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Review Notes on   IS Lecture 8:  Sexuality & Society
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Sexuality & Society  
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         Sex & Gender   
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         Gender Roles  
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         Gender Identity  
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         Culture & Sexuality  
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Romance, Love, etc.  
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         The Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State by Engels & Marx  
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         Socio Historical Analysis of Romance, Love, etc.   
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         Marriage  
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         Socio Historical Analysis of Marriage  
  Sexology:  The Scientific Study of Sexuality   
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         Kinsey,  1894 - 1956  
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         Masters & Johnson,  1915 - 2001;  1925 -   
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         Hite,  1942 -   
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Sexual Orientation  
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         Transsexualism  
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         The Gay Rights Movement  
  Marriage & Sexuality Issues & Controversies   
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         Divorce  
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         Infidelity  
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         Out of Wedlock Births  
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         Teen Pregnancies  
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         Pornography  
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         Prostitution  
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         Sexual Violence  
  The Social Sciences on Sexuality & Society   
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         Functionalism on Sexuality  
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         Symbolic Interactionism on Sexuality  
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         Conflict Theory on Sexuality  

 
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 Outline on an   Intro to Sexuality & Society
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Human sexuality is how people experience & express themselves as sexual beings   
 
Gender is everything that distinguishes a person as either male or female  
 
Sexually, like humanity's other appetites, is fundamentally the same across cultures, & yet it's expression varies widely btwn as well as w/in societies   
 
Human beings are born male or female, & the physical differences of the sexes play an important role in determining our sexuality   
 
Sexuality also involves our inner sense of our self, that is, our very identity, including being a male or female, as well as ways of behaving   
 
A wide variety of factors shape a person's sexuality which can be broadly grouped as (a) biological, (b) psychological, & (c) social/cultural   
 
Biologically, sexuality encompasses sexual intercourse & sexual contact in all its forms, as well as medical concerns about the physiological or even psychological aspects of sexual behavior 
 
 
Sociologically, sexuality encompasses cultural, political, & legal aspects 
 
 
Philosophically, sexuality encompasses the moral, ethical, theological, spiritual or religious aspects 
 
  Sexuality influences how we behave, experience, feel, & think in a wide range of situations   
  Sexuality affects how we view our roles in life, especially in family relationships, at school, in the workplace, & in our community   
  Our sexuality helps define our attitudes about love & sexual relationships   
  Our sexuality  partially determines who we are sexually attracted to & how we express ourselves sexually w/in a relationship   
  The sex ratio is the proportion of males to females in a population   
  Studies of birth records for human beings & other animals indicate that many species have more individuals of one sex than of the other   
  Among human beings, for example, 103 to 107 boys are born for every 100 girls   
  In the adult population, however, women outnumber men from adolescence on because men die young more frequently from unnatural causes throughout life & because women, on the average, live longer   
  Horses give birth to about 98 males for every 100 females & chickens have about 95 males to every 100 females   
 
FOUCAULT ON SEX   
 
Michel Foucault pointed out in The History of Sex (1976) that the concept of the activities & sensations we consider to be "sexual" are historically, regionally & culturally determined   
 
For Foucault, sexuality, because of its development across time & cultures, is part of a changing "discourse"   
  In many historical eras, recovered art & artifacts help to portray human sexuality of the time period   
  Modern society in the US today has become so eroticized that the viewing of female breasts, as for example in the public Victoria's Secrets ads, is sexual, & thus breast feeding which was until the 18th C not a sexual activity, is now controversial in the US w/ some advocating that it should only be done in private   
  The sexual meanings, i.e. the meanings of the erotic dimension of the human sexual experience, are social & cultural constructs 
 
 
Erotic expressions are made subjective, i.e. imbued w/ sexual / secret meaning, only after cultural & social mediation 
 
 
Being the main force conditioning human relationship, sex is essentially political, i.e. the personal is political, the body is political   
 
In any social context, the construction of a "sexual universe" is fundamentally linked to the structures of power 
 
 
The construction of sexual meanings, is an instrument by which social structures, e.g. peers, family, religion, econ, govt, military, charity, ed, media, leisure, as well as social institutions such as marketing, psychiatry, etc. control & shape human relationships 
 
 
According to Foucault, sexuality began to be regarded as a concept part of human nature since the 19th century; so sexuality began to be used as a means to define normality 
 
 
Like Durkheim, Foucault noted that to estb the boundaries of "normal sexual behavior" is to conceive everything outside those boundaries in the realm of psycho pathology 
 
 
For Foucault, in the 20th century, w/ the theories of Freud & of sexology, the "not normal" was seen more as a "discontent of civilization" 
 
 
SOCIETY & SEX 
 
  Psychological, social, & cultural factors that influence our sexuality include personal beliefs, emotions, & feelings   
  As young children, we develop a concept of ourselves & a large part of that self concept is defined as either male or female   
  We also learn how a person of our sex is expected to act in society   
  Parents, friends, teachers, television & other forms of mass communication, religious teachings, & many other sources help shape how we feel about our sexuality   
  Sexual attitudes & behavior often involve intense emotions & attractions   
  Feelings of sexual desire may begin during the biological changes of puberty, but they are influenced by social learning   
  Both our conscious & unconscious thoughts influence how we respond sexually to another person   
  Every society has its own beliefs about the ways that males & females should behave & as a result, attitudes about sexuality vary widely from culture to culture   
  The people of one culture may regard legs, earlobes, & the back of the neck as sexually attractive   
  But people of another culture may find nothing at all sexual about the legs, earlobes, & the back of the neck   
  Similarly, such body decorations as tattoos or cosmetics might be considered appropriate in one culture but not in another   
  Ideas about the roles of the sexes also vary widely from society to society   
  For example, in most of Italy, it is common for men to express affection for each other w/ big, emotional hugs   
  In the US, a public display of affection btwn men is less common   
 
Human sexuality is also understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behavior & the status quo 
 
 
From a social pt of view, sexual norms are determined by not only society, but more specifically by the norms of the groups one belongs to, in that for example, one may come from a "normal family" w/ modern / traditional norms that accept / expect pre marital sex, & then become part of an absentence only peer group 
 
 
The socio cultural aspect examines influences on & from social norms, including mediums such as politics & the mass media 
 
 
The mediums of politics, the media, peer pressure, religion etc. are able to bring about massive changes in the social norms as seen in the examples of the sexual revolution & the rise of feminism 
 
 
SEX EDUCATION 
 
 
Sex education is the introduction of sexual topics w/in an educational context 
 
 
Almost all western countries have some form of sex education, but the nature varies widely 
 
 
In some countries, such as Australia & much of Europe, "age appropriate" sex education often begins in pre school, whereas other countries, notably the USA, leave sex education to the teenage years & even the late teenage years 
 
 
Sex education covers a range of topics, including the physical, mental, & social aspects of sexual behavior 
 
 
PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWS ON SEXUALITY ARE DIVIDED BASED ON THE PSYCHL PARADIGM 
 
  Psychl views on sex are quite different for the psycho dynamic, behaviorist, cognitive, humanistic, etc. psychl paradigms   
 
Early psychological analysis were carried out by Freud, who believed that Eros, the sex / life drive, was a fundamental motivator of human behavior 
 
 
Freud developed the concepts of erogenous zones, psycho sexual development, & the Oedipus complex, among others 
 
  Behavior theorists such as Watson & Skinner examined the actions & consequences & their ramifications   
  These theorists would, for example, study children who were punished for sexual exploration & see if they grew up to associate negative feelings w/ sex in general   
  Social learning theorists use similar concepts, but focused on cognitive activity & modeling   
  Gender identity is a specific psychological aspect of human sexuality that can be affected by the social env   

 
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  Outline on  Sex vs. Gender 
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  Many people use the terms sex & gender interchangeably, however, social scientists consider the two terms to have different meanings   
  SEX   
 
Sex is the biological categorization of male, female, "other" 
 
  Sex refers to the physical characteristics that make a person male or female   
  When social scientists talk of sex differences btwn females & males, they usually refer to biological characteristics, such as hormonal, anatomical, & physiological differences that  define them   
 
Less than 1 % of the population has major physical characteristics of both male & female   
 
Much of the population has minor physical characteristics of both males & females such as seen in the TV show "He's a Lady"  
  GENDER   
 
Gender is the social category of male, female, other 
 
 
Gender socially learned traits associated w/, & expected of men or women   
 
Gender refers to the personal traits & social positions that members of a society attach to being female & male   
  Gender refers to a sense of being male or female or having the recognizable traits of one's sex   
  Gender differences refer to the socially & culturally constructed definitions of what it means to be female & male   
  The social construction of gender in a particular society or subculture shapes norms & expectations for appropriate behaviors, roles, & appearance for males & females   
  Biologically, men & women differ in limited ways, but culture can define the two sexes in dramatically different ways   
  Social indicators of gender have changed over time: 
   Long/short hair 
   Skirts/pants 
   What are some other social indicators? 
 
  Biological indicators of sex have changed as, for example, women are now over 1 inch taller than 30 yrs. ago   
  It is important not to think of social differences btwn the sexes exclusively in biological terms   
  The appropriate roles, behaviors, & expectations for males & females have modified considerably over time   
  THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, GENDER, & SEX   
  Sociology of gender is the study of socially constructed female & male roles, relations, & identities   
  Feminist theory is the study of woman centered patterning of human experience 
 
 
Today there is a growing sociology of gender on masculinity 
 
 
Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a male are called masculine 
 
 
Characteristics & behavior generally associated w/ being a female are called feminine 
 
 
The development of sexuality is influenced by two major forces related to gender: gender identity & gender role 
 
 
Gender identity is a personal sense that "I am a male" or "I am a female" 
 
 
Gender identity develops partly from biological influences, such as body shape & genitals, & partly from cultural influences, including clothing & hairstyle 
 
 
Gender role refers to a society's expectations for males & females, including values, attitudes, & behavior 
 
 
Individuals develop these expectations w/ the influence of parents, friends, & teachers, as well as television, motion pictures, & other sources 
 
  Men are stereotypically considered to be more aggressive & action oriented while women are thought ot be more capable of nurturing & caring behavior that makes them better able to take care of family & household needs   
  In a now classic study Margaret mead noted that among the Arapesh, the Mindugumor, & the Tchambuli tribes in the So Pacific, masculinity & femininity were socially constructed differently in each   
  Among the Arapesh, women as well as men displayed inaggressive, cooperative, & caring behaviors   
  Among the Mundugumor, both sexes exhibited aggressive behavior   
  Among the Tchambuli, the men displayed more passive & dependent behavior than women   
 
Among the Aka, a hunting & gathering tribe in central Africa, Hewlett notes the close bond btwn infants & fathers, & the open display of affection & nurturing behavior by men is in sharp contrast to the 'rough & tumble' play characteristic of interaction btwn American fathers & infants 
 
  Recent studies show varied definitions of masculinity & femininity in the US, & variations in behavior among women & men   
  When men take on the primary parenting role & share in household responsibilities, they display close emotional & nurturing ties to their children & are capable of developing 'maternal thinking'   
  WOmen & men are now taking on roles & responsibilities that were considered quite inappropriate one or tow generations ago   
 
SEX & THE BODY 
 
  Primary sex characteristics refer to the organs used for reproduction, namely the genitals   
  Secondary sex characteristics are bodily differences, apart from the genitals, that distinguish biologically mature females & males   
  The term inter sexual people refers to people whose bodies (including genitals) have both female & male characteristics   
  An older term for inter sexual people is hermaphrodite   
  Transsexuals are people who feel they are one sex even though biologically they are the other   

 
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 Outline on  Gender Roles
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Each of us develops general beliefs about males & females, including assumptions about appropriate attitudes & behavior for each gender 
 
  These general beliefs about maleness & femaleness are part of the wider culture, & are transmitted via the processes of socialization   
  See Also:  Culture   
  See Also:  Socialization   
 
Our concepts of masculine & feminine gender roles profoundly affect our sexuality & our relationships 
 
 
The terms masculinity & femininity usually refer to a combination of physical traits, such as body shape, voice, & facial hair, & acquired characteristics such as hairstyle, clothing, body movements, & display of emotions 
 
 
When we meet people for the first time, most of us quickly note the person's gender based on these traits & characteristics 
 
 
We tend consciously or unconsciously to judge the masculinity or femininity of people by how closely they correspond to our expectations for each gender 
 
 
Gender role expectations are often formed by male or female stereotypes 
 
 
A stereotype refers to oversimplified characteristics applied as a generalization to a group of people 
 
 
A stereotype represents a form of pre judgment applied to all individuals of a certain age, gender, physical appearance, ethnic group, or occupation 
 
  See Also:  Social Injustice based on Social Differentiation   
 
CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON GENDER ROLES 
 
 
All societies have cultural guidelines for each gender's proper role & personality 
 
 
In the past, most societies in Europe & the Americas associated masculinity w/ being independent, aggressive, & competitive 
 
 
Most Europeans & Americans also considered it masculine to serve as the family's main financial provider & to take initiative in contacts w/ women 
 
 
Traditional feminine characteristics included being warm, emotional, dependent, & noncompetitive 
 
 
Feminine individuals were also expected to nurture (take care of or "mother") men & children 
 
  ANTHROPOLOGICAL VIEWS OF GENDER ROLES   
  Anthropological studies demonstrate that contrary to most people's believes, a wide variety of gender roles are possible   
 
Different cultures often have different ideas about what defines masculinity or femininity 
 
 
The American anthropologist Margaret Mead found wide cultural variety in relation to gender & sexuality in her studies of the peoples of New Guinea during the 1920s & 1930s 
 
 
Mead noted that among the Mundugumor, both sexes are gentle, nurturing, & non aggressive 
 
 
Gentle, nurturing, & non aggressive behaviors would have been regarded as feminine in American society at that time, & now 
 
 
Among the Tchambuli, Mead observed a reversal of traditional American gender roles 
 
  Tchambuli men were quiet, understanding, & emotionally dependent while Tchambuli women were lively, businesslike, & independent   
  In all societies, individuals learn rules governing gender roles from a variety of sources, including their family & church   
  Three other important sources of gender roles are (1) peer groups, (2) school, & (3) the mass media   
  PEER INFLUENCES   
  Peer groups are people of the same age, background, occupation, or social status   
  Most people interact socially & become friends w/ people who are in their peer group   
  Peer influence on gender roles begins at an early age   
  Even 3 year olds have ideas about "what boys do" & "what girls do" & put pressure on one another to act according to those ideas   
  When children engage in behavior stereotyped as typical of the other sex, their peers may criticize them   
  For example, a boy who wears a frilly, pink shirt or a ponytail may be ridiculed by classmates   
  In addition, many children tend to select playmates of the same sex, which reinforces traditional gender roles   
  During adolescence, the approval & acceptance of peers can be more important than the approval of parents   
  In high school, peer groups have sharply defined gender roles w/ rules about proper behavior for males & females   
  Individuals who do not meet the group's expectations for behavior may be subjected to ridicule, teasing, being left out of group activities, or other forms of pressure   
  SCHOOL INFLUENCES   
  Schools teach far more about gender roles than is apparent in the formal curriculum   
  A teacher's values, attitudes, & behavior all influence those of students   
  A teacher who holds stereotyped gender role expectations may give boys more encouragement than girls w/o realizing it   
  For example, the stereotyping teacher may praise boys for the intellectual content of their work, while girls may be praised for neatness  
  In the 1980s & 1990s, many schools began to provide training to help teachers ensure equal treatment for boys & girls   
  THE MEDIA 'CONSTRUCTS' A WIDE VARIETY OF GENDER ROLES INCLUDING UNREALISTIC & IDEALIZED ROLES, PROGRESSIVE ROLES, ETC.   
  The media 'constructs' roles in the sense that it intentionally creates them based on commercial interests, artistic interests, progressive & conservative interests, etc.   
The Western media is 'conflict terrain' in that a plethora of interests use it to advance their own, divergent agendas 
The strength of the Western media is that there is a wide variety of view pts available 
  The mass media include the various forms of mass communication:  television, newspapers, magazines, radio, motion pictures, & the internet   
  TV plays a particularly large role in shaping a person's values, attitudes, & behavior   
  Many children spend long hours watching TV   
  Evidence indicates that people, especially young people, pattern their behavior after what they see or hear in the mass media   
  A style of clothing or hairstyle that becomes trendy on TV or in motion pictures quickly becomes trendy at school   
  Until the 1980s, television traditionally portrayed mostly stereotypical gender roles   
  Characters who appeared in nontraditional gender roles were frequently portrayed as silly or ineffective   
  For example, a male character who took care of a baby or a female character who attempted to fix an automobile might fail miserably at these tasks  
  Such portrayals of non stereotypical roles reinforced ideas about how a male or female was "supposed" to act   
  Television has increasingly portrayed women & men in non stereotypical roles   
  Many female characters now are shown as assertive & independent w/ nontraditional careers, such as surgeons, military officers, or police officers   
  In addition, many male characters are shown as caring, nurturing husbands & parents   
  This trend is considered highly significant because the media's images of men & women have a major impact on our views of gender roles   
  ANDROGYNY   
  Many people view masculinity & femininity as opposites, that is, if a certain trait is considered feminine, its opposite will be viewed as masculine   
  Yet many characteristics traditionally regarded as masculine & feminine are not opposites, they are just different   
  It is unusual for a person to have exclusively masculine or feminine characteristics   
  Most people have a combination of both types of traits   
  This combination of masculine & feminine traits in one person is called androgyny   
  The term comes from the Greek words andros, which means man, & gyne, which means woman   
  Research indicates that highly androgynous people adapt well to a wide range of situations   
  For example, they feel at ease being independent, forceful, warm, or nurturing, whatever the situation demands   
 
Some studies suggest that androgynous men & women have fewer psychological problems than those who adopt the old, traditional gender roles 
 

 
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 Outline on  Gender Identity
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Gender identity is an expansive set of roles that together comprise a person's sense of maleness or femaleness
 
 
A person's sex is distinguished from their gender identity 
 
 
Gender identity is a more expansive set of roles than sexual identity 
 
 
A person's sense of maleness or femaleness is set early in life, probably by the age of four 
 
  Human physiology & gender molding make certain forms of sexual expression possible or even likely, but it is not possible to predict that future sexual behavior will be regarded as 'gender appropriate' by society   
  Even if one takes on mainstream roles of sexuality & gender, gender identity is wider in that it encompasses other gender related roles such society's views of gender & nurturing, recreating, friendships, occupation, fashion style, friendships, way of talking & walking, & more   
  Typical gender identities in a society follow stereotypes, such as in the movie "North Country" where the daughter tells her dad she wants to work in the mines.  The father replies w/ a look of disbelieve, & quite seriously asks, "Are you a lesbian?"   
  GENDER IDENTITY & BIOLOGICAL FACTORS   
 
Research indicates that gender identity develops partly from the way a person is raised & partly from biological factors 
 
 
Before birth, a human being's sex is determined at conception, also called fertilization 
 
 
Both the egg & the sperm each contain 23 chromosomes (threadlike strands that carry genetic information), including one sex chromosome 
 
 
The sex chromosome carried by the egg is called an X chromosome & the sperm contains either an X or a Y chromosome 
 
 
If an X bearing sperm fertilizes the egg, the sex chromosomes form an XX pair, which results in a female baby 
 
 
If the egg is fertilized by a Y bearing sperm, the sex chromosomes form an XY pair, resulting in a male baby 
 
 
After conception, the development of the gonads results in the production of hormones particular to being male or female, & if this hormone production is altered, it impacts ones sex, gender, & gender identity 
 
  GENDER IDENTITY & PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS   
  Freud concluded that many childhood memories dealt w/ sex   
  See Also:  Freud   
  Freud's conclusions on sexuality were extremely controversial in his time, the 1800s, which were dominated by Victorian morality   
  Freud believed that his patients' reports of sexual abuse by a parent were fantasies reflecting unconscious desires   
  Freud theorized that sexual functioning begins at birth, & that a person goes through several psychological stages of sexual development   
  Freud believed the normal pattern of psychosexual development is interrupted in some people   
  People w/ abnormal psychosexual development become fixated at an earlier, immature stage   
  Freud felt that a fixation at an early or immature stage could contribute to mental illness in adulthood   
 
GENDER IDENTITY & EARLY SOCIALIZATION 
 
  Gender is molded by the social env to which one is exposed as a child, e.g. an authority figure giving a little boy a toy truck to play w/, & a girl a doll   
 
In early childhood, gender identity is influenced greatly by one's parents   
  Later in life other agents of socializaiton such as peers, one's education, the media, etc. influence our gender identity   
  Traditionally, parents raised boys much differently than girls   
  Parents often encouraged boys to hold back emotions & to be independent, self reliant, & competitive   
  Girls were expected to have the opposite characteristics of boys:  dependent & non competitive   
  Adults encouraged children to play w/ toys that helped prepare them for traditional male or female roles   
  For example, girls commonly received tea sets & dolls as gifts, while boys received trucks, toy guns, & footballs   
  Some parents gave their children home chores that reinforced their gender identity   
  Girls worked in the kitchen & helped w/ laundry, while boys did outdoor or mechanical jobs   
  These gender distinctions are still practiced to some extent   
  However, increasing numbers of parents try to raise their children w/ the best characteristics of both genders   
  Both boys & girls are encouraged to be independent & self reliant   
  Girls do mechanical jobs, & boys help care for other children   
  Nevertheless, most parents still treat boys & girls differently   
  For example, parents may dress boys & girls differently & decorate their rooms in contrasting ways, choosing plainer styles for boys & frillier ones for girls   
  SPECIAL CASES OF GENDER IDENTITY   
  A small number of males & females believe they should have been born a member of the other sex   
  Such individuals, called transsexuals, believe they have the wrong body for their feelings & emotions   
  They feel "trapped" in the body of the wrong sex   
  Some transsexuals have surgery to change their anatomy to match their feelings   
  Estimates of the number of transsexuals in the United States range from 10,000 to 25,000   
  The cause of transsexualism is unknown   
  See Also:  Transexualism   
  Transsexualism differs from transvestism   
  A transvestite enjoys dressing in the clothes of the other sex   
  But transvestites have the gender identity of their biological sex   
  Most transvestites are males who prefer sexual relationships w/ women, but who find it satisfying to dress in women's clothing 
 
  EXPRESSION OF LOVE & SEX   
  The expression of love & sex is a large part of one's sexual identity   
  The relationship btwn love & sex is complex because love typically involves strong feelings   
  The feelings of love may exist w/o sexual desire or sexual expression   
  For example, people may love their parents, children, grandparents, friends, or even their pets   
  Likewise, sex may occur w/o feelings of love   
  Some couples, both married & unmarried, have sexual relations w/o being in love w/ each other   
  Nevertheless, the feelings of being in love w/ & sexually attracted to another person are frequently intertwined   
  Expressing Sexuality  
  Every individual develops distinctive sexual values, needs, interests, fantasies, & preferences, all of which define the person's sexual identity   
  Our sexual identity determines how we express ourselves sexually   
  Forms of sexual expression vary from holding hands & hugging to more intimate sexual contact, such as kissing & sexual intercourse   
  Sexual expression also can have many different meanings   
  For example, sexual intercourse can express love & indicate the deep intimacy w/in a relationship   
  For some couples, having a baby may be the primary reason for sexual intercourse while others may have sex mainly for pleasure   
  People also use sex to try to feel more secure in a relationship or to prove their worth to the other person   
  American society holds conflicting attitudes about sexuality   
  On the one hand, people learn the importance of sexual attractiveness from such sources as family, peers, school, & the mass media   
  From the same sources, however, people often pick up underlying feelings of anxiety & guilt about actually expressing their sexuality  
  In addition, many individuals & religious groups consider certain sexual behavior, such as homosexuality & sex outside marriage, to be morally wrong   
  Each person must decide how she or he wants to express sexuality   
  Most people are influenced in their decision by values learned from their family, church, or peer group   

 
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 Outline on  Culture & Sexuality
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-  Video:  Kinsey
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  SEXUALITY & CULTURE STRUCTURE EACH OTHER   
  Human sexuality must be understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behavior & the status quo culture   
  Sexuality influences social norms & society in turn influences the manner in which sexuality can be expressed   
  Human intelligence & complex societies have produced among the most complicated sexual behaviors of any animal   
  Since the development of the mass media, sexuality has had a larger impact on the wider social environments in which we live  
  Through it's portrayal in the mass media, sexuality comes to be distilled, often into stereotypes, & then repeatedly expressed in the commercialized forms of print, audio, film, etc.   
  Human sexual choices are usually made using contemporary cultural norms   
  For example; some may choose to abstain from sex before marriage because their religion forbids such actions   
  Human sexual behavior, like many other kinds of activity engaged in by human beings, is generally governed by social rules called norms that are culturally specific & vary widely   
  These social norms, which in their totality are referred to as sexual morality by the public, define what can & can appropriate, what is & is not expected   
  In some cultures it may be acceptable for a man to have many wives, while in others bigamy or polygamy is frowned upon or illegal   
  Those who wish to express a dissident sexuality often form subcultures w/in the main culture   
  Most societies have defined some sexual activities as inappropriate or even illegal such as having sex w/ the wrong person, engaging in the wrong sexual activity, having sex at wrong place, having sex at the wrong time, etc.   
  Most people experiment w/ a range of sexual activities during their lives, though they tend to engage in only a few of these regularly   
  Some people enjoy many different sexual activities, while others avoid sexual activities altogether for religious or other reasons via practices called chastity, sexual abstinence, etc.   
  Historically, many societies & religions have viewed sex as appropriate only w/in marriage & yet sexual activity has always occurred at a relatively hi rate outside of marriage   
  Industries enabling sex or sexual communication include nightclubs, singles bars, personal want ads in newspapers & on the web, dating services, & brothels, among many others   
  Many orgs & clubs sponsor events that bring people w/ similar interests together   
  Religious & family connections provide another way for people to meet   
 
SEXUAL ATTITUDES IN THE US 
 
  The 1800s witnessed the wanning of Puritanical morality which impacted the social construction of gender, sexuality, the self, marriage, divorce, etc.   
 
The 1800s were a period of major transformations in Am society during which debates around issues of sexually defined sexual roles, sexual practices, & sexual identity all shaped the institutions of the state, tested our democracy, & brought into question the values & vision of America   
  The 1800s were characterized by widespread prostitution, the emergence of obscene literature & pornography, an epidemic of hysteria around sexuality & other issues, & a nationwide panic about solitary sex, i.e. masturbation   
  The 1800s were also a period in which powerful groups in our society shifted focus to the private arena of sex & desire   
  The heated & much larger debates during the 1800s concerned efforts to subordinate the labor, pleasure, desires, & reproduction of the body of whole populations not only in relation to sexuality but also in relation to drug use, alcohol use, vacations, the 40 hr work week, sports, & so on   
  Preachers, prostitutes, journalists, feminists, union bosses, free thinkers, medical doctors, & judges led the discussion on sexual matters representing the conflicting interests & visions of class, gender & racial groups in their struggles to define what is right or wrong, what is healthy or sick, what is newsworthy or not, & what is defined as lawful or obscene in the larger society   
  The greater secular approval by the general population of sexuality, sexual freedom, & the general pleasure of the working class was paralleled by the view of powerful people that these trends also represented a troubling moral, medical & social problem   
  The conflict btwn those seeking modernized views of sexuality & pleasure & those seeking to control such desires occurred at the time when industrial capitalism was experiencing major successes, & when America's democratic institutions were strengthened   
  While Americans were experiencing greater freedom, the relationship btwn the individual body & the newly emerging social system became problematic   
  Solitary sex, hysteria, obscenity, prostitution, pornography, night life, etc. became major threats to patriarchal society   
  Patriarchal society defined sexuality & the new technology of sex, i.e. pornography, night clubs, etc., & the modern self as being deviant & in need of regulation   
  The stories of these social "illnesses" as developed in the 1800s are substantially related & had a lasting imprint on society, sexuality & the self   
  Competing perspectives on the body, constructed definitions of sexualities, & the changing roles of gender are each a product of a particular society at a particular time in history   
 
The cultural orientation toward sex in the US has been inconsistent since the "sexual revolution" 
 
 
Alfred Kinsey published a study of sexuality in the US in 1948 which depicted the changes in Am sexuality which prefaced the sexual revolution 
 
 
Child sexuality has historically been severely limited in western societies; in the late 19th century   
  The hysteria surrounding what was then often called "self abuse" (masturbation) among children reached its peak in the late 19th C & in the US led to the widespread adoption of circumcision   
  It was not until medical science proved in the 1950s that masturbation was not harmful, & that it was normal in that most people did it, that the taboo on masturbation disappeared for the middle class   
  Throughout history there have been many different techniques & devices utilized to control sexuality,  restrain masturbation, cure hysteria, imprison the body, & subordinate desire, as well as, the strategies, knowledge & devices used to encourage the exploration of our erotic potential   
 
THE SEXUAL REVOLUTION MADE 'RECREATIONAL SEX' AN AMERICAN VALUE
 
 
The sexual revolution came of age in the late 1960s when youth culture dominated public life & a new freedom about sexuality prevailed 
 
 
The introduction of the birth control pill in 1960 both prevented pregnancy & made sex more convenient 
 
 
The sexual revolution legitimated pre marital sex 
 
 
THE SEXUAL COUNTER REV PRESERVED SOME OF THE VALUES OF THE SEXUAL REV AS WELL AS TRADL FAM VALUES
 
 
The sexual counterrevolution began in 1980 as a conservative call for a return to "family values" by which sexual freedom was to be replaced by sexual responsibility 
 
 
Although general public's attitudes remain divided on premarital sex, this behavior is broadly accepted among young people 
 
 
The frequency of sexual activity varies widely in the U.S. population 
 
 
It is married people who have sex w/ partners the most & report the highest level of satisfaction 
 
 
EXTRA MARITAL SEX 
 
 
Extramarital sex is widely condemned, but this type of activity is more common than people say it should be 
 
 
SEX OVER THE LIFE COURSE 
 
 
Patterns of sexual activity change w/ age 
 
 
The picture begins to change by about age 50, after which advancing age is linked to a decline in the share of people who are sexually active 
 
 
Contrary to popular stereotypes, sexual activity is a    normal part of life for most older adults 
 

 
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 Outline on  Romance, Love, etc.
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  WHILE MODERN PEOPLE OFTEN ACT AS IF LOVE & ROMANCE FLOWED THROUGHOUT THE AGES, IT HAS CHANGED / DEVELOPED THROUGHOUT HISTORY   
 
Romance is being involved in love, a love affair as in a strong attachment or enthusiasm for a significant other, in interest in the adventure of love 
 
 
Love is an emotion where one experiences & displays a strong, passionate & personal affection, or liking for a person or a thing such as a love of books or one's country 
 
  Thus love is something that a person does & experiences   
  As common sense tells us, the more we experience love, the more we behave like we are in love & thus love is almost seen like a external force that takes us over & makes us behave in a particular manner   
  Contrary to common sense, as symbolic interactionists demonstrate via their concept of the social construction of the self & the social construction of reality, the more we act as if we are in love, the more we experience being in love   
 
Romance evolved from the middle ages when society took note of 'commoners' & their heroic adventures, chivalrous devotion, unusual experiences, worldly/historical events, or matters of a kind to appeal to the imagination 
 
  In the middle ages, romance / love / humanity became available to individuals of all classes & not just to the aristocrats   
 
LOVE IS AN EMOTION W/ MANY  DIMENSIONS THAT ARE ONLY PARTIALLY UNDERSTOOD
 
  Emotion is usually considered to be a feeling about or reaction to certain important events or thoughts   
  An emotion can be either pleasant or unpleasant & an individual may have a mixture of both pleasant & unpleasant emotions at the same time as when one is pleasant in love but is reluctant to acknowledge / behave as if they are in love   
  People enjoy feeling pleasant emotions such as love, happiness, & contentment & try to avoid feeling unpleasant emotions, such as loneliness, worry, grief, & unrequited love   
  In general, people are often not fully aware of their own emotions   
  Although most people believe they know what an emotion is, social scientists have not agreed on a definition that applies to both human beings & animals   
  The concept of the social construction of the self implies that individuals communicate most of their emotions by means of words, a variety of other sounds, facial expressions, & gestures, & that the very act of presenting an emotion to others increases our experience of that emotion   
  People learn ways of showing & recognizing their emotions from members of their society, though heredity may determine some emotional behavior   
 
Research has shown that different isolated peoples show emotions by means of similar facial expressions & even children who are born blind have facial expressions like those of sighted children 
 
  Several American psychologists, including Izard, Plutchik, & Tomkins, have independently developed the theory that there are eight basic emotions   
  The 8 basic emotions, which can exist at various levels of intensity, are: 
1.  anger
2.  fear
3.  joy
4.  sadness
5.  acceptance
6.  disgust
7.  surprise
8.  interest or curiosity
 
  The 8 basic emotions combine to form all other emotions, just as certain basic colors produce all others   
  Love is generally accepted to be a combination of surprise (at the beginning), joy, acceptance, & interest   
  RESEARCHERS HAVE DEVELOPED MANY SCHEMAS TO FOSTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE MANY DIMENSIONS OF LOVE INCLUDING ATTACHMENT, CARING, INTIMACY, COMMITMENT, & OTHERS   
  Rubin's "love scale" holds that the 3 components of love include: 
-  attachment 
-  caring 
-  intimacy 
 
  For Rubin, passionate love, aka infatuation, includes: 
1.  intense psychological feelings
2.  physiological arousal
3.  strong sexual desire 
4.  the avoidance of conflict
5.  feelings of completeness 
6.  a short lived time period 
 
  For Rubin, compassionate love includes: 
1.  friendly affection
2.  deep attachment
3.  familiarity
4.  tolerance for short comings
5.  nurturance
6.  problem solving
7.  a more enduring time frame 
      than passionate love
 
  Sternberg's triangular theory is similar to Rubin's theory, & holds that love is composed of the 3 components of: 
-  commitment 
-  passion
-  intimacy
 
  Sternberg's love triangle includes the 3 components of love, & the various kinds of love as reflected in different combinations of the 3 components 
Note: Non love is the absence of all 3 of Sternberg's components of love 
 
  Chart:  Sternberg's Love Triangle

The Chart on the Sternberg's Love Triangle demonstrates that the 3 components of love & the various kinds of love as reflected in different combinations of the 3 components combine to form a modern form of love often called true love 

 
  Intimacy includes the feeling of liking someone & respecting them intellectually   
  Passion includes that unnamable "clicking" or magic that people feel as well as sexual attraction & fulfillment   
 
Commitment includes the exclusivity one needs as well as the amount of time people like to spend together 
 
  For Sternberg several types of affection exist including: 
1.  liking, which is intimacy alone 
2.  infatuation, which is passion alone
3.  empty love, which is commitment alone 
4.  romantic love which is intimacy & passion 
5.  companionate love which is intimacy & commitment 
6.  consummate love, which is intimacy, passion, & commitment 
 
 
Like Rubin, for Sternberg, non love is the absence of all of the 3 components of love 
 
  According to Sternberg's triangular theory of love, passion builds then fades while intimacy & commitment continue to build   
  Chart:  Sternberg' s Love Triangle Over Time

The Chart on the Sternberg's Love Triangle Over Time theorizes that the passion component of love peaks early in a relationship & then declines, whereas the other 2 components, intimacy & commitment, continue to build gradually over time 

 
  FALLING IN LOVE IS A FUNCTION OF PHYSICAL FACTORS SUCH AS NEUROTRANSMITTERS, & SOCIAL FACTORS SUCH AS SIMILARITY OF SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS   
  The chemistry of love includes the interaction of: 
1.  neurotransmitters
2.  norepinephrine
3.  dopamine
4.  phenylethylamine (PEA) 
5.  endorphins
6.  loss & neurotransmitter w/drawal 
 
  Because it is difficult to fall in love w/ those w/ whom we are not near (though it does occur), proximity, the mere exposure effect, is an important factor in love   
  For love, proximity is important because familiarity breeds predictability & greater comfort; it allows us to experience each of the components of love   
  Greater proximity often reflects shared interests   
  Similarity is important in love in that strong lovers: 
a.  share similar interests & activities 
b.  communicate better 
c.  are able to confirm each other's  views & experiences w/ their lover 
d.  are supportive of each other's values & beliefs 
 
  Reciprocity is present for lovers in that: 
a.  when someone shows they like us, we tend to like them back 
b.  both demonstrate similar positive reactions to flattery, compliments, & attention 
c.  there is a lower likelihood of rejection 
 
  Physical attractiveness is important in romantic relationships in that each person has their, probably unrecognized, specific tastes in relation to beauty   
  'Similar' beauty is more important that 'absolute' beauty in that we tend to choose & are happier w/ those who have about the same level of beauty that we have   
  Beauty is important because: 
-  of the general belief that "what is beautiful is good" 
-  of status by association 
-  it may be an indices of physical health 
-  our culture socializes us to believe it is important 
 
  Like passion, beauty is the most important in the early stages of the relationship   
  Physical attractiveness is an important component of love for everyone, & heterosexual males place the greatest value on it   
  SOCIOBIOLOGY HOLDS THAT SOCIAL BEHAVIOR, INCLUDING LOVE, CAN BE EXPLAINED BY EVOLUTIONARY NEEDS  
  Sociobiology holds that behavior can be explained by evolutionary needs   
  For socio biologists, evolutionary pressure favors men who are attracted to young attractive females because it maximizes their own reproductive success   
  For socio biologists, if a man fathers children throughout his entire life, which he can only do by choosing a series of child bearing age women, then he has greater evolutionary success than the man who remains committed to one woman throughout her life span   
  For socio biologists, evolutionary pressure favors women who are attracted to older, established men because the older man's wealth allows them to maximize their reproductive success by carefully nurturing & providing for the few children they may have   
  For socio biologists, because women bear relatively few children, they need a good provider making older, wealthier men more attractive because they are able to provide support for children   
  Sociobiology states that the best evolutionary strategy, i.e. the highest level of procreation, include those of the pairing of the older man & the younger woman & thus younger & less successful men & older women often find themselves squeezed out of the mate market   
 
THE PROCESS OF FALLING IN LOVE HAS SOME UNIVERSALS ACROSS CULTURES SUCH AS ESTBING RAPPORT, DISCLOSURE, EXPRESSING DEPENDENCY, INTIMACY & OTHERS 
 
 
According to Psychology Today about 4 % of people are love prone in that they fall in love often, at first sight, & may love several people at the same time 
 
 
The love prone have more love & sex, but are less satisfied 
 
  The love prone may be the true romantics among us in that they feel love feelings more intensely than the general population   
  For the general population love may develop as intensely as the love prone, but it generally takes longer & develops through 4 stages   
  Ira Reiss (1960) holds that love develops is in four stages, including:   
  a.  rapport   
  b.  self revelation:  we called this self disclosure   
  c.  mutual dependency:  this develops because you do things that require the other person to be present   
  d.  intimacy need fulfillment   
  Each of Reiss' stages must be experienced or completed, then the stage is set leading to the next stage   
  Reiss' stages are all interdependent   
  When one's intimacy needs are not met, [or the others] the other processes of love are likely to be reduced   
  When one's intimacy needs are not met, this leads to breakdown of rapport, disclosure, dependency, & even intimacy itself  
  HIS & HER FALLING IN LOVE VARIES ALONG PRACTICALITY & EMOTIONALITY  
  In general, men are more concerned w/ work than w/ love, though there is evidence that this relationship is reversing   
  In general, women are more concerned w/ relationships, though it is clear they are becoming more concerned w/ work   
  In many love relationships women require more emotional closeness while men require practical help & sex   
  In general, women fall in love more easily & fall out of love more quickly than men because they compare more... do more "shopping"   
  Men will try to hang on to a failing relationship more than women   
 
AN EPISODE OF LOVE IS BASED ON EMOTIONAL, PHYSICAL, & MENTAL EXPERIENCES
 
  Two component theory of love:  emotion & a physical state to match it   
  The two component theory of love says it is possible to attribute the wrong emotion to a state of physical arousal   
  Experiments have shown that subjects may mistake physical arousal, from drugs, exercise, or almost any reason, for a variety of emotions, including love   
  Mistaken emotional experiences are called the misattribution of arousal   
  Mistakenly attributing a physical state to an emotion is the misattribution of arousal   
  When men's body states have been physically stimulated by running in place for several minute, they are likely to be more attracted than usual to attractive women   
  Men also had an increased ability to be attracted when they were threatened w/ the drawing of blood   
  THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTIMACY VARIES DEPENDING ON CONDITIONS & THE PARTICIPANTS CAPACITY FOR INTIMACY  
  The strongest intimacy w/ another is established by those who also have the greatest self esteem, or as it was known in the past, self love   
  A genuine interest, concern, respect for oneself is a prerequisite for a satisfying relationship w/ others   
 
The phases of an intimate relationship include: 
-  inclusion, which is an invitation to relate 
-  response, which is agreeing to relate 
-  care, which is concern for other's welfare 
-  trust:, which is support & care for each other 
-  affection, which is warmth & attachment; desire 
-  playfulness, which is delight  in each other 
-  genitality, which is decision to engage in sex 
 
 
RESEARCHERS HAVE SOUGHT TO QUANTIFY EMOTIONS SUCH AS LOVE BY DEVELOPING TESTS TO DETERMINE THE DEPTH OF LOVE FROM FOLK WISDOM TO PSYCHL SCALES 
 
 
Peele & Brodsky (1976)  came up w/ six questions to help you decide if what you are feeling is love, including: 
1.  Do you believe in your personal value/self esteem? 
2.  Has the relationship improved both of you?
3.  Do you maintain separate interests? 
4.  Is the relationship a central part of your life, or a side interest? 
5.  Can you respect growth in the other w/o jealousy? 
6.  Are you friends & would you stay friends if divorced? 
 
 
Lee's styles of loving include: 
romantic  eros 
game playing  ludus
possessive  mania 
compassionate  storge
altruistic  agape 
pragmatic  pragma
 
  The folk wisdom of love is ancient & ranges from the nature of 'love at first sight,' to 'It's in his kiss,'   
 
THERE ARE A WIDE VARIETY OF LOVER RELATIONSHIPS THAT VARY BY DEMOGRAPHICS, NEEDS, CONDITIONS, CULTURES, ETC. 
 
 
The three types of romantic attachment include: 
-  secure 
-  avoidance 
-  anxious / ambivalent 
 
 
The three styles of attachment that adults exhibit in their romantic relationships are hypothesized to come from the type of attachment they formed w/ their mothers 
 
 
The secure lover finds it easy to be close to others 
 
 
The secure lover has little worry about getting too close or termination 
 
 
Secure lovers are the most common type at about 56 % 
 
 
The avoidance lover doesn't trust others 
 
 
The avoidance lover is unwilling to depend on others 
 
 
The avoidance lover may get nervous when someone gets too close 
 
 
The anxious/ambivalent lover sees others as reluctant to get close 
 
 
The anxious/ambivalent lover wants to merge totally w/ a partner 
 
 
Both avoidance & anxious/ambivalent lovers are likely to have trouble w/ jealousy 
 
  JEALOUSY IS LESS VARIED THAN LOVE, BUT UNIVERSAL, WHILE HIGHLY VARIED, ACROSS SOCIETIES   
 
The jealousy prone person generally
-  has low self esteem 
-  puts a high value on wealth & popularity 
-  is more likely to precipitates partner violence 
-  is more likely to stifles relationship development 
-  raises anxiety, depression, anger in the relationship 
 
 
Jealousy generally has negative consequences but low levels are normal & may: 
-  be seen as a demonstration of endearment 
-  precipitate an increase in closeness 
-  allow the addressing of other issues in the relationship 
 
 
LOVE & SEX ARE NOT EQUALLY CONJOINED IN ALL RELATIONSHIPS OR CULTURES   
 
See Also:  Sexuality & Society   
  The relationship between love & sex is complex because both experiences typically involves strong feelings & these love may exist w/o sexual desire or sexual expression & vice versa   
  For example, people may love their parents, children, grandparents, friends, or even their pets (When Leona Helmsly died in 2007, she left $12 mm to her dog)   
  Some couples, both married & unmarried, have sexual relations w/o being in love w/ each other   
  Nevertheless, the feelings of being in love w/ & sexually attracted to another person are frequently intertwined   
 
In general, sexual intimacy often, but not always, deepens a love relationship 
 
 
Sexuality accompanied w/ intimacy / true love does deepen a love relationship 
 
 
Humans are quite capable of casual sex which may maintain, deepen, or lessen intimacy depending on other factors in the relationship 
 
 
Highly intimate relationships are possible w/o sex 
 
 
In general, today women are more concerned w/ intimacy & less concerned w/ sex in a relationship 
 
 
In general, today men are more concerned w/ sex & less concerned w/ intimacy in a relationship 
 
 
In healthy relationships the variation btwn men & women in their concerns w/ intimacy & sexuality is like any other variation in interests, it must be understood & negotiated w/ both partners being willing to give more than they 'naturally' feel like giving & being satisfied w/ what they can get 
 
 
Too large of a gap btwn giving & getting intimacy or sex signals incompatibility or the need for personal or professional therapy 
 
 
Homosexual men more likely to separate love from sex
 
 
Lesbians more likely to postpone sex until intimacy has been established 
 
 
Falling in love w/ a same sex person often helps in gay or lesbian identity
 
 
While any intimate relationship require giving & receiving, it is also important to recognize that there are limits & that sex & a relationships must be on one's own terms, i.e. w/in one's own limits 
 
Given the necessity of boundaries in a relationship sexual expression is an individual decision   
The steps to take to maintain one's own boundaries as well as the the giving necessary in any intimate relationship include: 
-  knowing & asking for what you want 
-  saying "not yet" to sex 
-  ending a relationship when incompatibility becomes apparent 
 
  WE HAVE BEGUN TO UNDERSTAND THE INGREDIENTS IN A LASTING LOVE RELATIONSHIP  
 
STRONG RELATIONSHIPS HAVE SEXUAL VARIETY & SEXUAL INTIMACY
 
 
As noted by Sternberg, in most relationships, commitment & intimacy increases & remains high over time, while passion / sexual passion declines 
 
 
An increase in intimacy creates an ability to understand & respond to the needs of the romantic partner & thus intimate partners are open to sexual variety 
 
 
For sexual variety to occur it is help to 
a.  maintain communication about sex 
b.  be spontaneous 
c.  plan for intimate time 
d.  not worry about frequency "standards" 
 
 
STRONG RELATIONSHIPS DEVELOP PERSONAL / EMOTIONAL INTIMACY
 
 
Ingredients in lasting love relationship include: 
 
 
-  self acceptance 
-  an appreciation of each other's qualities 
-  commitment 
-  good communication 
-  realistic expectations & shared interests 
-  ability to face & deal w/ conflict 
 
 
STRONG RELATIONSHIPS ALLOW FOR INDIVIDUAL GROWTH  
  Long term relationships are not simply stable, they change & grow   
  Growth in relationships includes both individual & relationship growth   
  Growth & change maintain relationship   
  Long term relationships learn to 
a.  overcome obstacles 
.  view problems as challenges 
c.  negotiate & renegotiate wants
d.  accept each other as unique 
 

 
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Outline on the Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State
by  Friederich Engels & Karl Marx,  1884
External
Links
 
-  Project:  Analysis of the Continuing Development of the Family 
Link
  -  Project:  The Development of the Family & Patriarchy 
Link
  -  Project:  The Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State 
Link
  Engels agrees w/ Morgan on the etiology of the development of patriarchy after the dawn of civilization, & then Engels goes on the explore the development of patriarchy through early historical periods  
  Henry Lewis Morgan was a pioneering 19th Century anthropologist whose work provided the anthropological background for Marx & Engels  
  HUNTER GATHERER SOCIETIES WERE NOMADIC, HAD NO ECON SURPLUS, MATRILINEAL, & NOT WAR LIKE   
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Hunter gatherer societies, were semi nomadic & had little or no accumulation of wealth, & therefore status was awarded through achievement in traditional roles, rather than through the accumulation of wealth as is done today  
 
Hunter gatherer gender roles were differentiated, but essentially equal in terms of equal access to resources, status, & power  
 
Male hunter gatherer roles included hunting, mentoring, teaching, making war, & raising boys to be men  
 
Female hunter gatherer roles included gathering food, home management, defending the home, raising babies; i.e. baby girls all the way to be women, & raising baby boys to boy status, & then turning them over to men to raise to men  
 
There was little or no wealth or 'surplus' accumulation in hunter gatherer society because the primitive technology only allowed for subsistence living  
 
In hunter gatherer society, it is estimated that females brought in 70% of the food, but the 30% of the food produced by men's hunting was also essential 
 
 
Males & females could take on leadership or high status roles such as leader, doctor, shaman, protector, etc.  
 
During the hunter gatherer era, none of the roles of leader, doctor, shaman, protector, etc. had "gender," but they all do today  
 
The societal form of hunter gatherer society was used by Cro Magnon, Homo Erectus & earlier, & so it is an ancient form that is still in practice today by some humans today  
  Engels believed that in hunter gatherer society, pre- 15,000 BC,
- there was a sexual division of labor
- that primitive societies were primarily matriarchal
- the male role in conception was unknown until the end of this era
- there was no strict monogamy, though some did adhere to it
 
  CIVILIZATION EMERGES CIRCA 11 K BC ESTBING THE PRE EMPIRES ERA, SUPPLANTING H-G SOC & ESTBING AG   
 
"Civilization" emerges circa 13 K yrs. BP during the Pre Empire Era in the transition from hunter gatherer society to early agricultural society  
  See Also:  The Pre Empire Era  
  With the dawn of civilization, the beginning of agriculture, a surplus of wealth could now be accumulated  
  Increases in population & the end of the last ice age forced social change  
  Circa 11,000 BP, agriculture develops
 
  See Also:  The Ag Revolutions  
  See Also:  The First Ag Revolution  
  The development of animal husbandry & agriculture allowed villages to emerge  
  Circa 15 to 7,000 BC, in the early forms of society, family forms change, at least partially as a result of increased productivity  
  As herds grew, tending the animals became man's work  
  The prehistoric warrior took second place in the home, but the shepherd gained a new source of wealth & pushed himself ahead of woman to be able to pass on that wealth to his children & also at this time became aware of the male role in conception  
  Ag, including the domestication of animals, & the development of markets, both creating increased productivity, & the first surplus of goods for humanity  
  This surplus of wealth & inheritance allowed for inequalities to develop  
  Among anthropologists, there is an argument over who developed husbandry & agriculture, men or women?
But what would it prove?
 
  ENGELS BELIEVES THAT CIVILIZATION BECOMES A SOCIETY DIVIDED AGAINST ITSELF BASED ON CLASS & SEX   
  The old communal system of hunter gatherer society was broken up & replaced by full private ownership, first of herds, & later of land  
  In early society, there were changes in the family as well as in agriculture, war, & slavery as a result of new knowledge & technologies  
  The amount of work also increased to take advantage of these technologies  
  Additional labor was gained as prisoners of war were turned into slaves  
  The conversion of prisoners of war to slaves created the master & slave societies of prehistory & antiquity  
  During the Pre Empire Era, the world population increases from 10 to 300 mm  
  Circa 7,000 BC, the first villages, that we know of; emerged in the middle east  
  Uruk is the first known city, which existed in southern Mesopotamia, circa 5,500 BP, had 20,000 people, slavery, armies, administration, etc.  
  The cities, city states & the civilizations of antiquity begin during the Pre Empire Era along w/ the origin of the modern family, private property, & the state  
  By 5,000 BP, agriculture & irrigation are established; the digging stick is replace by the wooden plow w/ a draft animal  
  Circa 5500 BP, writing develops  
  THE 1st STRAT OF STATUS, WEALTH, POWER, ETC., I.E. THE 1ST INEQUALITY OCCURRED WHEN CIVILIZATION BEGAN, DURING THE PRE EMPIRES ERA, CIRCA 10 K BC   
 
Non production workers emerged resulting in the creation of status, wealth, power, inequality, exploitation because one person could produce more than he/she could consume  
  Non production workers include artisans, crafts workers, traders, etc.  
  Religious & political leaders gained power  
  Burial practices & housing structures became common & began to show inequality  
  During civilization, the strongest or smartest have generally dominated  
  Men ruled other men & women w/ absolute authority   
  CONTEMPORARY FAMILY STRUCTURES DEVELOPED FROM RETINUES / "GANGS" OF THE EARLY MID AGES   
  In the Family, Private Property & the State, Marx & Engels examined the family & economic structures of the Iroquois Native Americans  
 
The Iroquois Native Americans had no patriarchy, no private property in land or other resources, no classes, no state, as we recognize them today
 
  The Iroquois Native Americans are known for their sophisticated tribal democratic system of governance  
  Peace prevailed w/in the Iroquois tribe, but they were warlike w/ other tribes  
  Marx & Engels hypothesized that many prehistoric societies were similar to Iroquois, & then examined how this communal democratic structure transformed into patriarchal, authoritarian, exploitative economic systems  
  Engels went to Greeks, Romans, Celts, & Germans to see later stages of development  
  Engels found that the early Germans were organized into clans  
  In the German clans, kinship between the maternal uncle & nephew (a mother's brother & her son) was more sacred & binding than between father & son, demonstrating matrilineal dissent  
  But in the clans of the Pre Empire Era & later, the mother right of inheritance had already given way to father right of inheritance  
  But in the clans of the Pre Empire Era & later, communal ownership had already given way to private ownership  
  Before the Pre Empire Era, land was owned communally & collectively cultivated, but 150 years later the land was individually cultivated  
  Retinues, i.e. war clans or gangs in Europe, were the basis for feudal aristocracy  
  American Indians demonstrated a pattern of war making similar to that of the Germans in that the clans, a.k.a. retinues, were bound together to make war  
  Quasi private & private associations formed to make war  
  For the Germans, the retinues developed similarly & later became the basis for monarchies  
  In Caesar's time, the retinues were subordinate to the clans, but this changed  
  150 years after the Roman Empire, the retinues became independent of the community  
  The retinues no longer turned over the plunder to the clan, but kept it for themselves  
  Retinues could only be kept together by frequent wars & plundering expeditions, which became ends in themselves  
  When the Roman Empire disintegrated, it was from it's manors that the retinues formed which eventually created the social order of the nobility  
  Thus, while early communally oriented clans had little private property, as the more war oriented retinues developed, they created private property that at first belonged only to the sub-class of the retinues, & eventually to each individual warrior  
  FOR CONFLICT THEORISTS WOMEN'S LIBERATION CAN ONLY OCCUR WHEN THERE IS ECON LIBERATION   
  The solution to patriarchy, for Engels, lies in socialism, where:
-  housekeeping would become a communal effort again. 
-  education will become public
-  money, wealth, & power would not influence the marriage partner choice
-  marital unions would become voluntary rather than arranged
 
  For Engels, women's liberation would come about as socialism developed  
  Engels correctly predicted that as women's role increased in the public sphere, women's home work & child care would decrease as they gained more power  
  For Engels the origin of the family, private property, & the state are integrally related, in that:  
  - patriarchy develops, as Morgan saw it, as a result of the development of the first, minimal surplus, fueling men's desire to control their bequeathal  
  - private property develops as society develops even more surplus allowing warriors to become independent of the community & keep plunder for themselves  
  - the state develops as a means of ensuring private property in a system outside of might makes right, allowing those w/ the most wealth to enforce stratification, & preserve their wealth, based on the law rather than power   
  CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS INCLUDE THE QUESTION OF WHO DEV & CONTROLLED ANIMAL HUSBANDRY & HORTICULTURE?   
  Why did men control the herds & agriculture?  
  Men may have controlled the herds & agriculture because men were the hunters & were more likely to deal w/ animals  
  Men may have controlled the herds & agriculture because men traditionally saw their power in hunting as linked to animals   
  Even if women domesticated animals, men may have seen it as their domain   
  Men may have controlled the herds & agriculture because men & the animals had to roam more, while women & children stayed in the encampment   
  Why should herds differ from other forms of property  
  Herds were not a unique kind of property that caused patriarchy, rather it was the fact that now society was producing a surplus that allowed for the institution of private property to develop.  Herds were integral in the creation of the surplus value   
  For Zeitlin, it is the growing power of the retinues that represents men's great rise to power   
  It is in the retinues where young warriors consolidated power & became kings   
  It is the rulers of the retinues who estbed themselves in power & changed the power relations btwn the commune & the state & allowed men to control patterns of descent & inheritance   

 
       Marx, Engels, & Marx's Family
       Marx

 
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 Outline on a Socio Historical Analysis of Romance, Love, etc.
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  INTRODUCTION  
 
Over the ages various cultures have held different views of romance, love, & related emotions such as sexual desire 
 
 
In general, the expression of the emotion of love has evolved from one where romance was less prevalent to our present expression of love, where romance is quite common 
 
  Paralleling the increase in romance in love relationships is an increase in the equality btwn men & women   
  The development of love & romance often supported, & sometimes challenged the patriarchal conventions of arranged marriages, celibacy, the control of marriage for political reasons, the control of marriage for economic reasons, etc.   
  The various components of love we recognize today can be seen in their embryonic forms & expressions in various societies throughout history   
  EMPEDOCLES   
  Empedocles (495? - 435?  BC), was an Greek philosopher who became the first to argue that what exists can be reduced to 4 elements:  air, earth, fire, & water   
  Empedocles said that all other substances result from temporary combinations of these elements which are eternal & unchanging, but their combining & separating appear as change   
  Empedocles said that a force called love causes the elements to come together as compounds, & that a force called strife causes the compounds to break up   
  Empedocles believed that the universe undergoes a continuous cycle from complete unification of the elements under the domination of love to complete separation of the elements under strife   
  For Empedocles, the world we live in occurs btwn these two extreme states of love & strife   
 
The Greeks also developed a distinction among types of love 
 
 
a.  Storge (store-gay)  love occurs btwn parents & children 
 
 
Storge is least the discriminating kind of love 
 
 
Storge is love in spite of the lack of qualities we "love" in a romantic partner 
 
 
b.  Philia refers to love btwn two friends 
 
 
For the Greeks philia was the highest form of love 
 
  Philia is an intense sharing btwn two people who have similar perspectives on life   
  Philia is very similar to "neighborly" love   
 
c.  Eros is erotic love including sexual love as well as the longing to be in each other's presence 
 
 
d.  Agape (a gah pay) love is independent of the feeling's, or knowledge of, another 
 
  Agape literally means to gap or have the mouth wide open, wonder, amazement   
  Agape is seen in god's love for people, which was seen in Greek religions, pagan & Christian   
  Agape is seen in Christian love, & literally means that early Christians ate together, but metaphorically referred to the Christian belief of 'love one another'   
  Agape & storge do not depend on the attractiveness of the other   
  CUPID   
 
Cupid was the god of love in Roman mythology & was also called Amor 
 
 
Cupid was identified w/ the Greek god Eros 
 
  The Romans portrayed Cupid as a son of the goddess Venus   
  Cupid had both a cruel & a happy nature in that his cruelty appears in his treatment of his wife, the beautiful princess Psyche   
  Cupid forbade Psyche ever to try to see what he looked like   
  Cupid refused to be w/ Psyche except at night in the dark   
  One night while Cupid was asleep, Psyche lit a lamp so she could look at him   
  Cupid awoke & fled in anger   
  But other myths describe Cupid as a happy lad who united lovers   
  The earliest images of Cupid show him as a handsome, athletic young man   
  By the mid 300s BC, Cupid was portrayed as a chubby, naked infant w/ wings, holding a bow & arrows   
  A person shot w/ one of Cupid's gold tipped arrows supposedly fell in love, & his lead tipped arrows made people fall out of love  
 
MIDDLE AGES:  ETIQUETTE:  KNIGHTS:  CODE OF CHIVALRY 
 
 
Early civilizations, such as those of ancient Greece & Rome, developed rules for proper social conduct 
 
 
Rules regulating romance became more formal during the Middle Ages, a period that extended from about the AD 400s to the 1500s in Europe 
 
 
During the Middle Ages, boys training to become knights learned a code of conduct called chivalry 
 
  According to this code, a knight was devoted to the Christian church & his country & treated women w/ great respect   
  Some aspects of chivalry, particularly the special treatment of women, became a traditional part of manners   
  The behavior of all fighting men gradually came to be governed by a system called chivalry   
  Chivalry required that a man earn knighthood through a long & difficult training period   
  A knight was supposed to be courageous in battle, fight according to certain rules, keep his promises, & defend the church, women & the feeble  
  Chivalry also included rules for gentlemanly conduct toward women   
  In times of peace, a lord & his knights entertained themselves by practicing for war   
  They took part in jousts (combat btwn two armed knights) & in tournaments (combat btwn two groups of knights)   
  Chivalry was the knight's code of behavior   
  The code of chivalry grew w/ the songs of the minstrels in the 1000s & 1100s   
  Their poems show that a true knight had faith & a deep love of the Christian religion   
  He gave generously to all, defended the church, loved the land of his birth & was ready to die for it   
  The knight's  strength served to protect women & the feeble   
  A knight championed right against injustice & evil, & never surrendered or flinched in the face of the enemy   
  In real life, a knight did not always resemble the ideal knight of the minstrels   
  His code of honor & loyalty was sometimes applied only to members of his own class, & he often acted brutally toward people of low birth   
  The violent life of the Middle Ages made it difficult to prevent violations of the code   
  Even dedicated knights were also soldiers interested in conquest & plunder   
  A knight who was proved guilty of cowardice or other serious misconduct was disgraced by having his sword & his spurs broken   
  However, "serious misconduct" usually meant violations against other knights & their families   
  ROMANCE   
  The meaning of the term romance has changed many times since the first romances appeared in Greece almost 2000 years ago   
  In ancient Greek literature, most fiction dealt w/ either love or war   
  War stories were called epics, & love stories were called romances, & the word romance is still used for a love story   
  Today a romance is a long work of fiction that is less realistic than a novel   
  Many romance novels use fantastic & supernatural plots & characters   
  English is the only language in which the words novel & romance distinguish btwn realistic & unrealistic fiction   
  By about the 1200s, most Western Europeans spoke a Romance language (language based on Latin), such as French, Italian, or Spanish & all fiction written in Romance languages was called romance   
  The first important romance was Daphnis & Chloe, (AD 100s or 200s) by a Greek named Longus   
  The greatest romances were written by medieval authors from the 1100s to the 1400s often written in verse, these romances mingle knightly combat, adventure, & courtship   
  Many describe the adventures of King Arthur & his knights of the Round Table, others tell about the ancient conqueror Alexander the Great; the Spanish hero The Cid, & the emperor Charlemagne & his devoted knight, Roland   
  Elements of romance continue to appear in popular novels about courtship as well as in novels about the American frontier, in Western films, & in science fiction   
 
COURTLY LOVE
 
 
In courtly love, the lover (idolizer) accepts the independence of his mistress & tries to make himself worthy of her by acting bravely & honorably (nobly) & by doing whatever deeds she might desire 
 
 
Sexual satisfaction may not have been a goal or even end result, but the love was not entirely Platonic either, as it was based on sexual attraction 
 
 
Courtly love had its origins in the castle life beginning about the time of the First Crusade in the 11th C finding its expression in the lyric poems written by troubadours 
 
 
Eleanor of Aquitaine brought ideals of courtly love first to the court of France, then to England, where she was queen to 2 kings 
 
 
Her daughter Marie, Countess of Champagne brought courtly behavior to the Count of Champagne's court 
 
 
The rules of courtly love were codified by the late 12th C in Andreas Capellanus' highly influential work De Amore ("Concerning Love") 
 
 
The troubadour's model of the ideal lady was the wife of his employer or lord, a lady of higher status, usually the rich & powerful female head of the castle 
 
 
When her husband was away on Crusade or other business she dominated the household & cultural affairs; sometimes this was the case even when the husband was at home 
 
 
The lady was rich & powerful & the poet gave voice to the aspirations of the courtier class, for only those who were noble could engage in courtly love 
 
 
This new kind of love saw nobility not based on wealth & family history, but on character & actions; thus appealing to poorer knights who saw an avenue for advancement 
 
 
Courtly love saw a woman as an ennobling spiritual & moral force, a view that was in opposition to ecclesiastical sexual attitudes 
 
 
Rather than being critical of romantic & sexual love as sinful, the poets praised it as the highest good 
 
 
Marriage had been declared a sacrament of the Church, at the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215, & w/in Christian marriage, the only purpose was procreation w/ any sex beyond that purpose seen as non pious 
 
 
The ideal state of a Christian was celibacy, even in marriage 
 
 
By the beginning of the 13th C the ideas of courtly tradition were condemned by the church as being heretical 
 
 
The church channeled many of these energies into the cult of the Virgin; it is not a coincidence that the cult of the Virgin Mary began in the 12th C as a counter to the secular, courtly & lustful views of women. Francis of Assisi called poverty "his Lady" 
 
 
Courtly love had a civilizing effect on knightly behavior, beginning in the late 11th C; it has been suggested that the prevalence of arranged marriages required other outlets for the expression of more personal occurrences of romantic love 
 
 
New expressions of highly personal private piety in the 11th C were at the origins of what a modern observer would recognize as a personality, & the vocabulary of piety was also transferred to the conventions of courtly love 
 
 
At times, the lady could be a princesse lointaine, a far-away princess, & some tales told of men who had fallen in love w/ women whom they had never seen, merely on hearing their perfection described, but normally she was not so distant 
 
 
As the etiquette of courtly love became more complicated, the knight might wear the colors of his lady: blue or black were the colors of faithfulness; green was a sign of unfaithfulness   
  Salvation, previously found in the hands of the priesthood, now came from the hands of one's lady   
  In some cases, there were also women troubadours who expressed the same sentiment for men   
  In 1936 C.S. Lewis wrote the influential The Allegory of Love further solidifying courtly love as "love of a highly specialized sort, whose characteristics may be enumerated as Humility, Courtesy, Adultery, & the Religion of Love"   
  LOVE IN THE MODERN ERA   
  As the idea of love evolved into the modern conception of the emotional intersection of liking, intimacy, sexuality, commitment, etc., the traditional views & norms of love slowly faded away in the modern era to be replaced by what modernists call true love   
  True love is the romantic love that is unhindered by traditional conceptions of love which often included political or economic alliances btwn families, patriarchal control of women & the process of procreation, or patriarchal control of sexuality which usually attempted to maintain the availability of sexual release for men   
  During the end of feudalism & colonial agriculturalism, traditional love / marriage relations began their transition from traditional, patriarchal relations to the more open, romantic relationships of today   
  Early Americans did not consider love a requirement for marriage, & couples assumed that love would follow marriage   
  Relations btwn spouses tended to be formal   
  Husbands & wives treated each other w/ correct, serious manners rather than the relaxed, friendly way families interact today   
  The role of housewife & the parallel love / marriage relationships which typifies the dominant role of middle class Am women in the early & mid 20th C is a rather recent invention   
  At first, the housewife role & the parallel love / marriage relationships, as it developed historically, was largely the realm of white middle class women   
  The housewife role fit well w/ the Victorian morality that reigned through much of the Industrial Revolution   
  The housewife role is a product of Industrial Revolution which created the ideology of women as a frail consumers, replacing their co worker roles of prairie wife & merchant wife   
  The housewife role fit w/ Victorian morality that women are fragile & more moral   
  In early America & earlier, men & women were equal in what they produced & brought value to the home such as during the hunter gatherer society & the Little House on Prairie society of the pre industrial era   
  The Industrial Revolution separated family members from each other   
  Beginning w/ the Indl Rev, men went out of the home to work   
  Beginning w/ the Indl Rev, women stayed in home to have kids & keep house, but not to "work"   
  The Indl Rev created the role of the breadwinner & the family wage   
  Henry Ford is credited w/ coining the concept of the family wage, & institutionalizing it in modern industrial society, although the concept was in widespread use before Ford   
  Many industrial leaders in the US & Europe believed that it was their responsibility to develop the morals of their workers, & they generally advocated conservative, traditional family values   
  Beginning w/ the Indl Rev, men became responsible for production & women became responsible for consumption   
  These changes in the the econ structure had an impact on the family & love, leaving the basic patriarchal relationships in place, but setting the stage for women entering the workforce & the development of more equitable love   
  The development of true love, love btwn equals parallels the increasing power of women as they move into the economic realm & gain equal power to men   
  As Marx & Engels noted in the Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State, true love can only occur among equals, those equal in political, economic, etc. power   
  For Engels, true love will only occur w/ womens' liberation, the latter which will come primarily as women gain economic power   
  The attainment of econ power means that women no longer depend on men for a livelihood, & thus they are free to enter into relations w/ men not as an econ relationship, but because of romance   
  For men, womens' equality means they benefit by having an equal partner in love as opposed to a dependency based, unequal relationship   
  The direction of society is toward equal romantic relationships, but there is still a long way to go   
  In today's popular culture, the liking, intimacy, sexuality, & commitment of love are often raised to an ecstatic level unseen even in the Middle Age's era of chivalry & courtly love   
  Love today, like in the middle ages, is often portrayed as a relationship which has absolute necessity & is capable of bringing fulfillment / salvation to the lovers   
  Modern pop culture is as vehement in its adulation of the love relationship as were the chivalrous troubadors, raising love relationships to a nearly unattainable state of human cohabitory, romantic perfection   

 
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 Outline on  Marriage
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Marriage is a legal relationship, usually involving economic cooperation as well as sexual activity & childbearing 
 
  Marriage is the relationship btwn a man & a woman who have made a legal agreement to live together   
  Marriage is also an important religious ceremony in many of the world's religions   
  Most couples decide to marry because they love each other & want to spend the rest of their lives together   
  People who marry, ususally a man & woman, marry usually hope to share a special sexual relationship & a permanent romantic attraction & each hopes the other will always be a close friend as well   
  In marriage, each partner also expects the other to help w/ many problems & to share certain responsibilities   
  Responsibilities in marriage include earning a living, budgeting money, paying bills, preparing meals, & taking care of a home   
  Most couples who marry plan to have children & to raise them together the husband & wife are required by law to protect & care for their children   
  Marriage thus serves as the basis of family life   
  DEMOGRAPHICS ON MARRIAGE   
  Nine out of ten people in US marry   
  Ann Landers, the popular advice columists reports that 1 marriage in 20 is wonderful, 5 in twenty are good, 10 in twenty are tolerable, & the remaining 4 are “pure hell”   
  On the average, men & women stay single longer than they once did, i.e. we are marrying later  
  In 1950, men married at an average age of 23, & women married at an average age of 20, but by the mid 1990s, the average marriage age was about 26 1/2 for men & about 24 1/2 for women  
  In the US, about 2.5 million couples marry each year   
  Some people are involuntarily single because of the marriage squeeze   
  The phrase marriage squeeze refers to the demographic imbalance in which the number of potential brides & grooms   
  When not everyone has an opportunity to marry, some will be squeezed out of the marriage mkt   
  An excess of eligible women is called a female marriage squeeze; an excess of eligible men is called a male marriage squeeze   
  In the 1980s & earlier, there was an excess of women, so there was a female marriage squeeze   
  In the 90s & 2000s, men in their 20s are the victims of a marriage squeeze, i.e. there are more men & fewer women than men, leaving an excess of men available   
  The tradition has been that the man should be older, though this norm is lessening, it will make the squeeze on men worse   
  The probability of marriage increases for each year after age 15 but declines after age 24   
  In 1986 a Harvard & Yale study reported that women w/ 4 or more yrs of college had nearly no chance of marriage if they were over 45 yrs old   
  But subsequent studies to the Havard & Yale study have reported the 45 yr old female marriage squeeze to be overstated; the chances are around 10 %   
  The US Census shows that married couple households, the dominant cohort since the country's founding, have slipped from nearly 80% in the 1950s to just 51% today   
  That means that the US's 86 million single adults could soon define the new majority   
  Already, unmarrieds make up 42% of the workforce, 40% of home buyers, 35% of voters, & one of the most potent, if pluralistic, consumer groups on record   
  What many once thought of as the fringe, i.e. the unmarried adult,  is becoming the new normal   
  Families consisting of breadwinner dads & stay at home moms now account for just 10% of all households   
  Married couples w/ kids, which made up nearly every residence a century ago, now total just 25%, w/ the number projected to drop to 20% by 2010, says the Census Bureau   
  By 2010 nearly 30% of homes will be inhabited by someone who lives alone   
  Although marriage & fertility rates are at their lowest point in history across the industrialized world, an estimated 85% of Am will still marry at least once in their lives, even though that is a huge drop from the historic high of 95% in the 1950s   
  54% of female hi school seniors say they believe that having a child outside of marriage is a worthwhile lifestyle, up from 33% in 1980, according to the U of MI Survey Research Ctr  
  40% of female 20 somethings would consider having a baby on their own if they reached their mid 30s & hadn't found the right man   
  MARRYING THOSE LIKE OURSELVES   
  Endogamy is marriage btwn people of the same social category 
 
  People have always tended to marry w/in their class, race, status, etc.   
  Homogamy is marriage btwn people w/ the same social characteristics   
  People also tend to marry someone who is about at the same level of beauty, as defined by that society   
  The rationalization of intimate relationships is seen in the new, popular trend of internet dating   
  Common programs on the internet such as Match.com & EHarmony.com match people on having like characteristics on a number of dimensions   
  While common knowledge holds that 'opposites attract,' in relationships this is the exception rather than the rule   
  In relationships, 'birds of a feather flock together,' in that we are both most like, & more likely happy w/ those like ourselves   
  Endogamy & homogamy limit marriage prospects   
  Exogamy is marriage btwn people of different social categories   
  NUMBERS OF MARRIAGE PARTNERS   
  See Also:  Non Traditional Marriage   
  Monogamy is marriage that unites two partners; this is the most common form of marriage around the world, though there are many variations of it   
  Strict monogamy is monogamous marriage w/ no divorce & in some societies, no remarriage if the spouse dies   
  Serial monogamy is monogamous marriage where people marry one person for a period of time, then divorce them & marry another, possibly repeating this cycle a number of times   
  Adulterous monogamy is where people are married but frequently have affairs w/ others   
  Cohabitation is the sharing of a household by an unmarried couple who live as married spouses   
  If a man & woman wish to avoid marriage, they may decide to live together w/ no formal obligations to each other via cohabitation, but in some states if a couple cohabitates for a particular length of time, usually 7 yrs, then they become under the law in what is known as a common law marriage   
  Cohabitation is more common among young adults, but some couples of all ages live together w/o marrying   
  Cohabitation appeals to more independent minded people & those who favor gender equality   
  Evidence suggests cohabitating may discourage marriage   
  Partners become used to low-commitment relationships   
  In separation, involvement of both parents, especially w/ respect to financial support, is highly uncertain  
  Cohabitators are as likely to practice serial monogamy or adultuerous monogamy as are married couples   
 
The US primarily practices serial monogamy, adulterous monogamy, & cohabitation 
 
  Polygamy is the term used in common language to indicate a man w/ more than one wife; however the term actually is gender neutral & refers to anyone w/ two more spouses   
  Polygyny refers to a man w/ more than one wife   
  Polyandry refers to a woman w/ more than one husband   
  Polygyny is not common but occurs mostly in lower income nations   
  Polyandry is extremely rare & is found in Tibet   
 
There is a historical preference for the varous forms of monogamy because supporting several spouses is expensive, because it ensures, more than polygamy, that there are adequate prospectice spouses for the young, & because of traditional religous mores 
 
 
TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE 
 
  See Also:  Non Traditional Marriage   
  An arranged marriage is one where the spouses are chosen by others, usually their families of origin   
  Alliances btwn two extended families of similar social standing & usually involve an exchange not just of children but also of wealth & favors   
  The frequency of arranged marriages have eroded & weakened by industrialization   
  Throughout much of history, arranged marriages were the most common form of marriage   
 
It has only been in the last few centuries where people have been able to marry w/o the permission of the family 
 
 
SEXUALITY & MARRIAGE 
 
 
US culture gives idealized picture of marriage, but intimacy, commitment, compatibility, & sexuality may all be a source of disappointment, as well as a joy 
 
 
The frequency of marital sex declines over time 
 
 
Another area where reality does not match the ideal infidelity, sexual activity outside marriage, is occurs w/ increasing frequency 
 
 
Sex Also:  Sexuality   
 
ETHNICALLY & RACIALLY MIXED MARRIAGES 
 
  Interracial marriage was illegal in 16 states   
  The proportion of mixed marriages is 10 % of all marriages   
  The small & of mixed marriages & the conflict it causes shows that race still matters in social relations   
 
The single most common mixed marriage is btwn the white husband w/ the Asian wife, making up 14% of mixed marriages 
 
 
The white / Asian couple is most likely to live in the West, HI, AK, CA, NV, & OK 
 
 
GENDER, POWER, & MARRIAGE 
 
 
Few marriages have two equal partners 
 
 
Because of the patriarchal nature of our culture, many people expect the husband to be older, taller & have a more important, better paid job 
 
 
Our society maintains the positive stereotype of the carefree bachelor, in sharp contrast to the negative image of the lonely spinster 
 
 
However, the negative image of the lonely spinster is giving way to the cougar, i.e. the sexy older woman 
 
  While men have many labels which positively label their sexuality, such as stud, women have had only negative labels, such as slut, & it is therefore noteworthy that the image of the cougar is the first 'all positive' cultural icon of a sexually aggressive female   
 
Patriarchal notions of marriage, love, & sexuality suggest that women are fulfilled only through being wives & mothers 
 
  Married women actually have poorer mental health, less happiness, & more passive attitudes than single women   
 
Men are more eager after divorce to find a wife than a widow is in finding a husband 
 
 
SINGLEHOOD 
 
  An increasing number of people choose not to marry   
 
1 out of 10 people in US never marry 
 
 
Singlehood seen as a temporary stage of life 
 
 
There is a rising number of single young women 
 
 
Women have greater participation in the labor force today, more than men 
 
 
Women who are economically secure view a husband as a matter of choice rather than a financial necessity, marry later or not at all 
 
 
By midlife, many unmarried women accurately sense a lack of available men
 
 
Older, more educated, better job; the more difficulty finding a husband because men marry younger women & die earlier   
  Today, it is becoming more acceptable for an older woman to choose a younger man, ending the double standard where it was acceptable for men to choose younger women, but not acceptable for older women to choose younger men  
 
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM ON MARRIAGE 
 
 
SF sees the family as the backbone of society 
 
 
For SF, the family is the primary socializer of children, w/ education being the next most influential 
 
  For SF, the family socializes children to their social placement in society   
 
For SF, the family provides the regulation of sexual activity, enforcing the incest taboo, a norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage btwn certain relatives 
 
 
For SF, the family provides material & emotional security 
 
 
CRITICAL REVIEW OF STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM ON MARRIAGE 
 
 
The SF approach glosses over the diversity of US family life 
 
 
The SF approach ignores how other social institutions could meet at least some of the same human needs
 
 
The SF approach overlooks the negative aspects of family life, including patriarchy & family violence 
 
 
CONFLICT THEORY ON MARRIAGE 
 
 
Conflict theory considers the family as central to our way of life 
 
 
Conflict theory points how the family perpetuates inequality through the elite family's control of wealth, & through the socialization of children to take their place in the class system 
 
 
Families & corporations re the two primary institutions controlling property & inheritance in society 
 
 
Socilaization in families perpetuates patriarchy, racial & ethnic discrimination 
 
 
CRITICAL REVIEW OF CONFLICT THEORY ON MARRIAGE 
 
 
Friedrich Engels noted in the 1800s that the family is part & parcel of capitalism w/ the husband filing the role of provider while the wife fill s the role of consumer
 
 
Noncapitalist societies also have families & family problems as a result of patriarchy, religion, etc. 
 
 
The family may be linked to social inequality but it carries out societal functions not easily accomplished by other means 
 
 
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM ON MARRIAGE 
 
 
The family offers the all critical opportunity for primary relationships & intimacy   
  Marriage builds emotional bonds   
  Parents are authority figures are are the primary socializers & role models for children   
  The Social Exchange Approach   
  The social exchange approach describes courtship & marriage as forms of negotiation   
  Dating allows the assessment of advantages & disadvantages of a potential spouse   
  The song "You better shop around" by the Captain & Tenile, the saying that you 'have to kiss a few frogs, the saying that 'there are many fish in the sea, all embody our cultural understanding of shopping for a mate   
  The terms of exchange are converging for men & women   
  CRITICAL REVIEW OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM ON MARRIAGE   
  Micro level analyses of marriage are important in that most of us experience the highs & lows of love & marriage on a very personal level   
  At best the micro level analyses of marriage can help one understand & deal w/ the personal issue of love & marriage   
  But micro level analyses of marriage cannot help one deal w/ the structural problems of love & marriage, only structural level theories such as SF & conflict theory can fill that gap  
  SF & conflict theory are better than micro level theories in helping one understand, & setting the table for dealing w/ such problems as the marriage squeeze, a culture of serial monogramy, etc.   

 
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 Outline on a Socio Historical Analysis of Marriage
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  Societies have always regulated mate selection & where a couple may live, but there is a wide variety of love, marriage, & reproductive values, norms, & practices 
 
  In non industrial societies couples are more likely to live w/ one set of parents for protection, support, & assistance 
 
  Patrilocality refers to the practice where a couple lives w/ or near the husband's family 
 
  Patrilocality is the most frequent practice in non industrial societies today 
 
  Matrilocality refers to the practice where a couple lives w/ or near the wife's family 
 
  Neolocality refers to the practice where a couple lives apart from both sets of parents, & this practice is the most common in industrial societies 
 
  ANCIENT FAMILIES 
 
  Ancient families had strict arrangements of higher & lower ranking persons 
 
  In ancient Roman society, which flourished around 2000 yrs ago, the male head of the family, or paterfamilias, had absolute authority 
 
  Under Roman law, the father could sell his children, abandon them, or even put them to death 
 
  Male heads of families arranged marriages in most ancient societies 
 
  Fathers often contracted daughters to marry at young ages   
  In ancient Greek culture, which reached its height during the mid 400s BC, the average marriage age of women ranged btwn 12 & 15, while many men married at about age 30  
  THE MIDDLE AGES   
  The Reformation, the religious movement of the 1500's that gave rise to Protestantism, also encouraged a reassessment of women's roles   
  Protestant leaders permitted ministers to marry & began to picture marriage as a mutual relationship of spiritually equal partners   
  Husbands had less control over the lives of their wives   
  Protestants also began to view marriage & divorce as matters of individual choice rather than as the fulfillment of obligations to such authorities as parents & the church   
  TRADITIONAL VS. MODERN MARRIAGE   
  Almost every society has certain traditional ideas about marriage; for example, most societies expect men & women to marry   
  In addition, most cultures have traditions about the role & the main duties of a husband & a wife   
  Traditionally, the husband is expected to earn a living, & the wife is expected to manage the household & raise children 
 
  Many Americans today disregard traditional marriage patterns 
 
  A large number of married couples share responsibilities that have been traditionally handled by either the husband or the wife 
 
  An increasing number of married women have paying jobs & help support their families financially   
  In 1940, about 15 percent of all married women earned money   
  In the early 1990's, about 60 percent of women held a full or part time job   
  More & more husbands share responsibilities traditionally handled by women, such as cooking, doing housework, & caring for the children   

 
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 Outline on  Alfred Charles Kinsey 1894 - 1956
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-  Biography & Major Works
 
  -  Video:  Kinsey
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  -  Project:  Kinsey 
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  -  Project:  The Impact of Knowledge of Sexuality 
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Kinsey, an American biologist, was one of the first scientists to study human sexual behavior
 
  Kinsey is generally regarded as the father of sexology, the systematic, scientific study of human sexuality  
 
His research, which began in the late 1930s, contributed important insight into relationships among human beings
 
 
Kinsey's interest in sex research began when he was a zoology professor at IN U in Bloomington, IN
 
 
While teaching a marriage course, he realized that scientists had little knowledge about human sexual practices
 
 
Kinsey began his research by interviewing people about their sexual behavior & attitudes
 
 
He received grants to help finance his studies & in 1947, Kinsey founded the Institute for Sexual Research at the U
 
 
Kinsey & his colleagues interviewed thousands of men & women in the US & Canada
 
 
The interviews formed the basis of Kinsey's books, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948, & Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 1953
 
 
The two books became known as The Kinsey Report & are still the most bestselling scientific books of all time
 
 
Both were best sellers, though they had been written for physicians, sociologists, & other professionals
 
 
Kinsey's books created controversy because many people charged they were immoral & some scientists considered them unscientific
 
 
During this work, Kinsey developed a scale measuring sexual orientation now known as the Kinsey Scale which ranks from 0 to 6, where 0 is exclusively heterosexual & 6 is exclusively homosexual
 
  As a result of the work done by Kinsey & others, the Am Psychiatric Assoc (APA), in 1973, removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses  
 
In 1935, Kinsey delivered a lecture to a faculty discussion group at IN U, his first public discussion of the topic, wherein he attacked the "widespread ignorance of sexual structure & physiology" & promoted his view that "delayed marriage" (esp delayed sexual experience) was psychologically harmful
 
 
Kinsey's research polarized a segment of society  
  Many in the Christian Right found their religious & socially conservative views in conflict w/ Kinsey's methods & underlying principles  
  Critics of Kinsey saw his supporters as dissolute libertines & his work as morally corrupting  
  Some of Kinsey's research methodology is still quite controversial in the APA & subject to a great deal of scrutiny, although the conclusions generally are not  
  Kinsey's most prominent current detractor is Judith A. Reisman who alleges that Kinsey & his staff gathered data from pedophiles & sex offenders   
  The conservative Family Research Council (FRC) has been another notable detractor   
  Aside from criticism of the implications of his research, Kinsey had been rumored to participate in unusual sexual practices  

 
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Alfred Charles Kinsey

1894 - 1956

Kinsey was born in Hoboken, NJ 
He graduated from Bowdoin College in 1916 
Kinsey received a doctor of science degree from Harvard University in 1920 
Kinsey became known for his studies of gall wasps before entering sex research

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Major Works of Kinsey

Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948, reprinted 1998

Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 1953, reprinted 1998


 
Internal
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 Outline on  Masters & Johnson   1915 - 2001;  1925 - 
External
Links
Link
-  Biography & Major Works
 
  Masters & Johnson, 2 Am researchers, made important contributions to the understanding of human sexual behavior
 
  Masters & Johnson, a physician, & his research associate, pioneered in the scientific study of sexual arousal & the treatment of sexual problems
 
  Masters began the sex research program at WA U in St. Louis in 1954, & Johnson joined him in 1957  
  When they began their research, scientists knew little about the body's physiological responses to sexual stimulation  
  Masters & Johnson used motion pictures & special instruments to record such responses in men & women who volunteered to engage in sexual activity  
  Masters & Johnson wrote a summary of their findings called Human Sexual Response, 1966  
  Masters & Johnson's book was written in technical language for physicians & other health scientists, but it became a best seller  
  The research of Masters & Johnson created great controversy  
  Their critics called them immoral & accused them of dehumanizing sex  
  In 1964, Masters & Johnson established the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation (now called the Masters & Johnson Institute) in St. Louis, MO  
  Their clinic treats couples w/ sexual problems, trains other therapists, & conducts further research  
  RESEARCH  
  In the initial phase of their studies, from 1957 until 1965, they recorded some of the first laboratory data on the anatomy & physiology of human sexual response based on direct observation of 382 women & 312 men in what they conservatively estimated to be "10,000 complete cycles of sexual response"  
  Their findings, particularly on the nature of female sexual arousal & orgasm dispelled many long standing misconceptions  
  Masters & Johnson described the mechanisms of vaginal lubrication & debunked the earlier widely held notion that vaginal lubrication originated from the cervix  
 
Masters & Johnson found that the physiology of female orgasmic response was identical whether stimulation was clitoral or vaginal 
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  Masters & Johnson found that women were capable of being multiorgasmic, while men are not  
  FOUR STAGE MODEL OF SEXUAL RESPONSE  
  One of the most enduring & important aspects of their work has been the four stage model of sexual response, which they described as the human sexual response cycle  
  They defined the four stages of this the human sexual response as:
-  excitement phase (initial arousal) 
-  plateau phase (at full arousal, but not yet at orgasm) 
-  orgasm 
-  resolution phase (after orgasm) 
 
  The human sexual response model shows no difference btwn Freud's purported "vaginal orgasm" & "clitoral orgasm": the physiologic response was identical, even if the stimulation was in a different place  
  Masters & Johnson's findings also revealed that men undergo a refractory period following orgasm during which they are not able to ejaculate again, whereas there is no refractory period in women:  
  Masters & Johnson also were the first to describe the phenomenon of the rhythmic contractions of orgasm in both sexes occurring initially in 0.8 second intervals & then gradually slowing in both speed & intensity  
  SEXUAL RESPONSE IN THE AGING MALE & FEMALE  
  Masters & Johnson were the first to conduct research on the sexual responsiveness of older adults  
  Given a state of reasonably good health & the availability of an interested & interesting partner, there was no absolute age at which sexual abilities disappeared  
  There were specific changes to the patterns of male & female sexual responses w/ aging  
  It takes older men longer to become aroused & they typically require more direct genital stimulation  
  For women, the amount of vaginal lubrication & the rapidity w/ which it appears tends to diminish w/ age  
  Older men & women are perfectly capable of excitement & orgasm well into their seventies & beyond, a finding that has been confirmed in population based epidemiological research on sexual function in the elderly  
  SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION  
  Their research into the anatomy & physiology of sexual response was a springboard to developing a clinical approach to the treatment of sexual problems in a revolutionary manner  
  Prior to 1970, when they described their treatment program to the world for the first time, sexual dysfunctions such as premature ejaculation, impotence, vaginismus, & female frigidity had been generally treated by long term (multi year) psychotherapy or psychoanalysis w/ very low rates of success  
  Masters & Johnson revolutionized sexual therapy by devising a form of rapid treatment (2 week) psychotherapy always involving a couple, rather than just an individual, working w/ a male - female therapist team that resulted in a success rate of more than 80%  
  Masters & Johnson's sex therapy was strictly a talking therapy – couples in their sex therapy program were never observed in sexual activity  
  TREATMENT OF HOMOSEXUALITY  
  From 1968 to 1977, the Masters & Johnson Institute ran a program to convert or revert homosexuals to heterosexuality  
  Their program on homosexuality reported a 71.6% success rate over a six year treatment period  
  Summaries of this program were published in their book Homosexuality in Perspective & in the American Journal of Psychiatry  
  At the time of their earlier work, homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder by the APA  
  In 1973 the APA determined that homosexuality did not fit the criteria for a disorder, although a state of distress or poor functioning brought on by dissatisfaction w/ one's sexual orientation did qualify  
  CRITICISMS  
  Some sex researchers, Shere Hite in particular, have focused on understanding how individuals regard sexual experience & the meaning it holds for them  
  Hite has criticized Masters & Johnson's work for uncritically incorporating cultural attitudes on sexual behavior into their research  
  For example, Hite's work showed that 70% of women who do not have orgasms through intercourse are able to achieve orgasm easily by masturbation  
  She has criticized Masters & Johnson's argument that enough clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm should be provided by thrusting during intercourse, & the inference that the failure of this is a sign of female "sexual dysfunction"  
  While not denying that both Kinsey & Masters & Johnson have been a crucial step in sex research, she believes that people must understand the cultural & personal construction of sexual experience to make the research relevant to sexual behavior outside the laboratory  
  Similar research on the topic was carried out by Sunil Shetty & Rachna Tiwari in Memphis University during 2003-04  
  This research was based on lab studies of 97 females & 128 males drawn from multiethnic backgrounds  
  The research paper published in December 2004 concluded that the human sexual response can neither be categorized in strict classes of behavior nor is there any correlation btwn the two aspects  

 
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Theorist Masters & Johnson

William Howell Masters, 1915 - 2001
Virginia Eshelman Johnson, 1925 - 

Masters received his M.D. from the University of Rochester School of Medicine & Dentistry
Johnson began as a research assistant in the sex research project
Masters & Johnson were married in 1971
They divorced in 1993

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Major Works of Masters & Johnson

Human Sexual Response, 1966
Human Sexual Inadequacy, 1970 
The Pleasure Bond, 1975, 
Homosexuality in Perspective, 1979


 
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 Outline on   Shere Hite 1942 -
External
Links
Link
-  Biography & Major Works
 
  Hite's sexiological work has focused primarily on female sexuality
 
  Hite builds upon biological studies of sex by Masters & Johnson & by Alfred Kinsey
 
  She also references theoretical, political & psychological works associated w/ the feminist mvmt of the 1970s, such as Anne Koedt'sThe Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm  
  Hite has focused on understanding how individuals regard sexual experience & the meaning it holds for them  
  Hite has criticized Masters & Johnson's work for uncritically incorporating cultural attitudes on sexual behavior into their research  
  Hite's work showed that 70% of women who do not have orgasms through intercourse are able to achieve orgasm easily by masturbation  
  She has criticized Masters & Johnson's argument that enough clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm should be provided by thrusting during intercourse, & the inference that the failure of this is a sign of female "sexual dysfunction"   
 
The first Hite Report, entitled 'A Nationwide Study of Female Sexuality' became a focus of world attention 
 
  A Nationwide Study of Female Sexuality was the first sexiological research by women for women   
  A Nationwide Study of Female Sexuality came to the groundbreaking conclusion that women can orgasm easily, during self stimulation, that it is is not women but society that has a problem & needs to change  
 
Whilst not denying that both Kinsey & Masters & Johnson had been a crucial step in sex research, she believes that we must understand the cultural & personal construction of sexual experience to make the research relevant to sexual behavior outside the laboratory
 
  Hite uses an individualistic research method  
  Responses from anonymous questionnaires are used as a framework to develop a discourse on human responses to gender & sexuality  
  CRITICISMS  
  Her conclusions derived from these questionnaire data have met w/ methodological criticism  
  The fact that her data are not probability samples raises concerns about whether the sample data can be generalized to relevant populations  
  As is common w/ surveys concerning sensitive subjects, such as sexual behavior, the proportion of non response is typically large  
  Thus the conclusions derived from the data may not represent the views of the population under study because of bias due to non response  
  However, regardless of methodological drawbacks, Hite has been praised for her theoretical fruitfulness in sociological research  
  The suggestion of bias in some of Hite's studies is frequently used as a talking point in university courses where sampling methods are discussed, along w/ the Literary Digest poll of 1936  

 
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Shere Hite

1942  - 

Shere Hite, born Nov 2, 1942, Saint Joseph, M), is an Am born German sex educator & feminist

She received a masters degree in history from the University of Florida in 1967

She then moved to NYC & enrolled at Columbia Un to work toward her PhD in social history

She completed a PhD at Nihon Un (Tokyo, Japan) & another PhD in clinical sexology at Maimonides Un, North Miami Beach, FL

After attacks on herself & her work, she renounced her US citizenship in 1995 to become German

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Major Works of Hite

Sexual Honesty, by Women, For Women (1974) 
The Hite Report on Female Sexuality (1976,2004) 
The Hite Report on Men and Male Sexuality (1981) 
Women and Love: A Cultural Revolution in Progress (The Hite Report on Love, Passion, and Emotional Violence) (1987) 
Fliegen mit Jupiter (1993) 
The Shere Hite Reader: New and Selected Writings on Sex, Globalization and Private Life (2006)


 
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 Outline on  Sexual Orientation
External
Links
  SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS THE MANNER IN WHICH PEOPLE EXPERIENCE SEXUAL AROUSAL & ACHIEVE SEXUAL PLEASURE 
 
  A person's sexual orientation determines whether that person is sexually attracted to individuals of the opposite sex, to those of one's own sex, or to both sexes
 
  Sexual orientation refers to a person's preference in terms of sexual partners
 
  A person's primary sexual attraction is called sexual orientation  
  People who are primarily attracted to the opposite sex are called heterosexuals
 
  The norm in all societies is heterosexuality, meaning sexual attraction to someone of the other sex
 
  Homosexuality refers to sexual attraction to someone of the same sex
 
  Bisexuality refers to sexual attraction to people of both sexes
 
  Individuals who feel attracted to people of both sexes are bisexuals  
  Asexuality means that a person has no, or extremely low, sexual attraction to people of either sex
 
  People, esp men, who are homosexual are also called gay while any female homosexuals call themselves lesbians   
  Since the late 1940s, various estimates suggest that 1 to 10 % of men & women are attracted chiefly to people of their own sex  
  HOMOSEXUAL EXPERIENCES ARE VARIED & MOST PEOPLE HAVE SOME HOMOSEXUAL EXPERIMENTS / PLAY  
  Many people are not entirely homosexual or heterosexual, sexually attracted chiefly to the same or other sex, respectively   
  Kinsey developed a scale measuring sexual orientation now known as the Kinsey Scale which ranks a persons' sexuality from 0 to 6, where 0 is exclusively heterosexual & 6 is exclusively homosexual   
  Very few people rate at the extremes of Kinsey's scale connoting that most people are not exclusively hetero or homo sexual   
  Some individuals have homosexual experiences but marry people of the other sex & have children   
  Many people who consider themselves heterosexual have participated in homosexual acts at some time in their lives  
  Young people may explore their sexual development w/ members of their own sex  
  For example, many young people masturbate (pleasurably handle their own sex organs)  
  Boys may sometimes handle the sex organs of other boys & girls may also stimulate each other  
  Adolescent masturbatory group activity rarely develops into a homosexual orientation  
  Some homosexual experiences results from unavailability of the other sex  
  For example, people in prison who spend long periods separated from the other sex may turn to same sex partners  
  Such homosexual interest may not continue once other partners become available  
  Opportunistic homosexuality is the sexual practice of engaging in homosexuality only when no partners of the opposite sex are available for periods of time  
 
THE ORIGIN OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION IS UNCLEAR BUT MOST SCIENTISTS BELIEVE IT IS BIOLOGICALLY / PHYSICALLY DETERMINED & 'KEYED' BY SOCIAL FACTORS, AS ARE MOST HUMAN CAPACITIES 
 
 
Despite considerable research, the origins of sexual orientation are not completely understood
 
 
Scientists are not sure how many people are homosexual but estimates range from 1 to 10 % being primarily homosexual, w/ even higher numbers for bisexuality & occasional experimentation
 
  Some experts believe all people are born w/ a potential to be bisexual, but most people develop a strong attraction primarily for sexual partners of one sex  
 
The arguments in answer to the question of sexual orientation cluster around two general, opposite positions:  the influence of society & / or biology on sexual orientation 
 
 
SEXUALITY, HOW WE EXPRESS OUR ORIENTATION,  IS A PRODUCT OF SOCIETY   
 
One argument is that sexual orientation is a product of society, especially early socialization / experiences
 
 
This approach argues that people in any society construct a set of meanings that lets them make sense of sexuality
 
 
Some people have misinterpreted this sexuality as a product of society point of view to mean that people choose their orientation
 
  No social scientists who emphasize the importance of early socialization / experiences hold that this means that people choose their sexuality  
  According to one theory, children learn through pleasurable sexual experiences to become increasingly attracted to one of the sexes or to both sexes  
 
Different & same sex sexual practices are limited by laws in many places, but such laws have no impact on sexual orientation though they may limit overt or public homosexual displaces of affection  
 
US marriage laws may serve the purpose of encouraging people to only have sex (& children) w/in marriage  
 
Sodomy laws were seen as encouraging different sex sexual practices  
 
Laws also ban adults from committing sexual abuse, committing sexual acts w/ anyone under an age of consent, performing sexual activities in public, & engaging in sexual activities for money (prostitution)  
 
Though these laws all cover the same sex sexual activities, they may differ w/ regards to punishment, & may be more frequently (or exclusively) enforced on those who engage in same sex sexual activities   
 
Laws also control the making & viewing of pornography, including pornography which portrays different sex sexual activities   
 
Different moral & political movements have waged for changes in different sex sexual practices including courting & marriage, though in all countries, changes are usually made only at a slow rate   
 
Especially in the US, campaigns around sexuality & sexual orientation have often sparked & been fueled by moral panic   
 
In the US, mvmts to discourage same sex sexual practices often claim to be strengthening different sex sexual practices w/in marriage, such as Defense of Marriage Act & the proposed Fed Marriage Amendment 
 
  There is no scientific evidence to support the belief that legislation can affect sexual orientation or sexual practices other than limiting their public demonstration   
 
SEXUALITY IS PROBABLY MOSTLY A PRODUCT OF BIOLOGY, BUT AS IS TRUE W/ ALL CAPACITIES, ENVL FACTORS ALLOW OR DISALLOW DEVELOPMENT 
 
 
The argument that sexual orientation is a product of biology is the view that sexual orientation is innate, that is, it is rooted in human biology 
 
 
Most people report that they just feel or have a direct attraction to one sex or another 
 
 
As of yet, no direct biological keys, genetic or otherwise, have been found to determine sexual orientation, though several biological factors have been determined to be involved in sexuality 
 
  One such factor may be the effect of hormones on the developing brain of a fetus before birth   
  Some scientists also think particular genes (units of heredity) may be involved   
 
Sexual orientation is most likely derived from both society & biology 
 
 
Most scientists believe that sexual orientation is largely manifested biologically & then it finds a proper outlet given the societal norms 
 
 
Thus, in the past, homosexuality was more in the closet than today 
 
 
DEMOGRAPHICS ON SEXUAL ORIENTATION EST 10 % HAVE A HOMOSEXUAL ORIENTATION, & LESS THAN 10 % ARE BISEXUAL
 
 
Social scientists estimate that 1 to 10 % of the population is homosexual, but that depends on how one "operationalizes" homosexuality in that, for example, it does not include those who have experimented w/ homosexuality 
 
 
While scientists estimate that 1 to 10 % of American adults are homosexuals, a smaller percentage consider themselves bisexual   
 
While the statistics on number of homosexuals have not changed since the sexually conservative days of the Kinsey studies, it is possible that that more people admit to being homosexual, or bisexual as it becomes more acceptable to do so 
 
  ATTITUDES TOWARD HOMOSEXUALITY ARE MORE ACCEPTING  
 
Homosexuality has existed in most societies throughout history 
 
 
Various cultures have differed in their attitudes toward same sex relationships 
 
 
For example, some people of ancient Greece not only accepted male homosexual relationships but considered a partnership btwn a young man & an older man ideal 
 
 
Men of ancient Greece may have idealized homosexuality because they believed that only another male could fulfill the role of true friend & lover 
 
 
Other cultures have permitted homosexuality but have not encouraged it.  Still others have forbidden it, & some have punished homosexuals 
 
 
Today, political, religious, & personal attitudes about homosexuality vary throughout the world 
 
 
Some people try to change their homosexual orientation through psychotherapy 
 
 
But many experts believe that learning to accept one's feelings & to create a satisfying life may be more realistic goals 
 
 
 Some gay men & women hide their homosexuality, but others are more open about it 
 
 
Many join gay or lesbian groups 
 
 
Sometimes two homosexuals establish a long term relationship that is similar to marriage 
 
 
In some countries & some states of the US, homosexual acts are illegal 
 
 
Other nations, including Canada, France, the Netherlands, & the UK, have no laws against homosexual acts btwn consenting adults 
 
 
Some countries grant long term gay partnerships the same legal rights as marriage 
 
 
Many medical & legal professionals & social scientists oppose laws that prohibit or punish homosexuality 
 
  They believe such laws penalize homosexuals unfairly for ways of life that do not directly affect others   

 
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 Outline on   Transsexualism
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  TRANSSEXUALS WANT TO BE OR BECOME THE OTHER SEX   
  A transsexual is a person w/ an overwhelming desire to become the other sex, or a person whose sex has been changed through hormonal therapy & / or surgery   
 
Transsexualism is a condition in which a person experiences persistent discomfort about his or her sexual designation 
 
 
Transsexuals want to remove their body's sexual characteristics & obtain the characteristics of the opposite sex 
 
  HERMAPHRODITES ARE GENETICALLY ONE GENDER, BUT HAVE SIGNIFICANT PHYSICAL SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OTHER GENDER  
  Hermaphrodites are those individuals of one gender who display physical sexual characteristics of the other gender   
  Hermaphrodism occurs because of problems w/ sexual development   
 
Hermaphrodites are not transsexuals though they experience many of the same problems because they appear as one sex, but desire to be the other   
 
As far as science can tell, transsexuals are truly one sex & desire to be the other while hermaphrodites are truly one sex, appear to be the other, & desire to be the sex which they truly are 
 
  TRANSVESTITES DESIRE TO DRESS & ACT AS THE OTHER GENDER   
  Transvestites are those who desire to, or dress in the clothes of the opposite sex   
  Transvestites are heterosexual & are have no transsexual or hermaphroditic characteristics & thus their primary characteristic is that they enjoy dressing in or are aroused by dressing as the opposite sex, i.e. cross dressing   
  THE CAUSES OF TRANSSEXUALITY ARE UNKNOWN   
 
Transsexuals feel a need to act like & be treated as a member of the opposite sex 
 
  Transsexualism occurs more in males than in females 
 
  Transsexualism's cause is unknown 
 
  Some behavioral scientists think it results from an early disturbance in the mother infant relationship & a lack of proper identification w/ the same sex parent 
 
  There is no evidence of hormonal abnormalities in transsexuals though this as well as genetic abnormalities cannot be ruled out 
 
  SEXUAL REASSIGNMENT IS A PROCESS WHERE ONE SWITCHES SEX VIA SURGERY, HORMONE TREATMENTS, & COUNSELING   
  Transsexuals sometimes seek sexual reassignment surgery to permanently change their external anatomy to that of the opposite sex 
 
  Patients should receive careful psychiatric evaluation before the surgery because various psychiatric disorders can lead to unhappiness w/ one's sex type 
 
  In addition, psychotherapy is needed to explore the motivation for a sex change operation
 
  People considering sexual reassignment surgery are advised to live & dress as a member of the opposite sex for up to 2 years 
 
  By living & dressing as the opposite sex, people considering sexual reassignment surgery can demonstrate their ability to function as members of the opposite sex 
 
  During the 'new sex trial period,' potential sexual reassigners can take hormones of the opposite sex to obtain the secondary sexual characteristics of that sex 
 
  For example, a woman taking male hormones will grow facial hair, & a man taking female hormones will develop breasts 
 
  Some transsexuals have undergone sexual reassignment & gone on to marry & live out their lives w/ their new gender   

 
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 Outline on the  Gay Rights Movement
External
Links
 
-  Video:  Philadelphia
Link
  In 2004, Massachusetts ruled that gay couples had a right to marry  
  The trend is toward greater acceptance of homosexual relationships  
  Most gay couples w/ children are raising offspring of previous heterosexual unions & others adopt or conceive them using alternative methods  
  Gay parenting challenges traditional ideas  
  Gay parenting shows that gay couples value family life as highly as heterosexuals & the desire for a family life is now one of the main impetuses for the gay rights mvmt  
 
In recent decades, the public attitude toward homosexuality has been moving towards greater acceptance due to the gay rights mvmt that arose in the middle of the 20th C
 
 
The gay rights mvmt also began using the term homophobia to describe the dread of close personal interaction w/ people thought to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual
 
  An effort to win full civil rights for homosexuals, often called the gay rights mvmt, arose during the 1950s in Europe & No America
 
  In 1961, IL became the first US state to abolish its laws against private homosexual acts
 
  In 1969, a group of male homosexuals resisted arrest at a gay bar in NYC called the Stonewall Inn
 
  After this resistance, commonly known as Stonewall, the gay rights mvmt grew rapidly
 
  Since 1970, several US states & a number of US & Canadian cities have passed laws banning discrimination against homosexuals
 
  These laws forbid discrimination in employment, in housing, & in other activities
 
  A growing number of employers also grant the same benefits to same sex "domestic partnerships" as to conventional marriages
 
  During the 1980s, however, the gay rights mvmt suffered a setback as the AIDS epidemic swept Europe & No America
 
  In those regions, the disease first occurred mainly among gay men, & thus was known initially as the gay disease before it was understood & known as AIDS
 
  Although AIDS also occurs among, & is transmitted by heterosexual men & women, many people blamed homosexuals for its spread
 
  Many homosexuals feared & indeed have experienced increased discrimination as a result of the AIDS crisis
 
  In 1986, the Sup Ct of the US ruled in Bowers v. Hardwick that states could enact laws forbidding private homosexual acts
 
  Such laws are rarely enforced, but gay leaders feel that these laws express society's disapproval of homosexuality  
  In 1996, the US Sup Ct ruled in Romer v. Evans that states may not ban laws that protect homosexuals against discrimination  
  In 2000, Vermont passed a law that grants same sex couples living in civil unions the same legal rights & responsibilities as married couples in the state  
 
Since 2000 several states have passed laws allowing gay marriage & / or civil unions
 
 
The issue of gay marriage & / or civil unions has created a backlash like no issue since gay sex education in schools was proposed
 
  Many states have passed laws banning gay marriage & / or civil unions  
  There are several court cases in process testing the legalization & the banning of gay marriage & / or civil unions  

 
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 Outline on  Divorce
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  USA Today:  Divorce
Link
  -  Supplement:  US Census:  Divorce Rates, 2006
Link
  -  Supplement:  Associated Press:  Divorce Rates, 1998
Link
  -  Supplement:  Time Magazine:  Should You Stay Together for the Kids?
Link
  -  Supplement:  Time Magazine:  States w/ the Highest Divorce Rate
Link
  -  Project:  Divorce 
Link
  DIVORCE IS COMMON TODAY BECAUSE PEOPLE EXPECT MORE OUT OF MARRIAGE   
 
Divorce is the legal ending of a marriage
 
  The laws of most nations, including the US & Canada, permit divorce only under certain circumstances
 
  Divorce is restricted chiefly because it breaks up a family, the basic unit of society
 
  Some countries, including the Philippines, prohibit divorce
 
  Most men & women who seek a divorce do so because they cannot solve certain problems in their marriage
 
  Marriage problems may include differences in goals, financial difficulties, or a poor sexual relationship
 
 
In the US, a person seeking a divorce generally must appear in court to explain why he or she wants to end the marriage
 
 
A judge then decides whether to grant a divorce
 
 
A few states prohibit remarriage for a certain period after a divorce
 
 
But in general, a man & woman may marry again, each other or someone else, after their divorce becomes final
 
  DIVORCE, ANNULMENT, SEPARATION, ABANDONMENT ARE SOME OF THE COMMON CUSTOMS OF ENDING MARRIAGE 
 
Divorce differs from annulment, in which a court declares that a marriage has been invalid from its beginning
 
 
A person whose marriage has been annulled may remarry
 
 
Divorce also differs from legal separation, in which a court authorizes a husband & wife to live apart
 
 
Spouses (a husband & wife) who are legally separated may not remarry until there separation legally becomes a divorce
 
Abandonment occurs when one spouse breaks their obligations to the marriage through physically leaving, or not fulfilling childcare obligations, not filling financial obligations, etc.
Abandonment is defined legally through state law & thus the exact qualifications to establish abandonment vary from state to state 
A spouse who is abandoned may sue for divorce after a period of time
  THE INCIDENCE OF DIVORCE HAS RISEN FROM THE TIME WHEN IT WAS ILLEGAL, & HAS NOW STABILIZED  
 
Divorce is a sizable problem in the US & many other countries  
 
Each year, more than a million couples divorce in the US
 
 
In many divorces, the couple had children under 18 years old
 
 
About a fourth of the children in the US live w/ only one parent
 
 
Divorce affects many young children deeply
 
  But many experts believe that living w/ one parent is less harmful to a child than living w/ both parents in an unhappy environment   
  Most divorced men & women remarry, & many such marriages are successful  
  However, second marriages present special problems of adjustment, especially for couples who have children from a former marriage  
  Families that include children from one or more previous marriages are called step families, reconstituted families, or blended families  
  Blended families have become more & more common as the divorce rate rises  
  A SOCIO HISTL ANALYSIS OF DIVORCE SHOWS THAT IT WAS PRACTICED IN ANCIENT TIMES, BECAME PROHIBITED IN THE WEST AFTER CHRISTIANITY DOMINATED, & IS AGAIN PRACTICED SINCE WW 2   
 
Ancient cultures permitted easy divorce & often practiced polygyny & concubinage, which is the practice of a husband living w/ a woman who was not his legal wife  
  Polygyny & concubinage enabled a powerful or wealthy family to have children when the first wife failed to produce an heir, thus lessening the need for divorce  
  The first written divorce regulations were incorporated in the ancient Babylonian Code of Hammurabi  
  Many early societies permitted only the husband to get a divorce  
  The early Christians taught that marriage was permanent until death, & they abolished divorce in the areas they governed  
  Early Christians also established special church courts to deal w/ marriage matters   
  Beginning in the AD 1500s, Protestant reformers successfully worked to have matters of marriage & divorce placed under govt jurisdiction   
  Divorce rarely occurred in the American Colonies   
  Some colonies made no provision for divorce at all, but by the mid 1800s, almost every state had a divorce law   
  Today, the US divorce rate is about 16 times as high as it was in 1867, the first year for which the Bureau of the Census published divorce figures   
  In the early 1900s, NV had passed laws that made it easy to get a divorce   
  A person had to live in NV for only six months to get a divorce there   
  In 1927, the NV Legislature passed a law allowing persons to obtain a divorce if they lived in the state for only three months & in 1931, the period was reduced to six weeks   
  During the mid 1900s, thousands of people went to NV each year to get divorces quickly & easily   
  THE CUSTOMS OF ENDING MARRIAGE INCLUDE ANNULMENT, FAULT DIVORCE, & NO FAULT DIVORCE   
  Each state of the US has its own divorce laws   
  All the states recognize a divorce granted by the state in which one or both of the spouses are legal residents   
  State laws set forth the grounds for divorce, that is, the reasons for which a divorce may be granted   
  Depending on the kind of grounds, a divorce can be classified as a fault divorce or a no fault divorce   
  ANNULMENT ENDS A MARRIAGE BY ASSUMING THAT THE MARRIAGE NEVER REALLY EXISTED   
  Annulment is the declaration that a marriage never really existed, or was void from the beginning   
  Most states of the US, as well as many religious groups, have strict laws saying that first cousins may not marry each other   
  If 2 persons are found to be w/in the forbidden degree of consanguinity (blood relationship) their marriage can be annulled   
  Annulments are sometimes granted for other reasons, such as fraud or undue force exercised against one of the parties   
  A marriage can also be annulled if either party is under age, or if both parties declare that they considered the ceremony a joke at the time it was performed   
  An annulment differs from a divorce, which has the effect of dissolving a valid marriage for some cause arising after the ceremony   
  Except in special cases, the Roman Catholic Church does not recognize divorce, but it does recognize annulment   
 
FAULT DIVORCE IS RARELY INVOKED BECAUSE IT ATTEMPTS TO ASSIGN BLAME, & THIS IS PROBLEMATIC   
  Courts traditionally have granted divorces chiefly on fault grounds   
  Grounds for divorce vary, but the common ones are adultery, alcoholism, desertion, drug addiction, failure to support, imprisonment for felony, & mental or physical cruelty  
  A person seeking a divorce on a fault ground must prove that his or her spouse committed the fault  
  For example, a woman seeking a divorce on the ground of desertion must prove that her husband deserted her  
  The husband may contest (argue against) the divorce action  
  Many divorces are uncontested  
  If the wife's proof is accepted, the judge grants her a divorce  
  But if the husband can prove that his wife consented to or encouraged his action, the judge may refuse to grant a divorce  
  The judge also may rule against the wife if the husband can prove that she committed a legal fault  
  NO FAULT DIVORCE DOES NOT ASSIGN BLAME IS & THE MOST COMMON TYPE TODAY   
  A person seeking a divorce on a no fault ground does not try to prove that the spouse committed a wrong.  
  The person simply testifies that their marriage has failed  
  In many cases, the judge grants a divorce even if the person's spouse objects  
  In 1969, CA became the first state to enact a no fault divorce law  
  The CA law provides only two grounds for divorce, including:   
  a.  irreconcilable differences, that is, disagreements that cannot be settled & have led to the breakdown of the marriage  
  b.  the incurable insanity of one spouse  
  Generally, a person may not tell the judge about any misconduct of the spouse, so adultery is not grounds for a no fault divorce  
 
Some states have replaced all traditional grounds for divorce w/ the single no fault ground of marriage breakdown
 
 
Other states have added this to their traditional grounds
 
  Several states allow a couple to obtain a divorce on the ground that they have been separated for a certain period  
 
Some states grant divorce on the ground of incompatibility (being unable to get along together)
 
 
THE ARGUMENTS FOR NO FAULT DIVORCE ARE THAT USUALLY BOTH PARTIES ARE RESPONSIBLE & EVEN IF ONE IS MORE RESPONSIBLE, LEGALLY PLACING BLAME IS PROBLEMATIC
 
  People who favor no fault divorce argue that many marriage failures result from causes other than one spouse's misconduct  
  Therefore, they declare, a divorce should be granted for reasons other than a fault  
  In addition, these people believe that relations btwn spouses remain friendlier in no fault cases than in fault cases  
  Supporters of no fault laws also point out that traditional divorce laws lead many couples to lie in court  
  For example, a couple may want a divorce because they cannot get along  
  But they live in a state that grants divorces only on a few fault grounds  
  To obtain a divorce, the couple might lie to the judge that one spouse has been physically cruel to the other  
  A related argument for no fault laws is that traditional divorce laws lead some people to seek a divorce in another state  
  For example, a person who lives in a traditional divorce state may go to a no fault divorce state that has a short residency requirement  
  After living in this state for the required period, the person might falsely claim to be a permanent resident of the state  
  The person would then obtain a divorce & return to his or her own state  
  If the spouse disputes the validity of the divorce, a court may decide that residence was not truly established in the state that granted the divorce  
  As more states liberalize their laws, fewer people seek a divorce in such a state as NV, which has a residency requirement of only six weeks  
  Arguments against no fault divorce  
  Some people oppose no fault divorces because they believe such divorces can be obtained too easily  
  They fear that judges may grant a divorce to anyone who says the marriage has broken down, whether it actually has or not  
  Others believe restrictions should be added to no fault laws to prevent premature or unnecessary divorces  
  In some states, courts direct couples planning divorce to consult a marriage counselor  
  Some states require a waiting period to give a couple time to reconsider their decision  
  The divorce process may be simpler under no fault laws than under fault laws  
  Therefore, in some no fault states, some couples can obtain a divorce w/o hiring lawyers  
  Some judges oppose this practice, called do it yourself divorce, because they believe a lawyer is needed to protect the rights of spouses & children.  
  DIVORCE PROVISIONS IN MOST STATES ARE SET BY THE LAW & IMPLEMENTED & INTERPRETED BY THE COURTS  
  A husband & wife planning a divorce must make arrangements for alimony, child custody & support, & division of their property  
  They may reach agreement on these arrangements through their lawyers  
  In some states, courts offer divorce counseling to help couples resolve disagreements  
  If the judge considers the agreement fair, the judge approves it, but if the spouses cannot agree, the judge decides on the arrangements  
  DIVORCEE'S FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS IN MANY STATES ORDER THE SPLITTING OF ALL ASSETS; & IN SOME STATES, THE SPLITTING OF FUTURE INCOME   
  In the past, the judge ordered many divorced men to pay considerable alimony  
  They also had to give up some of their property & bear most of the responsibility for supporting their children  
  There were two chief reasons for this situation  
  First, large numbers of divorced women had no job outside the home & needed money to support themselves & their children  
  Second, traditional fault laws provided that the "guilty" spouse could not receive alimony  
  In many cases, the husband was the legally guilty spouse because his wife filed for the divorce, even though both might have wanted it  
  Today, courts base their decisions on financial arrangements primarily on the financial condition of each spouse  
  Judges realize that many women have the qualifications to work outside the home & need not be fully supported by their former husband  
  Therefore, if both spouses can earn enough income to support themselves, the court may order that no alimony be paid  
  If the wife has a higher income than her husband, she may have to pay alimony to him  
  In addition, the parents may share responsibility for child support  
  The court may also divide a couple's property on the basis of financial circumstances  
 
Under the community property laws of a few states, property acquired during a marriage belongs equally to both spouses  
 
This property is divided equally in most cases
 
  CHILD CUSTODY ARRANGEMENTS HAVE MOVED FROM MALES KEEP THE CHILDREN, TO FEMALES KEEP THE CHILDREN, TO THE 'BEST PARENT' KEEPS THE CHILDREN, TO SPLIT CUSTODY   
  In the early & middle 1900's, judges granted custody of the children to the wife almost automatically in the majority of divorce cases  
  They believed that children should not be separated from the mother  
  But today, many judges realize that some children might be better off living w/ the father  
  Therefore, the court may grant custody to either parent  
  The judge also determines each parent's rights to visit the children  
 
The judge may ask the children w/ which parent they would prefer to live
 
 
Some divorced parents return to court several times because one or both of them wants to challenge the child custody decision
 
 
If the court changes its decision, the children may have to leave the home of one parent & move in w/ the other
 
 
Such a move can harm children emotionally
 
 
As a result, some courts have become reluctant to move children unless they are in danger
 
  Mothers gain custody more often, but fathers earn more income  
  The well being of many children depend on court ordered child support payments  
  Courts award child support in 60% of all divorces involving children  
  Half of children legally entitled receive partial or no payments at all  
  There are an estimated 3.5 million deadbeat dads, i.e. those who cannot or do not make their child support payments  
  Federal legislation requires employers to withhold money from earnings of fathers and mothers who fail to pay  
 
US DIVORCE RATES ARE HISTLY HIGH, BUT THEY HAVE STABILIZED, & THERE IS STILL A BACK LOG OF OLDER MARRIED COUPLES WHO WILL DIVORCE BECAUSE THEY AVOIDED IT WHEN IT WAS MORE TABOO 
 
  In the US, divorce has become common  
  Each year, more than a million American couples divorce  
  Most couples who divorce do so in the first 10 years of marriage   
  A majority of divorced people remarry, & many have a successful marriage w/ another partner   
  The divorce rate is higher in the US than in almost any other country   
  Experts have suggested many reasons for this high rate, including:   
  a.  divorce is more socially acceptable than it once was   
  b.  many people expect more of marriage than earlier generations did, & so they may be more easily disappointed   
  c.  more high paying jobs are open to women & these opportunities have made wives less dependent economically on their husbands than women   
  d.  changes in divorce laws have made divorce easier to obtain   
  In general, cities have a higher divorce rate than rural areas   
  The rate also varies among different states & regions, partly because divorce laws & court practices differ   
  But the rates probably also differ because of variances in the cultural, economic, racial, & religious composition of the population   
  In general, people w/ nonprofessional jobs & those w/ low incomes have a higher divorce rate than people w/ professional jobs & those w/ high incomes.  But one nonprofessional group, farmers, has an extremely low divorce rate  
  Most studies show that black couples & couples consisting of a black & a white have higher divorce rates than white couples do  
  Of the three major religious groups in the United States, Roman Catholics have the lowest divorce rate & Protestants the highest  
  The Catholic Church holds that valid marriages cannot be dissolved  
  It allows its members to get a civil divorce to solve financial & child custody problems  
  But it does not believe such a divorce gives the right to remarry  
  If the church has annulled a marriage by declaring it invalid, the people involved are once again free to marry  
  Judaism & most Protestant groups permit divorce  
  Some surveys show that Catholic Protestant couples & Christian Jewish couples have a higher divorce rate than couples of the same religion  
  But one study showed no difference in the divorce rate of Catholic Protestant couples  

 
Top
 
Table on Marital Status Rates 
Year
Married
Single
Widowed
Divorced
1910
62.7 %
28.6
8.1
0.6
1920
64.8
25.7
8.5
1.0
1930
65.6
24.5
8.5
1.4
1940
65.8
24.1
8.6
1.5
1950
72.2
16.8
9.0
2.0
1960
73.9
14.7
8.9
2.5
1970
71.7
16.2
8.9
3.2
1975
69.6
17.5
8.3
4.6
1980
65.5
20.3
8.0
6.2
1985
63.0
21.5
7.9
7.6
1990
61.9
22.2
7.6
8.3
1995
60.9
22.9
7.0
9.2
2005
52.7
29.4
6.0
9.8
The Table on Marital Status Rates shows that married & widowed rates are declining while single & divorce rates are rising

 
  THE PROFILE OF WHO DIVORCES INCLUDE YOUNG COUPLES, PREGNANT COUPLES, CHILDREN OF DIVORCEES, CAREER COUPLES, ETC.   
  Young couples are at the greatest risk for divorce  
  Those who had a brief courtship before marriage have a greater risk of divorce  
  A lack money & emotional maturity increase the risk of divorce  
  Couples who marries after an unexpected pregnancy have an increased risk of divorce  
  People whose parents divorce have a higher divorce rate  
  Divorce is more common if both partners have successful careers  
  Men & women who divorce once are more likely to divorce again  
  Risk factors follow from one marriage to another  
  BLENDED FAMILIES ARE NOW COMMON AS DIVORCEES REMARRY   
  Four out of five people who divorce remarry creating blended or step families  
  Blended families are composed of children & some combination of biological parents & stepparents  
  Blended families must define who is part of the nuclear family  
  While adjustments are necessary is all families, blended families require even more, creating more stress on the marriage & the family  
  Blended families offer both the young & the old the chance to relax rigid family roles  
  THE FUNDAMENTAL CAUSE OF DIVORCE OF DIVORCE IS INDIVIDUALISM, EXPECTATIONS OF SATISFACTION, & THE ECONOMIC ABILITY TO DO IT   
  Individualism is on the rise & people desire less compromise & dependence in their lives  
  As is documented by Sternberg & Rubin, romantic love fades leaving commitment & intimacy to hold marriages together
 
  Women are less dependent on men than in the past & so are more able to see divorce as a realistic option  
  Divorce is socially acceptable & is easier to get  
  Singlehood is more desirable than in the past  

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on  Infidelity
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  Druckerman:  No longer the kiss of death
Link
  -  Supplement:  Video:  Druckerman:  "Lust in translation" 
Link
  -  Supplement:  Druckerman:  "Lust in translation" 
Link
  Infidelity is unfaithfulness, a breach of trust; esp, unfaithfulness to the marriage vows which often encompasses sexual & / or romantic liaisons w/ someone other than one's spouse
 
  Men are more likely to cheat, as are those in the lower income brackets 
 
  Adultery crises in Am last longer, cost more, & inflict more emotional torture than anywhere else
 
  For No Ams, marital lapses are widely perceived as the first step toward divorce 
 
  For Euro, infidelity is simply considered an unexpected challenge to overcome
 
 
While the purportedly open minded Fr are perceived as bed hopping adulterers, they are actually just slightly less unfaithful than No Ams
 
  SOCIO-BIOLOGY & INFIDELITY  
  There are biological reasons behind the human emotion of jealousy  
  Those same biological reasons for jealousy also produce different reactions in men & women  
  The reasons for jealously & infidelity for women & men lie in their different roles in procreation  
  The primary social reason for marriage is for a woman to secure the assistance of the male in raising first the gestating fetus, & second the child  
  The primary social reason for marriage for a man is to ensure his patronage in his child, i.e. that he is not cuckolded  
  Cuckold is an allusion to the female cuckoo's laying her eggs in the nests of other birds, thus having other birds care for & raise her young  
  In socio biological terms, a cuckold is the husband of an unfaithful wife, i.e. a man whose wife has committed adultery & become pregnant   
  Marriage has the socio biological advantage for women that they secure a mate to help provide for the fetus & child  
  Marriage has the socio biological advantage for men in that they can ensure their paternity, i.e. know who their child is, & help provide for the fetus & child  
  Tolerance for cheating has the socio biological advantage for men that they can spawn many offspring w/o much investment in time or effort as in there is only a social, & not a biological imperative than men help provide for the fetus the child  
  Tolerance for cheating has the socio biological disadvantage for men that they can never be sure of their paternity, i.e. know for sure whether a child is their offspring or not, & thus they are unsure of where to invest there time & effort into parenting  
  Tolerance for cheating has the socio biological advantage for women that they are more free to mate w/ the best mate  
  Tolerance for cheating has the socio biological disadvantage for women that they may lose the support of a male in raising their child  
  Men react to infidelity w/ anger towards their lover & the third party & are more upset by sexual indiscretion than by mental infidelity  
  Sexual infidelity by a woman is more important than mental infidelity to the man because then he cannot be sure of his paternity   
  Women are more upset by mental infidelity, falling in love w/ someone else, than by sexual infidelity  
  Women are more upset by mental / love  infidelity because the risk is the man may w/draw support for their child & give it to another woman & child  
  Also that women react to infidelity by w/drawing & attempting to solve the problem, because love may be returned or "corrected" at any time in a relationship, thus re-establishing the support by the male for the child  
  Men will react to infidelity by ending the relationship because there is no way to fix problem of cuckolding  
  SOCIO HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF INFIDELITY  
 
Americans had more remedies for fixing broken marriages than anywhere else, by 2004, there were more than 50,000 marriage & family therapists in the US
 
 
North Americans are particularly bad at dealing w/ infidelity
 
 
Americans have come to expect much more of their marriages & to follow the storybook narrative to the letter
 
 
Americans have become more liberal on practically every sexual issue, including homosexuality, premarital sex, babies out of wedlock & cohabitation, but cheating still remains a social taboo
 
 
A 2006 Gallup poll found Americans believe infidelity is more morally wrong than polygamy & human cloning
 
  When gender roles were more distinct, most husbands went to work while their wives tended house, Americans were more comfortable w/ the idea that married
couples might keep secrets from each other
 
  In President Kennedy: Profile of Power, Reeves wrote that few members of JFK's inner circle had moral qualms about helping to arrange the president's romps  
  In the recent past, most American's, including JFK's inner circle, considered philandering a harmless hobby ("It took less time than tennis, & partners were often easier to find")  
  Few people questioned why Jacqueline Kennedy soldiered on, while today many still question Hillary Clinton's loyalty to her cheating husband  
 
In a 1994 survey of 24 countries, we disapproved of adultery more than people anywhere but Ireland & the Philippines, & Russia was the most permissive
 
 
In 1994, more than 25,000 marriage & family therapists, up from 3,000 in 1970, were teaching us that recovering from infidelity could take years
 
 
Many believed that healthy couples didn't keep secrets, so the "offending spouse" should tell the "betrayed spouse" every detail. America's new mantra became: "It's not the sex, it's the lying."
 
 
The fidelity rules, for presidents & for ordinary people, began changing in the 1970s
 
 
Most states adopted no fault divorce, transforming marriage from a durable container for all kinds of transgressions into a disposable one
 
 
Indiscretions that once were tolerated suddenly became grounds for dismissal. Americans increasingly had the means to walk away, because more women worked
 
  The national divorce rate doubled btwn 1967 & 1979  
  A generation of brides & grooms read one another the one strike rule: cheat, & it's over  
  Psychologists had once assumed that only one fragile psyche could be dealt w/ at a time, but in the 1970s, they decided that "the relationship" was itself an entity that could be studied  
  The ranks of couples therapists quickly multiplied, creating an army of people preaching that an affair isn't just about sex; it's a symptom of other problems  
  FAMOUS INFIDELITIES  
  Anna Karenina  
  Leo Tolstoy, 1828-1910, a Russian writer, published his second masterpiece, Anna Karenina, in installments from 1875 to 1877  
  Its plot concerns the open infidelity of a Russian princess, Anna Karenina, to her husband, Karenina  
  The novel examines Anna's romance w/ Count Vronsky  
  Anna & Vronsky show contempt for the disapproving opinions of the members of the high society to which they belong  
  The difficulties of their relationship eventually lead to Anna's suicide  
  But Anna Karenina is more than a tragic love story  
  The novel explores broad social, moral, & philosophical issues of Russia & its aristocracy in the 1870's  
  These issues include the hypocritical attitude of the upper class toward adultery & the role of religious faith in a person's life  
  Many of these issues are raised through the thoughts & actions of Konstantin Levin, the novel's second most important figure  
  JFK  
  When John F. Kennedy took women for a dip in the presidential pool w/o a peep from the press, Americans didn't automatically assume that cheaters had
personality defects
 
  Such behavior could be seen as glamorous or as evidence of a passionate streak. In 1973, slightly less than 70 % of Americans said that
adultery was "always wrong," . 
 
  Though Americans generally agreed that infidelity was bad, it was an offense they could live w/  
  John Irving  
  John Irving, 1942-...,  wrote the 158 Pound Marriage, 1974, is a kind of moral fable about marital infidelity  
  In the novel, Utch marries a professor & they have 2 children & live a relatively placid existence until, at a faculty party, they become acquainted w/ Severin Winter, a coach of the school's wrestling team, & his wife Edith, a WASP from a privileged background  
  The couples are sharing dinners & play dates w/ their children & as the professor becomes more attracted to Edith & Utch begins to fall for Severin, the couples begin trading spouses for sexual encounters at the end of their dinner date  
  At first the affairs proceed smoothly, w/ emotional conflict submerged beneath sexual curiosity, but soon enough, obsessive love rears its ugly head, & the narrator begins to discover that the Winters have not been entirely honest w/ him & his wife about their motives for entering the affair  
  Gary Hart  
  Gary Hart,  1936-..., a Colorado Democrat, served as a United States senator from 1975 to 1987  
  He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1984 & 1988  
  Hart w/drew from the campaign in May 1987 after newspaper accounts of his personal life suggested marital infidelity  
  He reentered the race in December 1987, but he again w/drew in March 1988  
 
Bill Clinton
 
 
For a time, Clinton's campaign faltered over charges of marital infidelity
 
  The Clintons acknowledged that they had encountered some difficulties in their relationship, but they said their marriage was strong  
  Clinton also came under attack for his actions during the early 1970's, which, his opponents charged, showed that he had sought to evade military service during the Vietnam War (1957-1975)  
  Clinton denied that he had acted improperly, & his campaign rapidly regained ground  
  Clinton overcame the claims of infidelity, & won the Presidency, where infidelity again came into the picture  
  Clinton was later impeached because of a sexual liaison w/ Monica Lewinski in the White House  
  Hillary Clinton was publicly distant from her husband after this affair, but maintained that it was a private issue  
  As Hillary Clinton enters the 2008 presidential race, her marriage again appears strong  
  There's no shortage of adultery hovering over the current race: Rudy Giuliani's awkward transition into his third marriage, John McCain's overlapping relationships w/ his first & second wives & potential candidate Newt Gingrich's acknowledged "periods of weakness"  
  These candidates are all making comebacks, compared w/ Gary Hart's lost campaign despite the fact that in 2004, 82 % of American's said that
adultery was "always wrong," up from 70% in 1973
 
  The survivability of these politicians is a reflection of the latest thinking from therapists & religious groups is that affairs need not be a marital death sentence  
  Some evangelical & other Christian congregations are so alarmed by divorce that they're counseling people to work through their problems rather than split up  
  Therapists & self appointed marriage experts are increasingly promoting the same message.   
  As children of the divorce explosion in the late 1970s now hit bumps in their own marriages, they're rethinking the one strike rule  

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on   Out of Wedlock Births
External
Links
 
-  Supplement:  An Analysis of Out Of Wedlock Births in the United States;  Brooking Institute, August, 1996
Link
  -  Supplement:  Understanding the Rise in Illegitimacy
Link
  A SOCIO HISTL ANALYSIS OF OUT OF WEDLOCK BIRTHS SHOWS THAT THIS PRACTICE HAS MOVED FROM TABOO TO CONVENTIONAL  
  What today are commonly referred to as out of wedlock births were once called illegitimate births, & thus the children were called illegitimate or bastards  
  Children were considered to be illegitimate or bastards even if they were conceived out of wedlock  
  A bastard is a child begotten & born out of wedlock & were considered to be mongrel & inferior  
  Illegitimacy could be conferred on the mother & child if the child was conceived & / or born before marriage, or if they were the result of an adulterous relationship  
  Thus, illegitimacy & bastardness is slightly different than being born out of wedlock because even if a child is born of an adulterous relationship, today it is not considered to be born out of wedlock, but it the past the mother & child would have been given the illegitimate label  
  Generally illegitimate children were not entitled to the same rights as legitimate children & the mothers of such children were either not considered to be marriageable or if married, were shunned as adulterers  
  The illegitimacy ratio, or the % of births that are out of wedlock, has expanded rapidly for both whites & blacks since the beginning of the War on Poverty in 1965  
  THE DEMOGRAPHICS OF OUT OF WEDLOCK BIRTHS SHOW THAT THEY ARE INCREASING  
  The illegitimacy ratio measures the number of out of wedlock births as a percent of all births in a year   
  If there were 100 births in a society in a given year & 30 of those births were out of wedlock, the illegitimacy rate or ratio would be 30 %  
  Among whites, the out of wedlock birth rate has risen from 4 % of all births in 1965 to 23.6 % of births 1995  
  Among blacks, the out of wedlock birth rate has risen from 28 % of all births in 1965 to 69.9 % of births 1995  
  The percentage of non married women in their late teens, 20s & 30s has thus clearly grown over the last 3 decades  
  As the number of non married women has increased, the probability that these women will have children while unmarried has also grown  
  American society is now characterized by a growing number of non married women who as a group have an increasing tendency to bear children out of wedlock  
  In 1965 there were 23.4 births per 1,000 non married women aged 15 to 44 & by 1995, the number had risen to 45.1  
  Thus, the overall birth rate among non married women has nearly doubled over the last 30 years  
  The increase in out of wedlock births is particularly steep among young unmarried women  
  Among non married women aged 15 to 19, the birth rate per 1,000 women rose from 16.7 in 1965 to 44.4 in 1995  
  Among unmarried women aged 20 to 24, the birth rate rose from 39.6 per 1,000 to 70.3 per 1,000  
  While the total number of births has increased since the beginning of the War on Poverty in the mid 1960s, the number of children born to married couples has declined, falling from 3.47 million births in 1965 to 2.65 million births in 1995  
  From the 1960s to 1995, the number of births to non married women has quadrupled, rising from 0.29 million in 1965 to 1.25 million in 1995  
 
There were approximately 1.5 million births to unmarried women in the US during 2004
 
 
In the mid 2000s, the birth rate for unmarried women is 46.1 births per 1,000 for unmarried women aged 15 - 44 yrs
 
 
36 % of all births take place out of wedlock
 
  CAUSES OF OUT OF WEDLOCK BIRTHS INCLUDE SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE, ECONLY IND WOMEN, OUT OF WEDLOCK PATERNITY, ETC.   
  There are cultural & structural causes of the increase in out of wedlock births, including the   
  1.  decline in the social stigma against conception & birth out of wedlock  
  2.  decline in the portion of women of child bearing age who are married  
  3.  increase in the birth or fertility rate among non married women  
  4.  decline in the marriage rate  
  5.  decline in the birth or fertility rateamong married women  
  6.  increased econ power of women, allowing them to support a family  
  7.  belief that a good single life is better for males & females & their children than a bad marriage  
  8.  laws & customs requiring the acknowledgment of out of wed lock paternity  
  9.  laws & customs requiring child support for out of wedlock children from the parent not raising the child, to the parent raising the child  
  10.  positive images of single parents & their children  
  IMPACTS OF OUT OF WEDLOCK BIRTH INCLUDE MORE SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES, MORE POOR SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES, & AN INCREASE IN THE CYCLE OF POVERTY  
 
It is well established that single parent, female headed families have a high risk of poverty
 
 
Feminists have labeled the trend of single parent, female headed families having a high risk of poverty "the feminization of poverty"
 
 
As the % of single parent, female headed families grew in the 1970s & 80s, so did the poverty rate
 
  The rate of out of wedlock births is higher among people who are already poor or grew up in poverty 
 
 
Many social scientists, including Wu (1996), found that both low income & declining income are associated w/ out of wedlock births for women aged 14 - 21, Black & White
 
  Poverty is as much a cause as a consequence of out of wedlock births
 
  Poor people have less access to birth control
 
  Poor women have a small pool of employed, marriageable men
 
  Women of all income levels are equally sexually active, but the longer time an unmarried spends in poverty, the greater their likelihood of out of wedlock birth
 
  Poverty harms self image & giving birth is one way a woman can improve her status & self image
 
  Poor people have less control over their lives & giving birth increases the control a woman has, at least in that one sphere of motherhood
 
 
Over 90% of children who live in a single parent home are likely to live in poverty during some time in their first 10 yrs. of life
 

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on  Teen Pregnancy
External
Links
 
-  Supplement:  Facts & Stats on Teen Pregnancy
Link
 
-  Resource:  Research on Teen Pregnancy
Link
  Teen pregnancy is described as pregnancies to women 19 yrs old & younger & is not the same as out of wedlock births  
  It is important not to confuse the issue of illegitimacy w/ teen pregnancy  
  Out of wedlock births includes all women who conceive & birth children outside of marriage including teens, but many teen births take place in marriage & so are not included in out of wedlock births  
  While teen pregnancy is very important, it is only a small part of the overall problem of out of wedlock births & the population explosion in general  
  DEMOGRAPHICS  
  The US has the highest rates of teen pregnancy & births in the western industrialized world  
  In 1997, teen pregnancy cost the US at least $7 billion  
  More than 40 % of young women become pregnant at least once before they reach the age of 20, nearly one million a year  
  80 % of the pregnancies of pre 20 yr olds are unintended & 80 & are to unmarried teens  
  The teen birth rate has actually undergone a gradual decline from 1991 to 1996 w/ an overall decline of 12 % for those aged 15 to 19  
  The largest decline since 1991 by race or ethnicity was for black women w/ their birth rate for teens aged 15 to 19 falling 21 % btwn 1991 & 1996  
  Hispanic teen birth rates declined 5 % btwn 1995 & 1996, w/ Hispanic teens now having the highest birth rates  
 
Surveys indicate that while 1 million US teens become pregnant each year, most did not intend to
 
 
Today, most teenagers who become pregnant are not married
 
 
It is important not to confuse the absolute numbers of illegitimacy merely w/ the birth rate to non married women, i.e.., births per 1000 non married women
 
 
The % of births that are out of wedlock is determined by three factors: the marriage rate, the birth rate of married women, & the birth rate of non married women
 
 
A decline in the birth rate to non married women means little if the marriage rate & the birth rate to married women are also declining
 
 
It is quite possible for illegitimacy to rise even as the birth rate among non married women falls
 
 
Only about one tenth of all out of wedlock births occur to girls under age 18
 
 
Out of wedlock childbearing occurs primarily among young adult women, w/ the largest number of births occurring w/ women aged 18 to 24
 
 
IMPACTS OF TEEN PREGNANCY
 
 
Teen parents & children experience nearly all the impacts that out of wedlock parents & children might experience because the social ostracism is nearly the same & because even married teens generally have the same economic problems as single adult parents
 
 
Thus, in addition to the impacts experienced by out of wedlock parents & children, teen parents & children have the experience that: 
 
  -  only one third of teen mothers receives a high school diploma   
  -  nearly 80 % of teen mothers end up on welfare  
  -  the children of teenage mothers have lower birth weights, are more likely to perform poorly in school, & are at greater risk of abuse or neglect  
  -  the sons of teen mothers are 13 % more likely to end up in prison while teen daughters are 22 % more likely to become teen mothers themselves  
 
THE CAUSES OF TEEN PREGNANCY
 
 
Having a child is an age old method for the young females or males to achieve the status of adulthood
 
 
McLanahan & Bumpass found that the education level of the teen & of the teen's parents was the most important factor in teen pregnancy
 
  McLanahan & Bumps found that, contrary to popular belief, teens from lower income families are not more likely to become pregnant; & instead, those teens from families w/ lower ed attainment do have a higher rate of pregnancy  
 
See Also:  The Social Causes of Teen Pregnancy
 
 
Teens in the US, of all races, are more likely to have out of wedlock births & abortions than teens in any other industrialized nation
 
 
A high rate of out of wedlock births in the US results in more US teens living in poverty than in any other industrialized nation
 
 
US teens are no more sexually active than teens in other nations
 
  REDUCING TEEN PREGNANCY  
  US teens are less likely to have access to, & use birth control than teens in other industrialized nations  
  Availability of contraceptives for teens does not increase sexual activity  
  Availability of contraceptives results in sexually active teens using more contraceptives & having less out of wedlock births  
  Contraceptives are less available in the US because of a generally strong prohibition against sexuality & against contraceptives themselves  
  Religious values do affect govt policy in all nations & hence do affect the rate of out of wedlock births as well as the outcomes of other social issues or problems  
  Religious or moral values can reduce teen pregnancy to the extent that they convince people to abstain from sex  
  Religious or moral values can increase teen pregnancy to the extent that teens trying to abstain, fail at that & because sex was unplanned, they use no contraception  
  The fear of contracting a sexually transmitted disease helps prevent teen pregnancy  
  The desire to have children only w/ the right person, i.e. the appropriate partner, helps prevent teen pregnancy  
  Strong emotional attachments to parents helps prevent teen pregnancy  
  Being raised by both parents, biological or adoptive, from birth helps prevent teen pregnancy  
  At age 16, 22 % of girls from intact families & 44 % of girls from divorced homes have had sex at least once   

 
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 Outline on  Pornography
External
Links
 
Pornography refers to sexually explicit material that causes sexual arousal
 
  Obscenity & pornography are terms used to designate written, recorded, or pictorial material, including motion pictures, that many people consider indecent & thus find offensive  
  Pornography is obscene literature, art other media production, or other form of communication intended to excite lascivious feelings  
  The term obscenity can also refer to any language or behavior believed to corrupt public morals  
  The term pornography often refers to written or sexually explicit pictorial material intended primarily to cause sexual stimulation, while the term obscenity to refer to written or pictorial material that glorifies violence against women or degrades women, though most people, in common language, do not distinguish btwn the two  
 
Erotica is the term given to sexually explicit material that is meant to stimulate, & depict men, women, & sexuality in a positive, respectful, equal manner  
  In many cases, however, the terms obscenity & pornography are used interchangeably, & the meaning of erotica is not widely used  
  THE CONFLICT OVER PORNOGRAPHY  
  The nature of obscenity & pornography & the laws governing them have been a continuing source of controversy  
 
Pornography is popular in the US
 
 
Traditionally, people have criticized pornography on moral grounds
 
 
Other critics see pornography as a cause of violence against women
 
 
Pressure to restrict pornography is building from a coalition of conservatives, who oppose it on moral grounds, & progressives, who condemn it for political reasons
 
  Some people are convinced that the distribution of pornographic material corrupts public morality  
  Others focus on the extent to which some printed or photographic material portrays violence against women, & the degradation of women, as appropriate behavior  
 
Many critics maintain that pornography is inherently exploitative of women even though porn actors usually enter into the production of pornography voluntarily
 
 
The vast majority of pornography is purchased & consumed by men
 
 
Usually pornography is created w/ a male centered view of sex wherein women are the objects of lust & men are the consumers of lust
 
 
Some critics maintain that a non exploitative depiction of sexuality is possible, & they label such material as erotica
 
 
Some feminists, male & female, & others, believe it is possible to depict human sexuality, love & romance in a positive, non pornography form
 
  The problem w/ pornography is not in the portrayal of sex, but in the portrayal of women as existing for the sexual satisfaction of men  
  Others believe existing anti obscenity laws & proposed anti pornography laws violate the rights of free speech & press guaranteed by the First Amendment to the US Constitution  
  PORNOGRAPHY & THE LAW  
  In the US, most states & cities have laws regulating the publishing, distributing, or selling obscene materials & many other locales prohibit it  
  There are also federal laws against the interstate sale & distribution of such material & against the presentation of obscene material on radio or television  
  But these anti obscenity laws have been hard to enforce, in part because it is difficult to determine what is obscene according to the law  
  TARIFF ACT OF 1842  
  Congress passed the first federal law against obscenity as part of the Tariff Act of 1842  
  This law made it illegal to bring what it called "indecent & obscene" material into the country  
 
THE COMSTOCK LAWS
 
 
The Comstock Law is a US law that prohibits the mailing of indecent materials or of information about birth control or abortion
 
 
The law, passed in 1873, is named for Anthony Comstock, a controversial reformer who crusaded for its passage
 
 
The legislators who enacted the Comstock Law probably intended that it be used to prosecute pornography distributors in criminal court
 
 
Instead, it was used to support a system of administrative censorship by postal officials, w/o going to court
 
 
For about 85 years, postal officials used the Comstock Law, sometimes very loosely, to censor mail
 
 
If post office inspectors decided a book, picture, or other item of mail was indecent, they seized all copies & refused to deliver them
 
  Since the mid 1900's, the Sup Ct of the US has narrowed the legal definition of pornography in the process of interpreting the First Amendment to the Constitution  
  The court also has placed constitutional limits on censorship  
  The Comstock Law is still in force, but most experts think the Sup Ct would find the system of postal censorship unconstitutional if it were challenged  
  As a result, the US Postal Service almost never uses the law to seize mail, & the Department of Justice rarely tries to enforce the act in criminal court  
  ROTH V. THE US  
 
In 1957, in the case of Roth v. the US, the Sup Ct ruled that freedom of speech & the press, as guaranteed by the First Amendment, restricted prosecution to only those materials that a court had determined to be legally obscene
 
  But the Supreme Court provided only loose guidelines for the definition of legally obscene material  
  In 1973, in the case of Miller v. California, the Supreme Court held that material could be considered legally obscene only if  
  a.  the average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find that the material, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient, sexually arousing, interest  
  b.  the material shows, in a clearly offensive way, sexual conduct specifically described in the applicable law  
  c.  the material lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value, when evaluated in accordance w/ national standards  
  JENKINS V. GEORGIA, MILLER V. CALIFORNIA  
  In 1974, in Jenkins v. Georgia, the Supreme Court unanimously determined that local standards play a very limited role in the determination of what is to be considered obscene  
  Today, as a result of Jenkins v. Georgia, Miller v. California, & other cases, obscenity prosecutions are rare  
  COMMISSIONS ON OBSCENITY & PORNOGRAPHY  
  A national Commission on Obscenity & Pornography reported in 1970 that it found no reliable evidence that pornography caused crime among adults or delinquency among young people  
  The commission recommended repeal of all laws prohibiting the sale of pornography to consenting adults  
  But it also recommended that each state adopt laws against the sale of obscene pictorial material to young people  
  In 1986, however, the Attorney General's Commission on Pornography determined that a relationship existed btwn sexually violent or degrading materials & the amount of sexual violence in society  
  It also recommended increased prosecution of cases dealing w/ child pornography, that is, pornographic materials that involve photographs of children  
  OTHER NATIONS PORNOGRAPHY LAWS  
  Many nations have anti obscenity laws  
  In some, including Ireland & Italy, such laws are strictly enforced  
  In Canada, anti obscenity groups have fought for years for stricter laws & stricter enforcement  
  Many members of these groups seek recognition of the harm resulting from materials that endorse sexual violence against women  
  But some nations have repealed their obscenity laws  
  In the late 1960's, for example, Denmark dropped all legal barriers against pornography for adults  

 
Internal
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Top

 Outline on  Prostitution
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  Prostitution, Feminism, & Critical Praxis 
 Link
  -  Supplement:  Prostitution, Women, & NOW 
 Link
 
-  Supplement:  Prostitution:  Research Male Violence 
 Link
 
-  Supplement:  Prostitution from a Youth Services Perspective 
 Link
 
PROSTITUTION IS THE SELLING OF SEXUAL  SERVICES 
 
  Prostitution is the performance of sexual acts for payment which exists throughout the world, largely in urban areas   
 
Around the world, prostitution is the most common in poor countries where patriarchy is strong & traditional cultural norms limit women's ability to earn a living 
 
 
Prostitutes fall into different categories, from call girls to street walkers 
 
  A young prostitute, generally 16 yrs of age or younger is called a baby pro   
  About 50 % of clients of female prostitutes are repeat clients   
 
Prostitution is against the law almost everywhere in the US, but many people consider it a victimless crime 
 
  About 2/3s of prostitutes are women, but prostitutes also include men & children, who make up about 1/3 of prostitutes   
  Child prostitution is illegal in every nation, but is never-the-less all too common   
  Sexual slavery is a form of prostitution that is illegal in every nation where people are forced into sex work   
  Some prostitutes work for themselves while others work for men known as pimps or for women called madams   
  In many countries, call services or houses of prostitution, often called brothels, connect prostitutes w/ clients, set fees, & protect prostitutes from dangerous or unwanted customers   
  A house of prostitution, a place where prostitutes & customers meet for sexual activity, is called a brothel, bordello, whore house, call in service, etc.   
  Some prostitutes seek customers on the streets & in other public places   
  Both prostitutes & their clients face a risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS  
  In many Western countries, much prostitution is related to drug abuse   
  In the US, for example, many prostitutes sell sexual services to support a drug habit   
  Social scientists believe that many people in developed countries become prostitutes because they have been emotionally, physically, or sexually abused as children or as adults   
  PROSTITUTION IS LEGAL IN SOME NATIONS, BUT HAS DEFACTO LEGALITY IN THE US BECAUSE OF LAX PROSECUTION   
  In developing countries, poverty is the main reason for prostitution   
  In the US, prostitution is legal only in NV, where each county has the option of allowing houses of prostitution   
  In Canada, call services are legal, but houses of prostitution are illegal, & prostitutes may not seek customers in public   
  Prostitution is also legal in parts of So America & Asia, & many European cities have experimented w/ legal prostitution   
  People in Western countries disagree about whether prostitution should be legalized   
  Some people think that the legalization of prostitution results in a rise in the spread of sexually transmitted diseases   
  But others argue that legalization controls the spread of such diseases because it enables govts to require medical inspection of prostitutes   
  MORAL ATTACKS ON PROSTITUTION ARE THE MAJOR OPPOSITION TO ITS LEGALIZATION   
  Many people oppose prostitution on moral or religious grounds   
  Reflecting society's ambiguity about the legalization of prostitution is the moral & cultural ambiguity in Western society   
  Derogatory terms for prostitutes or women who are sexually active are common, as are romantic, positive images as seen the the movie "Pretty Woman" w/ Julia Roberts & Richard Gere  
  For feminists, the label whore, & thus prostitutes, are part of the patriarchal imagination re-appearing in fantasies both sacred & profane   
  'Whore' is also a term of abuse often hurled at women in domestic disputes, in encounters of male violence against women & by adolescent boys unsure or fearful of the sexuality of their female peers   
 
A SOCIO HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF PROSTITUTION INDICATES IT IS 'THE OLDEST PROFESSION' WHICH HAS ALWAYS BEEN PERSECUTED, BUT NEVER CONTROLLED
 
  Prostitution has existed throughout history, & is often called 'the first profession'   
  Prostitution was widespread in ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, & China & in European & Asian history, some prostitutes have held high social rank   
  The history of prostitution is a history framed by attempts to repress & make morally reprehensible the women involved in prostitution whilst accepting, even venerating the desires & fantasies symbolically associated w/ the whore, the prostitute, the fallen woman   
  The history of prostitution is then also tied to the history & social construction of sexuality, cathexis & desire; gender relations; masculinity; & capitalist exchange relations which increasingly commodify everything, even love   
 
The history of prostitution is one of immense contradictions as the prostitute is a figure represented in varying guises: whore/priestess, whore/goddess 
 
 
Throughout history, prostitutes achieved a certain level of autonomy leading to education & status w/in ancient Greek society, Chinese society, Europe in the Middle Ages, the US in the colonial & western expansion periods, & others 
 
  Prostitutes thus sometimes achieved a certain amount of liberty, independence, power, & autonomy that was not available to other women   
 
Whores became bad women especially as the growth of christianity & later protestantism contrasted the ideal of the good wife & mother w/ the fallen women & sinner 
 
 
Increasingly w/in the Victorian period, the ideals of social purity & morality contrasted w/ dire economic poverty for working class/underclass women involved in a prolific sex for sale market, particularly in London 
 
  Some aspects of contemporary prostitutes' experiences are not so different from the experiences of prostitutes in earlier centuries   
  Social stigma, violence, social exclusion & reduced personal safety are central to the lived experience of prostitutes as they have been throughout the documented history of prostitution   
  The stigma against prostitution closely relates to relationships w/ men (clients/pimps) & to paternalistic & patriarchal institutions, mores, & regularized conduct   
  Historically most societies, nearly all of which are patriarchal, have supported values & norms which prohibited sexual relations outside of the bond of marriage   
  The situation of prostitutes is unique because while they are stigmatized to such an extent that they are often placed in the lowest status in a society, their clients, primarily men, are often respected members of the community   
  Prostitutes' clients in most societies retain their status, though they may experience some stigma, while prostitutes attain a very low status   
  Currently women working as prostitutes are perceived as bad girls, contravening norms of acceptable femininity, suffering whore stigma & increasingly criminalized by state, policing practices & the lack of effective action taken by police & the state to address male violence against women   
  PROSTITUTION IN MODERNITY IS RISKIER THAN EVER BECAUSE OF AIDS & SEXUAL SLAVERY  
  Current debates on modernity / later modernity / reflexive modernity center upon the major themes of: 
a.  de-traditionalization
b.  the relocation of authority to the self 
c.  the incorporation of increased self monitoring 
d.  reflexive modernization 
e.  reflexive risk exposure 
 
  Reflexivity is the process of being self aware & self controlled   
  The relationship btwn traditional society & modernity is illuminated through an increasingly reflexive modernity   
  In general, there has been a reduction in the numbers of visible prostitutes on the street & an increase in male /transsexual prostitution   
  It is generally believed that in the US, prostitution is riskier today because of AIDS & because of prostitution being driven into the street making violence more probable   
  A prostitutes' well-being depends on: 
a.  the risk level of the setting in which she works 
b.  the reasons she / he entered prostitution 
c.  whether she / he experienced victimization as a child or adolescent 
d.  the wealth of her or his environment / clientele
 
  Today there is an increase in the self regulation & organization of prostitution by women themselves; & new forms of machine sexuality coinciding w/ the AIDS era, for example telephone sex, & computer sex   
  THE PROSTITUTES' RIGHTS MOVEMENT HAS IMPROVED WORKING CONDITIONS, LEGAL RIGHTS, & MORE   
  Since the 1970s in No America & the 1980s in Britain is the increase in the regulation & organization of prostitution by women for themselves   
  The rise of the prostitutes rights mvmt which developed in the 1970s in No America & also in Germany & the Netherlands related directly to the feminist mvmt   
  This inter-relation btwn feminists & prostitutes has helped to shift the discourse on prostitution out of a legal framework & into a feminist framework focusing first of all upon violence against prostitutes by clients & also pimps & secondly upon prostitution as work   
 
See Also:  The Prostitutes Rights Movement   
  PROSTITUTION IS TRANSITIONING IN STATUS TO BECOME MORE LIKE WORK  
  For many people, prostitution is experienced & articulated as sex work   
 
Sex work includes any type of work which is primarily related to the recreational or pleasure oriented aspects of sexuality including prostitution & pornography production, as well some forms of entertainment such as dancing or waiting/serving   
  Prostitutes, like any worker, negotiate the relationship btwn psychic processes created by the work, & social processes, btwn self & the wider social world   
  Burawoy called the process of dealing w/ the stresses, contradictions, social stereotypes, etc. at work 'making out'   
  Prostitutes make out by dealing w/ violence against prostitutes, the resistance women engage in in order to maintain stable self identities whilst labeled & treated as 'other' as marginal & criminal through the operation of what Gail Pheterson (1986) has called the 'whore stigma'   
  Like all work, prostitution, the experiences, needs, meanings & practices of the sex worker, is shaped by the socio histl context of the society in which it exists   
  There have been shifts in the social organization of prostitution from tradition to later modernity from a moral to legal to feminist discussions & today all 3 go on simultaneously   
  The feminist discourse on prostitution centered initially upon violence & pornography & more latterly upon work, rights & human liberties   
  Advocates for prostitutes seek to promote the understanding of women's lived experiences contextualised w/in an understanding of the sociology of work, the feminization of poverty, as well as the rise of the prostitutes rights mvmt   
  Advocates for prostitutes are demanding that prostitution be accepted as work & that female & male prostitutes be given the same rights & liberties as other workers   

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on  Sexual Violence
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  Herstory of Domestic Violence
Link
  SEXUAL VIOLENCE IS A TYPE OF ABUSE WHICH INCLUDES PHYSICAL, EMOTIONAL, VERBAL, CHILD, & EVEN NEGLECT
 
Sexual violence, which ranges from verbal abuse to rape & assault, is widespread in the US 
 
 
Domestic violence refers to physical, sexual, emotional, or psychological abuse btwn marital partners, former partners, & other adults who are, or have been, in close relationships 
 
  Women are morel likely to be injured by a family member than a stranger   
  The family is the most violent group in society with the exception of the police & the military   
 
Most experts distinguish domestic violence from the mistreatment of the elderly or of children 
 
 
Both men & women may act violently toward each other, but women are more likely than men to be injured or murdered by their partners 
 
 
Domestic violence leaves long lasting effects on its victims & their families 
 
 
Victims may abuse alcohol or drugs & experience depression, eating disorders, or display other types of psychological distress 
 
 
They are also more likely than non victims to consider or attempt suicide 
 
 
Children who witness domestic violence often experience emotional & psychological distress & they are more likely than other children to become violent 
 
  VICTIMS OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE, LIKE VICTIMS OF MOST CRIMES, KNOW THE PERPS, & IS WIDESPREAD W/ REPORTING RISING  
  Because sexual violence & abuse in general is often unreported to police, statistics on these crimes are low   
  Estimates range from 960,000 incidents of violence against a current or former spouse, boyfriend, or girlfriend per year to three million women who are physically abused by their husband or boyfriend per year   
  Around the world, at least 1 in every 3 women has been beaten, coerced into sex or otherwise abused during her lifetime   
  31 % of women report being physically or sexually abused by a husband or boyfriend at some point in their lives   
  Nearly 25 % of Am women report being raped & / or physically assaulted by a current or former spouse, cohabiting partner, or date at some time in their life   
  In 2001, more than half a million American women were victims of nonfatal violence committed by an intimate partner   
  In 2001, women accounted for 85 % of the victims of intimate partner violence & men accounted for approximately 15 % of the victims   
  While women are less likely than men to be victims of violent crimes overall, women are 5 to 8 times more likely than men to be victimized by an intimate partner   
  Women are 7 to 14 times more likely than men to report suffering severe physical assaults from an intimate partner   
  Women of all races are about equally vulnerable to violence by an intimate partner  
 
33 % of women homicide victims are killed by spouses or ex spouses   
  SOCIO HISTORICAL ANALYSIS   
  Domestic violence has a record that goes back as far as the historical record, which according to many social scientists is when patriarchy began   
  See Also:  The Origin of the Family, Private Property & the State   
  See Also:  The Development of the Patriarchal Family   
  During the reign of Romulus in Rome, wife beating was accepted & condoned under The Laws of Chastisement   
  During the Middle Ages, in Europe, squires & noblemen beat their wives as regularly as they beat their serfs; & the peasants faithfully followed their lords' example   
  During the Middle Ages, the Church sanctions the subjection of women   
  During the Early Industrial Era, around 1792, In A Vindication of the Rights of Women, Mary Wollstonecraft seeks changes in the education for women & kinder treatment by husbands & lovers   
  In 1829, in England, a husband's absolute power of chastisement is abolished   
  In the late 1800s, US courts begin to show signs that they might hold husbands responsible & found guilty of marital rape   
 
Even in the 20th C, most social scientists, law professionals, & other experts considered domestic violence a "private matter" 
 
 
Today most experts recognize it as a dangerous social problem 
 
 
A variety of services help prevent & treat domestic violence, including shelters for battered women 
 
 
Shelters provide a wide range of programs, including legal assistance & counseling for victims & their children 
 
  Since the 1980's, all 50 states of the US have enacted laws that specify domestic violence & violence against women as crimes   
  Laws have made it easier for women to obtain restraining orders, court orders designed to prohibit offenders from contacting their victims   
  Many states also require police officers to arrest offenders in cases of domestic violence   
  The fed govt passed the Violence Against Women Act in 1994   
  The fed govt grants money to state & local govts to establish programs & shelters for battered women   
  The Violence Against Women Act also identifies stalking (repeatedly threatening, following, & harassing a victim) as a crime   
  THE CAUSES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ARE WIDE RANGING & PARALLEL THE CAUSES OF OTHER SOC PROBS  
  The causes of domestic violence include patriarchy, poverty, unemployment, crime, econ exploitation & other soc probs, & also have a causative effect on these very soc probs, i.e. they interact   
  Most of the 'direct / relationship' causes of dom violence can be characterized as a function of patriarchy   
  There is no single reason for domestic violence   
  Many offenders have a history of alcohol or drug abuse   
  Some abusers experience stress caused by unemployment, sexual difficulties, & low job satisfaction   
  The most abusive offenders tend to have severe emotional problems   
  Numerous offenders were abused as children   
  There are several theoretical views of the nature of rape, including the 
a.  victim precipitated theory 
b.  the psycho pathology of rapists 
c.  feminist theories of rapists & the culture of violence against women 
d.  social disorganization theory 
 
  While Freud wrote on  the psychological & social roles of men & women, he never commented on sexual violence   
  Rape is actually an expression of power   
  Date rape refers to forcible sexual violence against women by men they know   
  Rape myths, the false belief that women want rape, & hostility toward women are two cultural factors that predisposes men to engage in aggressive behavior toward women   
  Some cultural features enhance the likelihood of violence in general, & violence against women   
  Individualism is the cultural norm that predisposes one to pursue one's own interests w/ as little regard for others as society allows   
  Collectivism is the cultural norm that predisposes one to pursue group, organizational, or societal interests w/ as little regard for oneself as society allows   
  Asian cultures are more collectivist & have less sexual violence against women than American cultures   
  The fact that Asian cultures are collectivist means that empathy tends to be more common, & this is viewed as a protective factors against aggression   
  Related to our culture of individualism is our acceptance of wide differentials of power & control   
  A culture of power & control makes it more acceptable to control women, workers, or any subordinate group   
  Economic dependency exacerbates the problem of power & control, & it also makes victims of abuse more likely to accept abuse & stay in bad relationships   
  Stress is also a factor in sexual violence, abuse, crime, & other social problems   
  The question of whether men are inherently violent, or more violent than women, has not been definitively answered, though history offers ample evidence of man's violent nature   
  SOCIAL POLICIES TO REDUCE SEXUAL VIOLENCE INCLUDE ZERO TOLERANCE, EDUCATION, SOC MVMTS, END SEX DISCRIMINATION, & THERAPY FOR VICTIMS & PERPS   
  1.  Zero tolerance for sexual violence   
  The criminal justice system ( CJS ) must have the laws, personnel, & resources to prosecute all instances of sexual violence, as well as child & elder abuse   
  -  Mandatory sentences & counseling for crimes against women   
  -  The state, not the victim, becomes prosecutor in crimes against women   
  -  All 50 states have marital rape laws that prohibit forced sex even in marriage, but these laws vary widely in there strength & enforcement   
  2.  Expand education & research on the effects of gender socialization & objectification of women, men, & sexuality   
  3.  Groups or social movements such as NOW & AAUP which support women's rights, work to end sexism, etc. must organize, cooperate & work together   
  4.  To reduce sexual violence, the general policies to end sex discrimination in the economy must be embraced to ensure women's status by eliminating the traditional view of women as second class citizens   
  -  Stronger laws around wage discrimination   
  -  Stronger laws around occupational discrimination & the glass ceiling   
  5.  Social psychological therapy for victims & perpetrators   
  Many programs are available to treat people who commit domestic violence   
  Judges often require men who assault their wives to attend these programs as a condition of their sentence   
  The purpose of behavior therapy is create new learning, that is to learn how to respect others, solve problems, & deal w/ feelings   
  Communities across US established shelters to provide counseling and temporary housing for women and children of domestic violence   

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on  Functionalism on Sexuality
External
Links
  DEVELOPING NORMS AROUND SEXUALITY IS FUNCTIONAL / USEFUL / NECESSARY FOR SOCIETY   
  Functional analysis examines the fact that every society has regulated marriage & sexuality, establishing strong norms around it 
 
  From a biological perspective, sex allows our species to reproduce 
 
  From a psychological perspective, sex is the expression of Eros, the life force, of our animal nature  
  From a social perspective, sexuality permits pair bonding, usually in the form of marriage   
  From a social perspective, sexuality permits group bonding in the form of families, extended families, & in traditional societies, the tribe or larger social org   
  Culture & social institutions regulate w/ whom & when people reproduce & / or have recreational sex 
 
  IN FUNC TH, IF A PRACTICE, SUCH AS PROSTITUTION, EXISTS IN SOCIETY, IT MUST BE 'FUNCTIONAL  
  The manifest function of prostitution is the exchange of two values:  sex & money   
  Because of the power of sexuality in our society, prostitution is more frequently viewed as sexual than economic   
  The latent functions of prostitution is to preserve the family unit 
 
  According to Kingsley Davis, prostitution is widespread because of its latent function 
 
  Davis assumes that if prostitution were not allowed, the family would be in jeopardy because the man would leave for sex, & / or the woman would leave because the man was in another relationship, as opposed to "merely" having an encounter w/ a prostitute   
  For functionalists, society, in the form of social institutions such as religion, the govt, etc., would have eliminated prostitution if they desired   
  CRITIQUES OF FUNCTIONALISM ON SEXUALITY INCLUDE ITS PATRIARCHY, DIVERSITY IN SEXUALITY, SOCIETY'S DEV OF SEX NORMS, & SEX NORMS ADJUSTING AS OTHER SOC STRUC CHANGE   
  Feminists modify the functionalist argument to the extent that it is the power of patriarchy & not male concern w/ the family that keeps prostitution as a common relationship   
  The conservative functionalist approach of Davis ignores the great diversity of sexual ideas & practices found w/in every society 
 
  Moreover, sexual patterns change over time, just as they differ around the world 
 
  As family & sexual relations change, other social structures adjust to them as seen in the development of the legal system to deal w/ divorce 
 

 
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 Outline on  Symbolic Interactionism on Sexuality
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  The symbolic interaction ( SI ) approach highlights how, as people interact, they construct everyday reality, including the changing views of sexuality 
 
 
THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF SEXUALITY IS ACCOMPLISHED BY THE SAME PRACTICES THAT CONSTRUCT OTHER BEHAVIOR:  3 WAY DYNAMIC AMONG SELF, SOCIETY, & THE PROCESSES OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION 
 
 
Almost all social patterns involving sexuality have seen considerable change over the course of the 20th C 
 
  A cross cultural analysis or histl analysis of sexuality demonstrates that perhaps sexuality is one of the most diverse types of relationships in which humans engage   
  The wide variety of sexual patterns demonstrates that people spend time & energy constructing their gender & sexuality   
  The wide variety of sexual patterns demonstrates that the social construction of sexuality is an intricate pattern, & demonstrates more than most relationships that one person's self, i.e. social identity is constructed in a the social env of others' social identity   
  An analysis of sexuality shows, more than other relationships, the interdependency of all social roles:  an 'American Woman' is that modern form of woman to an American man, but is viewed very differently by another culture, & she can be herself only w/ the 'American Man,' & vice versa  
 
GLOBAL COMPARISONS OF SEXUALITY REVEAL PARTICULAR UNIVERSAL CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO PATRIARCHY, MARRIAGE, DIVORCE, VIRGINITY, ETC., BUT ALSO WIDE VARIATION
 
 
The broader our view, the more variation we see in the meanings people attach to sexuality
 
  The global view of sexuality, the family, romance, etc. may broadly be divided btwn traditional relations which have their roots in pre industrial societies, & modern relations which are historically less than 2 centuries old  
  A CRITICAL REVIEW HOLDS THAT S - I IGNORES STRUCTURAL FORCES SUCH AS RELIGION, THE MEDIA, & OTHERS IMPACTING SEXUALITY 
 
  The strength of the symbolic interaction approach lies in revealing the constructed character of familiar social patterns
 
  One limitation to this approach is that not everything is so variable
 
  As is the case w/ many SI approaches, the SI approach to sexuality ignores the structural forces which functionalism & conflict theory demonstrate such as the power of patriarchy as an overall organizing force on our self identity today
 
  The social construction of sexuality takes place w/in the pre existing social structures of contemporary peer grps, the family, religion, etc.
 

 
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 Outline on  Conflict Theory on Sexuality
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  The conflict theory approach shows how sexuality reflects patterns of social inequality & also how it helps perpetuate them 
 
  SEXUALITY & GENDER ARE ONE BASIS SOCIAL OF INEQUALITY AS SEEN IN PATRIARCHY, SEXUAL LIBERTY, & MORE 
 
  Feminists have used a conflict theory model to demonstrate the group interests of men & women in gender & sexuality relations   
  From a feminist perspective patriarchy is the exploitation of women by men & it occurs in all classes, but is the least powerful in the middle class   
  Patriarchy demands not only the physical control of womens' bodies, but also ideological control of how we, society, view gender, sexuality, the family, etc.   
  Besides patriarchy's ability to keep women subordinate to men for sexuality, family tasks, etc., patriarchy also keeps women out of traditional economic relationships limiting their influence in the economic sector   
  Studies show that if women had economic opportunities, few would be involved in prostitution 
 
  Thus for women, prostitution is clearly more of an economic transaction, i.e. they are not doing it for sexual adventure 
 
  Defining women in sexual terms amounts to devaluing them from full human beings into objects of men's interest & attention 
 
  QUEER THEORY EXAMINES OPENNESS, MARGINALIZATION, ETC. IN RELATION TO SEXUALITY, ESP HOMOSEXUALITY
 
  Homosexuals are removing the power from such words as queer by voicing their interests in a manner that turns partriarchy's slanders against itself   
  Queer theory refers to a growing body of knowledge that challenges an allegedly heterosexual bias in sociology 
 
  The queer orientation begins w/ the assertion that our society is characterized by heterosexism, a view stigmatizing anyone who is not heterosexual as "queer" 
 
  Like feminists, gay activists view anti gay sentiment as an extension of patriarchy which seeks to maintain an ideology of the normalcy of traditional gender, sexuality, family, etc. relations   
  If patriarchs allowed the questioning or deconstruction of the line btwn straight & gay, then people might also begin to question the other boundaries of traditional, patriarchal relations   
  A CRITICAL REVIEW IS THAT SEXUALITY IS NOT POWER  LADEN FOR ALL 
 
  Applying the social conflict approach shows how sexuality is both a cause & effect of inequality 
 
  But the conflict approach overlooks the fact that sexuality is not a power issue for everyone 
 
  The conflict paradigm under represents the progress our society has made toward eliminating injustice 
 

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