processes of socialization in a malevolent fashion

The utilization of the processes of socialization of reward & punishment in brainwashing can be seen in punishing any support of the home country & rewards in the form sleep, food, comfort, letters from home for rejecting the home country, etc.

The utilization of the process of socialization of selective exposure in brainwashing can be seen in the exposure to propaganda such as false info on the home country or info that may be true that is generally ignore such as civilian casualties

The utilization of the process of socialization of nurturance in brainwashing can be seen in lenience at critical times & the good cop, bad cop scenario

The utilization of the process of socialization of modeling in brainwashing can be seen in model prisoners, prisoners turned guard, people from the home country questioning the policies & actions of the home country

The utilization of the process of socialization of identification in brainwashing can be seen in model prisoners, prisoners turned guard, people from the home country questioning the policies & actions of the home country

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Table on a Comparison of Total Institutions & Ordinary Institutions

Ordinary Institutions

Total Institutions

"Normal" Group of Friends

Gang, cult, club

"Normal" Family

Typically a closed, abusive, patriarchal family

"Normal" Church

Cult: Davideans: David Koresh

"Normal" Workplace

Slavery, indentured servitude; Cinderella's workplace; Mob workplace

"Modern" Government

North Korea, Albania

"Modern" Military

Any historically earlier military, militia, terrorists

"Normal" Schools

Juvenile, reform, boot camps, boarding

"Normal" Media

Ministry of Disinformation

"Normal" Charity

Forced Giving

"Normal" Leisure

Shangrila: paradise on Earth; Pinnochio's Carnival

The Table on a Comparison of Total Institutions & Ordinary Institutions demonstrates that the behavior of total institutions is ordinary behavior taken to the extreme

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Examples of accepted Total Institutions in society today. Note that each of these examples may only partially exhibit the qualities of a Total Institution

Prisons	"Health Spas" i.e. detox centers or substance abuse programs
Juvenile Halls, reform schools	Orphanages
Mental Hospitals	Boarding schools
Military during boot camp	Nursing homes
"Boot Camps"	Militias

The Table on Examples of accepted Total Institutions in society today demonstrates that there are many institutions in our society that have many of the qualities of total institutions

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Outline on Functionalism on Socialization

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Review: Functionalism views society as a living organism, & like an organism, society has FOUR characteristics of life:
- has needs (need inputs)
- has ways to reproduce
- competes & cooperates
- needs order or it is "sick" or has "cancer"

SOCIALIZATION PRIMARILY FULFILLS THE FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES OF INTEGRATION & MAINTENANCE, BUT WE ARE ALSO SOCIALIZED TO ADAPT & TO THE GOALS OF SOCIETY

Functionalism discusses EIGHT points on socialization

1. Socialization gives the individual social survival skills; i.e., what individuals need to meet physical & social needs in society

2. Socialization provides information

3. Socialization transmits information from generation to generation

4. Socialization preserves culture

5. Socialization promotes consensus, thus socialization is the basis for human cooperation

6. Socialization provides diverse messages from different agents of socialization (AOS's) which allows society to adapt by selecting the best message

7. Socialization creates needed social interaction that may be functional or dysfunctional

8. Socialization allows people to learn social roles that may be in conflict or strained

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Outline on Conflict Theory on Socialization

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Introduction: Conflict Theory generally runs from Marx -> Mills -> Dahrendorf

Review: Conflict Theory focuses on FOUR qualities of society:
Society has 2 or more classes of people who are in conflict (competition)
Different groups in society are in conflict over control of resources
Different groups in society are in conflict over control of ideology
Historically one group has dominated

Review: Ideology: a world view, including knowledge, opinions, etc.

SOCIALIZATION IS CONTESTED AS PEOPLE ARE SOCIALIZED EITHER TO ACCEPT THE STATUS QUO OR TO STRUGGLE FOR CHANGE

Members of a society are socialized to an ideology which is the part of the culture of which we are more or less aware

Conflict Theory holds that people are socialized to accept the ideology of the dominant system in the society in which one lives

Conflict theory views socialization as a "cultural weapon" in group conflict

The forced extinction of conquered peoples around the world demonstrates that cultures dominate other cultures & may destroy a culture

CONFLICT THEORISTS FOCUS ON SOCIALIZATION AS IT IS AFFECTED BY & AFFECTS:

1. GROUP INTERESTS
2. ITS CONTENT
3. COMMERCIALISM & MATERIALISM

4. SOCIAL CHANGE
5. SOCIAL CHANNELING
6. FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS

Conflict theorists focus on SIX major aspects of socialization

1. Socialization often supports the dominant group interests

Obedience & hierarchy are important themes in the socialization process

Socialization often teaches people not to ask questions

2. In open societies, there is conflict over the substance of socialization, such as i.e. ideas, beliefs, values, culture, ideology, etc.

3. In modern, global, state capitalist societies, commercialism & materialism invades every sphere of life socializing members to these practices

4. Social change begins w/ diverse socialization

Different messages come from subcultures in response to the self interest's of that group

5. Social channeling is a socially positive, i.e. functional process, that is often unfairly applied in the US

Class, race, etc. based social channeling serves the interests of the dominant group

Class, race, etc. based social channeling limits social mobility

Class, race, etc. based social channeling, that is limited in scope, promotes stability but wide spread social channeling creates conflict

Example: For conflict theorists, an example of class based socialization is that in high school, & earlier, the college track is reserved for middle class & the upper middle class. The non college track is for the lower class & the working class. The tracks in the educational social structure are not closely tied to achievement

6. Socialization is vital to combat false consciousness, i.e., create class consciousness

The End

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