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Revuew Notes on  ES:  Solutions to Environmental Issues
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 In Part One this module first introduces the scope of the problem: social change (change in wider society) as a process where stakeholders struggle to impact outcomes 
 
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 Part Two is an overview of clear, specific plans that some institutions are advocating for env change 
 
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 Part Three discusses individual actions that people can take to move toward living in an environmentaly sustainable manner.
 
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 Part Four is a review of env changes that have been discuss thus far in the course, which combine negotiation specific plans by instits, & individualistic actions 
 
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 PART ONE:  NEGOTIATION BASED SOLUTIONS:  MANY ADVOCATES OF ENV SOLUTIONS PROMOTE THE PURSUIT OF A NEGOTIATION PROCESS, INVOLVING ALL STAKEHOLDERS, TO CREATE CHANGE, RATHER THAN PURSUING CLEAR, SPECIFIC ENV GOALS 
 
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 Social Change & the Environment 
 
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 Intro to Social Change   
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          Social Change   
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                   The Causes of Social Change   
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              1.  Social Change & the Physical Env   
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              2.  Contact & Diffusion   
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              3.  Tech & Soc Change   
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                                    Technology   
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            4.  The Media & Soc Change   
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                                   The Media   
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            5.  Internal Conflict & Social Change   
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            6.  Revolution as Soc Change   
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                                   Revolutionary Mvmts  
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            7.  War as Soc Change   
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                                  War   
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            8.  Planned Change   
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          Intro to Modernity   
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                   Modernization & Escalting Social Change   
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                   Beyond Modernization:  Even Faster Change   
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          Consequences of Rapid Soc Change   
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          Social Change as the Intersection of Historical & Structural Forces, & Change Agents   
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          Tilly:  On the Way to Rev   
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 Summary of the Env Solutions Process 
 
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 Outlne of the Env Solutions Process 
 
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 Envl Solutions, Participants, & Soc Change 
 
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 Social Impact Analysis (SIA)   
 
 PART TWO:  INSTITUTION BASED SOLUTIONS TO ENV ISSUES:  MANY ADVOCATES OF ENV SOLUTIONS PROMOTE THE PURSUIT OF CLEAR, SPECIFIC ENV GOALS, TO CREATE CHANGE, RATHER THAN A NEGOTIATION PROCESS INVOLVING ALL STAKEHOLDERS   
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 Plan B by Lester Brown & the Earth Policy Institute   
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 Overview of the Millenium Goals   
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 Clinton Global Initiative:  CGI   
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         Clinton Global Initiative:  CGI & the Env   
  PART THREE:  INDIVIDUALISTIC BASED SOLUTIONS:  IN SOME SENSE ALL ACTION BEGINS W/ INDIVIDUAL ACTION, & THERE ARE MANY INDIVIDUALISTIC ACTIONS WHICH MAY HELP CREATE A SUSTAINABLE ENV, BUT MANY INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS ARE ONLY POSSIBLE WHEN SOCIETY ENABLES OR STRUCTURES SUCH ACTIONS   
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 Going Green:  Individual Solutions to Env Problems   
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 Conservation, Recycling, & Source Reduction   
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        Recycling   
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        Source Reduction   
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 Green Shopping 
 
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 Green Jobs 
 
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 Green Investments 
 
PART FOUR:  A REVIEW OF THE ENV CHANGES DISCUSSED IN THE COURSE  
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 Solutions to Mining Problems   
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 Solutions to Forestry Problems   
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          Let Burn Policy   
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 Economic Solutions   
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          Tourism & Economic Dev   
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                   Eco Tourism   
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                            Costa Rico Alternative Tourism   
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                            Ecuador:  Alternative Tourism   
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 Global Warming Conferences   
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          Global Development Orgs & the Environment   
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          Saving the Rain Forest   
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 Solutions to the Population Explosion   
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          Solutions to Water Shortages   
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 Outline on the   Social Change & the Environmental 
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 SOC CHANGE ASSOCIATED W/ ENVL ISSUES OR PROJECTS OCCURS AS: 
1.  A PROCESS OF ANALYSIS & NEGOTIATION 
2.  PLANS / OUTCOMES DEVELOPED BY SOC MVMT ORGS, INSTITUTIONS, & OTHER ACTORS 
3.  INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS 
 
 
 Social change can be incremental, ie come about through small changes, or comprehensive, ie come about through large changes 
 
 
 Social change (change in wider society) is a process where stakeholders struggle to impact outcomes in society & b/c the env is one of the top social & political issues today, & b/c of humanity's impact physically on the env, there is rapid & escalating social change occurring in the env & in our social relations around the env 
 
 
 Soc change is occurring by & in all levels of society including, individuals, social mvmt orgs, institutions, entire societies, & more 
 
  Multi level change is occurring in conjunction w/, as a result of the general factors which contribute to soc change   
 
 Factors which may contribute to soc change include: 
the physical env, 
contact & diffusion of  culture, 
technology, 
the media, 
internal conflict, 
revs,
war, 
planned change, 
& more 		  
 
 Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include the physical env itself 
 
  Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include contact & diffusion of culture including everything from our perception of what is natural to being impressed by our neighbor's solar panel   
  Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include technology as it is used to 'conquer nature' or help us live a sustainable live   
  Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include the media's depiction of the stakeholders from environmentalists to industrialist   
  Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include internal conflict esp over jobs vs the env   
  Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include 'revolutions' in our ways of thinking about the env & in living sustainably  
  Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include our 'wars' on pollution   
  Factors which may contribute to soc change in the env include planned change, & more   
 
 NEGOTIATION BASED SOLUTIONS:  MANY ADVOCATES OF ENV SOLUTIONS PROMOTE THE PURSUIT OF A NEGOTIATION PROCESS, INVOLVING ALL STAKEHOLDERS, TO CREATE CHANGE, RATHER THAN PURSUING CLEAR, SPECIFIC ENV GOALS 
 
 
 One feature of social change is that it is an all encompassing, chaotic negotiation among stakeholders w/ highly varied levels of power, resources, constituents, leaders, & more 
 
 
 Two critical processes of negotiation of env issues are the participant negotiation process & social impact analysis 
 
 
 Participant negotiation process & social impact analysis can be applied to any social problem, & thus env issues can be addressed using these methods 
 
 
 Through the participant negation process the reduction of environmental physical problems may be accomplished via FOUR stages including prioritizing, examining context, invoking best practices, conducting a cost / benefits analysis, & proposing actual solutions 
 
 
 Though social impact analysis, the social problems that may develop b/c of an env issue or project can be discovered, analyzed, & mitigated 
 
 
 INSTITUTION BASED SOLUTIONS TO ENV ISSUES:  MANY ADVOCATES OF ENV SOLUTIONS PROMOTE THE PURSUIT OF CLEAR, SPECIFIC ENV GOALS, TO CREATE CHANGE, RATHER THAN A NEGOTIATION PROCESS INVOLVING ALL STAKEHOLDERS 
 
 
 Institutions, soc mvmt orgs & all manner of stakeholders are each developing clear, specific plans for env change 
 
 
 Institutions, soc mvmt orgs & all manner of stakeholders vie for influence w/ each other, political system, govts, the general public & more 
 
  Institutions, soc mvmt orgs & all manner of stakeholders strive to develop comprehensive plans of env change which they then try to 'sell' to each other, political system, govts, the general public & more   
 
 INDIVIDUALISTIC BASED SOLUTIONS:  IN SOME SENSE ALL ACTION BEGINS W/ INDIVIDUAL ACTION, & THERE ARE MANY INDIVIDUALISTIC ACTIONS WHICH MAY HELP CREATE A SUSTAINABLE ENV, BUT MANY INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS ARE ONLY POSSIBLE WHEN SOCIETY ENABLES OR STRUCTURES SUCH ACTIONS 
 
 
 There are many individual actions that people can take to move toward living in an environmentally sustainable manner including reducing resource use, recycling, & reusing 
 
  It is worth noting that most broad individualistic actions can be more effective if the society in which the individual acts has structures to support these individual acts   
  Recycling is more efficient when a city or county sets up a recycling program & the more effective that govt program, the more effective the individual actions will be   
  Reducing driving can be more likely & effective if individuals have a variety of mass transit options   
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 Outline on the   Intro to Social Change
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  SOCIAL CHANGE IS ANY SIGNIFICANT ALTERATION IN THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS & PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR IN A SOCIETY
 
  Social change is any alteration of behavior patterns, social relationships, or social structure over time 
 
  Social change may occur abruptly, or gradually 
 
  Social change may be caused by fashions, inventions, revs, wars, & other events & activities 
 
  Tech developments have led to many social changes since 1900 
 
  A number of studies have concentrated on the changes in ed, social values, & settlement patterns that occur in newly industrialized nations 
 
  SOC CHANGE OCCURS ON THE VARIOUS LEVELS OF SOCIAL EXISTENCE RANGING ACROSS THE SPECTRUM FROM THE INDIVIDUAL (MICRO) TO THE GLOBAL (MACRO), & MANY LEVELS IN BTWN
 
  Social change refers to any significant change in the structure of society 
 
  Short lived changes, such as changes in the employment rate, do not produce social change 
 
  In general, fads, fashions, or temporary changes in ideas &  behavior are not soc change, but they may persist, spread throughout the society, become embedded in it, & thus do foment soc change 
 
  The election of a new president is not social change, but replacement of the presidency w/  a dictatorship changes the structure of govt &  is thus a soc change
 
 
 SOC CHANGE COMES IN MANY FORMS:  FITS & STARTS; EVOLUTION TO PLANNED CHANGE; INTERNALLY & EXTERNALLY CAUSED; ENV OR HUMAN CAUSED, & MORE 
 
 
 Social change can come from may sources; those that come from outside of the society are exogenous sources; those that originate w/in the society are endogenous 
 
 
 In practice change is often the result of exogenous & endogenous sources 
 
 
 Exposure or knowledge of another culture can be an exogenous source of soc change 
 
  Soc mvmts can be an endogenous source of soc change   
  The physical env can be a source of exogenous soc change   
  Invention, discovery, technology can be either endogenous, ie internal, or exogenous, ie external   
  Internal conflict & planned change are usually endogenous sources of change   
 
 FOR MANY SOC SCIENTIST THE TYPES OF SOC CHANGE INCLUDE CHANGES IN THE: 
A.  NUMBER & VARIETY OF POSITIONS & SOCIAL ROLES 
B.  OBLIGATIONS OR DUTIES ATTACHED TO POSITIONS 
C.  WAYS OF ORGANIZING SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 
D.  REDISTRIBUTION OF FACILITIES & REWARDS 
 
 
 See Also:  Contact & Diffusion 
 
  A.  CHANGES IN THE NUMBER & VARIETY OF POSITIONS & SOCIAL ROLES  
 
 One type of soc change involves changes in the number & variety of positions & social roles 
 
 
 Industrial society are seen as more complex than a peasant society b/c it has many new & specialized jobs, such as computer programming, conducting cancer research, & piloting a spacecraft 
 
  B.  CHANGES IN THE OBLIGATIONS OR DUTIES ATTACHED TO POSITIONS   
 
 One kind of change occurs in the obligations or duties attached to positions 
 
 
 An example of changing obligations or duties attached to positions is seen in that parents are no longer responsible for educating their children; they give this job to teachers & schools 
 
  C.  CHANGES IN THE WAYS OF ORGANIZING SOCIAL ACTIVITIES   
 
 One kind of change is when change in the number & variety of positions & social roles or changing obligations or duties attached to positions  lead to another new type of change in the ways of organizing social activities 
 
 
 The estb of kindergartens occurred partly b/c the children of wking mothers needed care 
 
 
 Ed changes took place in response to rising ed aspirations & occupational needs 
 
 
 Community, or junior, colleges were estb for advanced, but not university level, ed 
 
 
 D.  CHANGES IN THE REDISTRIBUTION OF FACILITIES & REWARDS
 
 
 One kind of social change involves the redistribution of facilities & rewards, such as power, ed, income, & respect 
 
 
 An example of social change involving the redist of facilities & rewards can be seen in that about half the people in the US w/ substandard incomes were non whites, but b/c of the Civil Rts Mvmt, today, about a third of the nation's poor are non whites 
 
 
 SOC CHANGE USUALLY HAPPENS SLOWLY, BUT SOMETIMES IT IS EXTREMELY RAPID; THUS SOC CHANGE MAY RANGE FROM EVOLUTION TO REVOLUTION, & ALL PACES IN BTWN
 
 
 Oft times societies evolve gradually 
 
 
 On occasion, societies change abruptly, as in times of revolution 
 
 
 Change can result from planning, or it can be unintentional 
 
 
 Every society changes, but not all change at the same rate or in the same direction 
 
 
 Revolutionary change is often accompanied by violence, though there are some non violent, or 'velvet revs' 
 
 
 EVERY SOC CHANGE HAS DIFFERENTIAL COSTS & BENEFITS WHERE SOME CLASSES OF PEOPLE GAIN, WHILE OTHERS LOSE 
 
 
 Most changes benefit some people more than they benefit others, &  they may penalize some people   
 
 B/c changes affect classes differentially, some resistance to change is inevitable 
 
 
 Many social changes have had both beneficial & undesirable consequences
 
  When change improves conditions, people's expectations grow & they become dissatisfied w/ current achievements & demand more
 
  Sometimes people demand changes in the law & when people believe that their grievances cannot be corrected w/in the system, they call for more radical change, for rev   
  THE MULTIPLE CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE RANGE FROM ECON CENTERED  TO CULTURAL TO MARTIAL TO SYSTEMIC CAUSES, ALL OF WHICH INTERACT IN COMPLEX WAYS CREATING UNANTICIPATED CONSEQUENCES  
  For centuries, people have sought simple explanations for change, often emphasizing single factors   
  The German social philosopher Karl Marx claimed that the economy, & its cascading effect on culture & other social sys as the prime source of soc change since the econ is a central ordering force in society   
  Today, scholars believe that multiple factors may interact to create the complicated events of social change   
  Many sociologists think that societies are systems & change in one part of a society, they believe, leads to change in other parts, w/  no one part having priority   
  For example, the automobile, which is a product of tech change, created changes in where people live & work, & in their leisure activities thus causing ripples of change throughout society   
  See Also:  Causes of Social Change   
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 Outline on  Social Change
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  SOCIAL CHANGE IS THE ALTERATION OF BEHAVIOR PATTERNS, SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS, INSTITUTIONS, & SOCIAL STRUCTURE OVER TIME   
 
 Soc change is the transformation of culture & social institutions over time that is reflected in the life patterns of individuals   
  Soc change, aka social development, is a general term which refers to a change in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior or the social relations of a society, community of people, or other social structures   
  Soc change is any event or action that affects a group of individuals that have shared values or characteristics & the acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a normative way   
  Soc change is the alteration in the underlying structure of a social object or situation over a period of time   
  THERE IS PERVASIVE SOCIAL CHANGE; IN THE PAST, SOME SOCIETIES WERE STABLE / UNCHANGING FOR CENTURIES; TODAY CHANGE IS THE NORM & IT IS INCREASING IN PACE 
 
  In the contemporary world, everyone has experienced change, & people expect more, rapid change in the future 
 
  It must be remembered that rapid soc change is not the norm throughout history in that in many eras, esp the Mid Ages in Euro, or the Chinese Dynasties from about 1 AD to the 1700s, life changed little for the common family   
  Understanding soc change means understanding the degree of any modification in the basic instits during a specific period as well as an understanding of what remains stable 
 
  Soc scientists note that soc change occurs in different soc structures at different rates 
 
  In our rapidly changing world, there are continuities from the long distant past such as major religious systems, gender / pairing customs such as monogamy, broad soc instit such as the military, etc. 
 
  The concept of cultural lag, as developed by conflict theorists, notes that cultures inevitably change at different rates, w/ some lagging behind others 
 
 
 Soc change encompasses everything from revolution & paradigm shifts, to narrow changes such as a particular cause w/in small town govt 
 
 
 EARLY THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE WERE OFTEN CRITICAL OF IT & THOSE WHO FOMENTED IT 
 
 
 Theories of soc change examine the success or failure of different political systems, globalization, democratization, development & econ growth 
 
 
 Some soc changes that are beneficial to society, while others may result in negative side effects or consequences that undermine or eliminate existing ways of life that are considered positive 
 
 
 One of the earliest, albeit non scientific, beliefs about social change the idea of decline or degeneration, or, in religious terms, the fall from an original state of grace, connected w/ theology 
 
 
 Ancient philosophers developed the idea that there was little soc change & instead 'history' was comprised largely of cyclical change, a pattern of subsequent & recurring phases of growth & decline, & the social cycles   
 
 The idea of cyclical change persists into the modern era 
 
  CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE RECOGNIZE IT AS A NEW, COMPLEX, SOCIAL PHENOMENON THAT IS CENTRAL TO MODERN SOCIETY   
  Beginning in the late mid age, the idea of continuous social progress was recognized   
 
 While there are many important theory of social change, the two approached of social evolution & historical materialism are the predominant theories 
 
 
 Social evolution is a gradual process of social change whereby a society develops, increases in complexity, & offers it members a better quality of life 
 
 
 Soc evol also tries to relate biological & soc change 
 
  See Also:  Social Evolution   
  Evolutionary theories including social Darwinism 
 
  See Also:  Social Darwinism 
 
 
 Historical materialism holds that soc changes comes about by changes in the material env & that the most imp aspect of that change in relation to changes in society are the changes in the mode of production & class structure 
 
 
 Marxists Historical Analysis   
 
 Embedded in almost all theories of soc change is the role of tech 
 
  The wide adoption of a new tech leads to imbalance in the econ relationship btwn econ agents   
  Tech changes in econ systems in turn leads to changes in the social balance of power, therefore leading to social change   
  Historical precedent shows that major social changes have taken place during "cusp" periods, defined by changing relations among human formations, nature, & technology   
 
 Among many forms of creating social change are theater for social change, direct action, protesting, advocacy, community organizing, community practice, revolution, & political activism 
 
  Other important theorists of soc change include Weber, Parsons & many others   
  IN RELATION TO SOC CHANGE, US CONSERVATIVES GENERALLY OPPOSE SOC CHANGE AROUND SOC VALUES, & WANT TO RETURN TO THE FREE MKT SYS OF THE PAST WHILE US LIBERALS SUPPORT SOC CHANGE AROUND VALUES & WANT TO IMPROVE GOVT REG OF THE ECON   
  The name conservative was 1st used around 1830 & it was applied to the descendants of the old British Tory Party, & the words Tory & Conservative are used interchangeably in Britain today   
  The conservative ideas were expressed as early as the 1700s in the writings & speeches of the British statesman Edmund Burke   
  See Also:  Burke   
  Early U.S. conservatives included John Adams & Alexander Hamilton  
  Conservatism arose partly as a reaction to the excesses of the Fr Rev & to the belief that human nature could become perfect through soc change & political rev   
  Conservatives argued that soc change must be brought about w/in the framework of traditional ideas & instits   
  A true conservative should also be distinguished from a reactionary who want to revolutionize existing society according to a model in past history   
 
 The word conservative as used in the US today is often confusing; in fact in many ways it is contradictory since in general conservative, as it is used in Euro, refers to liberals in the US   
 
 Many Americans who call themselves conservatives advocate a return to the principles & theories of the 1800s in both econ policy & social values 
 
  Thus in many ways US conservatives are reactionary b/c. they want to return to past practices & continue it into the future   
  The soc change US conservatives support is often to change to the practices of the past   
 
 Conservative in Am oppose almost all govt reg of the econ, & are economically in the tradition of Adam Smith & the laissez faire free mkt   
 
 Am conservatives have opposed both economic liberalism in the form of govt reg of the econ, & socialism   
  US conservatives believe that econ & soc problems are solved best when govt interference in the econ is kept to a minimum   
  US conservatives also believe that the need to protect society justifies some restriction of the rights of people accused of crime   
  Some conservatives oppose abortion, & some support state sponsored prayer in public schools   
  In foreign policy, US conservatives tend to regard military power as the basis of world peace   
 
 Am liberals have opposed the laissez faire free mkt & conservative soc values 
 
  Am Lib have tried to steer a middle course btwn the extremes of individualism & collective ownership, & have generally favored a strong central govt   
  Am liberals want effective govt regs in relation to the econ, & safety & often support changing social values such as increasing rights for women, minorities, gays, etc   
  The soc change US liberals support is often to change to a new social practice   
  However, new soc practices are often fraught w/ unintended consequences so liberals often must revisit, refine soc changes they have sought   
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 Outline on the  Causes of Soc Change
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  SOC CHANGE OCCURS WHEN RANDOM & / OR SYSTEMIC FACTORS COMBINE IN COMPLEX & UNANTICIPATED WAYS TO CREATE NEW SOC RELATIONS 
 
  Social change comes from many sources & usually the result of several factors combining in a unique context to create the energy for & the possibility of change 
 
  One source of change is random or unique factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of specific grps 
 
  A source of soc chg is systematic factors as seen when a society w/ a relatively uniform & open culture, a stable & flexible govt, enough free & available resources, & a diverse social org of society results in econ development which changes the very structure of society, as in the case of the Industrial Rev, or the Info Rev 
 
  So, on the whole, social change is usually a combination of systematic factors along w/ some random or unique factors 
 
  THE MOST PROMINENT THEORIES OF SOC CHANGE INCLUDE THOSE OF HEGEL & MARX, KUHN, HERACLITUS, & TAOISM   
  There are many theories of social change which generally include elements such as structural aspects of change like population shifts, cultural or societal aspects of change, processes & mechanisms of social change,  & directions of change 
 
  HEGEL & MARX VIEWED SOC CHANGE AS THE RESULT OF A CLASH, & THEN RESOLUTION OF CONTRADICTIONS   
  The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the interaction of opposing forces, which is know as a dialectic relationship 
 
  See Also:  The Dialectic   
  See Also:  Hegel   
  For Hegel change starts from a point of momentary stasis, ie the thesis 
 
  The thesis counters an antithesis which is the result of contradictions in the current sys, or organized opposition forces 
 
  The clash of the thesis & antithesis 1st yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new synthesis 
 
  Hegel posited that soc chg came about as a clash of ideology, ie world systems or ways of understanding, which then changed the world 
 
  Marx embraced a dialectic system that was similar to Hegel's, but Marx saw change as occurring from the clash of material forces such as feudal & economic systems, as embodied in class struggles in each system   
  See Also:  Marx   
  Marxism presents a dialectical & materialist concept of history wherein humankind's history is a fundamental struggle btwn social classes  
  KUHN BELIEVES THAT CHANGE COMES WHEN OLD UNDERSTANDINGS / KNOWLEDGE ARE DISPLACED BY NEW UNDERSTANDINGS / KNOWLEDGE B/C THE SCIENTIFIC LOGIC OF THE NEW WAY BECOMES COMPELLING   
  The philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn argues in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that people are unlikely to jettison an unworkable paradigm, despite many indications that the paradigm is not functioning properly, until a better paradigm can be presented  
  Societal, or as Kuhn studied, scientific revolutions, occur when new contradictory info overwhelms old ways of thinking & thus causes a 'revolution' in thinking   
  Kuhn examined the Copernican Revolution wherein people abandoned the idea of an Earth centric universe in favor of the Sun centered solar system   
  While common sense observations make it appear as if heavenly bodies generally rotate around the Earth, precise scientific observation indicated several events that could not be explained by this system such as the phases of the Moon & retrograde planetary motion, where planets appear to switch directions in the night sky   
  HERACLITUS SAW CHANGE AS CONSTANT & INEVITABLE   
  The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor of a river to speak of change in that we never see the same river twice b/c the river is always changing / flowing   
  Heraclitus suggests that, in order for the river to remain the river, change must constantly be taking place   
  One may think of the Heraclitan model as parallel to that of a living organism, which, in order to remain alive, must constantly be changing   
  Heraclitus thus sees change as constant & developmental & does not directly address how & why there are periods of stability & change   
  A contemporary application of this approach is shown in the soc change theory SEED SCALE which builds off of the complexity theory sub field of emergence.   
  TAOISTS SEE CHANGE AS NATURAL, BRINGING THE WORLD INTO HARMONY   
  Similar to Heraclitus, Taoists see change as natural, harmonious & steady, albeit imperceptible   
  Taoists uses the metaphor of water as the ideal metaphor of change in that water, although soft & yielding, will eventually wear away stone   
  Society is like a river, though it has continuity, you never actually see or experience the same river twice b/c the water is always flowing / new   
  Change as the result of flexibility is slow, steady, & smooth  
  Change as the result of inflexibility is rapid, intermittent, & races   
 
 SOC CHANGE TODAY IS SEEN AS THE COMPLEX INTERPLAY OF FACTORS WHICH RESULTS IN UNIQUE UNANTICIPATED OUTCOMES 
 
  Factors which may contribute to soc change include: 
the physical env, 
contact & diffusion of  culture, 
technology, 
the media, 
internal conflict, 
revs,
war, 
planned change, 
& more 		  
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 The Physical Env & Soc Change   
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 Contact & Diffusion   
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 Technology & Soc Change   
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 Mass Media & Soc Change   
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 Internal Conflict & Soc Change   
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 Revolutions & Soc Change   
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 War & Soc Change   
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 Planned Change, & more   
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 Outline on  Social Change & the Physical Environment
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 CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENV CAUSES CHANGES IN HUMAN SOCIETY 
 
  The physical env can be a major source of soc change   
  The phys env limits the systems of production humans develop   
  People living in mountains, river areas, valleys, & other isolating areas are more difficult to unify into a society   
 
 When climate changes, which it has from time to time (as in the Little Ice Age), or when a group moves to a new climate, soc life must adjust 
 
  NASA defines the Little Ice Age as a cold period between AD 1550 & AD 1850 & notes 3 particularly cold intervals: one beginning about 1650, another about 1770, & the last in 1850, each separated by intervals of slight warming   
  CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENV MAY BE THE RESULT OF NATURAL FACTORS OR HUMAN FACTORS   
 
 While it has often appeared to humans as if the climate was a constant, we now know that the env & climate has changed as a result of 'natural' & human factors 
 
 
 As the env & climate have changed, human societies have adapted to it 
 
 
 Note that it is a pt of debate whether human action in relation to the env  is 'natural' or not 
 
 
 Today we generally view human activity as unnatural, but many view humans in hunter gatherer society or in early ag society as natural as we hunted species to extinction, changed the predominant flora in a region, etc 
 
 
 Humans can change the climate, as in the expansion of deserts b/c of overgrazing & over harvesting of firewood in the mideast, no Africa, & esp Italy, Greece & England in Europe 
 
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 Outline on Contact & Diffusion
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 CONTACT BTWN SOCIETIES OFTEN BRINGS ABOUT SOC CHANGE IN BOTH SOCIETIES AS THEY ADOPT EACH OTHERS PRACTICES 
 
 
 Contact btwn societies, whether hostile or friendly, intense or slight, can bring about changes 
 
 
 New ideas, objects, weapons, crops, animals, etc can be exchanged 
 
 
 Oft times exchanges can be unintentional which is usually the case when diseases spread from one culture, which may or may not have a resistance to a disease, to a new culture, which does not have any resistance 
 
 
 In the past contact often occurred through exploration & subsequent trade 
 
 
 Today the practice of globalization characterizes the fact that contact & diffusion among cultures is global in nature, increasing daily, & all pervasive
 
 
 Contact through globalization comes about through the practices of trade, the media, the internet, tourism, scientific exchange, & more 
 
 
 No society is so isolated that it does not come in contact w/ other societies 
 
 
 When contact occurs, societies borrow cultural traits from one another 
 
 
 As a result of cultural contact, cultural traits &  patterns tend to spread from the society in which they originated 
 
 
 CULTURAL DIFFUSION IS THE SPREAD OF IDEAS & OBJECTS FROM ONE CULTURE TO ANOTHER 
 
  The process of the spreading of culture, ie of knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, as well as technology,  is called diffusion   
 
 Cultural diffusion is rarely the sole source of soc change in a society in that it often must be combined w/ people or groups accepting or anxious for such soc change 
 
 
 In some cases societies repel or object to cultural diffusion as when patriarchal cultures resist the idea of gender equality 
 
 
 An example of resisting cultural diffusion is when the Chines forbade overseas trade & exploration in the 1400s 
 
 
 Corn growing, for example, began in what is now Mexico thousands of years ago & eventually spread throughout the world 
 
 
 Diffusion can occur w/o firsthand contact btwn cultures 
 
 
 Products or patterns may move from grp A to group C through grp B w/o any contact btwn grp A & grp C 
 
 
 Today, diffusion is rapid & widespread b/c many cultures of the world are linked through advanced means of transportation & communication
 
 
 TRANS CULTURAL DIFFUSION REFERS TO DIFFUSION ACROSS CULTURAL BOUNDARIES 
 
 
 Cultural diffusion was first conceptualized by Alfred L. Kroeber in his influential 1940 paper Stimulus Diffusion 
 
  For Kroeber, diffusion, or trans cultural diffusion in later reformulations, is the spread of cultural items, such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages etc, btwn individuals, whether w/in a single culture or from one culture to another   
  Trans cultural diffusion is distinct from the diffusion of innovations w/in a single culture   
  Diffusion across cultures is a well attested &  also uncontroversial phenomenon   
  The practice of agriculture is widely believed to have diffused from somewhere in the Middle East to all of Eurasia, less than 10,000 yrs ago, having been adopted by many pre existing cultures   
  Other estb examples of diffusion include the spread of the war chariot & iron smelting in ancient times, & the use of cars & Western business suits in the 20th century  
  THERE ARE SEVERAL VARIATIONS OF DIFFUSION INCLUDING EXPANSION, RELOCATION, HIERARCHICAL, & CONTAGIOUS DIFFUSION   
  Expansion diffusion: an innovation or idea that develops in a source area & remains strong there, while also spreading outward to other areas   
  Relocation diffusion is an idea or innovation that migrates into new areas, leaving behind its origin or source of the cultural trait   
  Hierarchical diffusion occurs when an idea or innovation spreads by moving from larger to smaller places, often w/ little regard to the distance btwn places, & often influenced by social elites   
  Contagious diffusion occurs when an idea or innovation is based on person to person contact w/in a given population   
  THE MECHANISMS OF DIFFUSION MAY BE DIRECT, INDIRECT, FORCED, INTENDED, OR MOST COMMONLY, UNINTENDED   
  Diffusion can happen in many ways   
  Migrating populations will carry their culture w/ them  
  Ideas can be carried by trans cultural visitors, such as merchants, explorers, soldiers, diplomats, slaves, & hired artisans  
  Technology diffusion has often occurred by one society luring skilled scientists or workers by payments or other inducement  
  Trans cultural marriages btwn two neighboring or interspersed cultures have also contributed  
  Among literate societies, diffusion can happen through letters or books (and, in modern times, through other media as well)  
  Direct diffusion is when two cultures are very close to each other, resulting in intermarriage, trade, & even warfare  
  An example of direct diffusion is btwn the United States & Canada, where the people living on the border of these two countries engage in hockey, which started in Canada, & baseball, which is popular in American culture  
  Direct diffusion is very common in ancient times, when small groups, or bands, of humans lived in adjoining settlements  
  Indirect diffusion happens when traits are passed from one culture through a middleman to another culture, w/o the first & final cultures ever being in direct contact  
  An example could be the presence of Mexican food in Canada, since a large territory (the United States) lies in btwn.  
  Indirect diffusion is very common in today's world, b/c of the mass media & the invention of the Internet  
  Forced diffusion occurs when one culture subjugates (conquers or enslaves) another culture & forces its own customs on the conquered people  
  An example would be the forced Christianization of the indigenous populations of the Americas by the Spanish, French, English & Portuguese, or the forced Islamization of West African peoples by the Fula   
  Historian & critic Daniel J. Boorstin in his book The Discoverers provides a historical perspective about the role of explorers in history & he gives clear examples of many of the varieties of diffusion btwn civilizations   
  ACCULTURATION IS THE ADOPTION BY ONE GROUP OF THE CULTURE OF ANOTHER GROUP   
  When two cultures have continuous, firsthand contact w/ each other, the exchange of cultural traits is called acculturation   
  Acculturation has often occurred when one culture has colonized or conquered another, or as a result of trade   
  In addition to adopting each other's traits, the two cultures may blend traits   
  For example, if the people of the cultures speak different languages, they may develop a mixed language called pidgin in order to communicate   
  The cultures may also exchange or blend such traits as clothing, dances, music, recipes, & tools   
  Through acculturation, parts of the culture of one or both groups change, but the groups remain distinct   
  In this way, acculturation differs from assimilation.  Through assimilation, one group becomes part of another group & loses its separate identity   
  MODELS OF DIFFUSION INCLUDE CULTURE CIRCLES, EVOLUTIONARY DIFFUSION, THE 'CULTURAL BULLET,' & HYPERDIFFUSIONISM  
  Culture circles diffusionism is the theory that cultures originated from a small number of cultures   
  Evolutionary diffusionism is the theory that societies are influenced by others & that all humans share psychological traits that make them equally likely to innovate, resulting in development of similar innovations in isolation   
  Cultural bullet theory, developed by JP Mallory, focuses on the extent of cultural diffusion as the result of population changes along a scale from migration to invasion   
  According to the cultural bullet model, local continuity of material culture & social organization is stronger than linguistic continuity, so that cultural contact or limited migration regularly leads to linguistic changes w/o affecting material culture or social organization   
  A concept that has often been mentioned in comparison to cultural bullet theory is the evolutionary diffusionism model which focuses on the 'tipping pt' that may come when cultures meet & the ideas of one impact another   
   The cultural tipping pt can be seen when 'an idea whose time has come' creates a new cultural item which appears almost simultaneously & independently in several widely separated places, after certain prerequisite items have diffused across the respective communities   
  The cultural tipping pt can be seen, for example, w/ regard to the development of calculus by Newton & Leibnitz, or the inventions of the airplane & of the electronic computer  
  HYPERDIFFUSION IS THE THEORY THAT ALL CULTURES ORIGINATED FROM ONE CULTURE   
  Hyperdiffusionists deny that parallel evolution or independent invention took place to any great extent throughout history   
  Hyperdiffusionists claim that all major inventions & all cultures can be traced back to a single culture   
  Early theories of hyperdiffusionism can be traced back to ideas about So America being the origin of mankind   
  Antonio de León Pinelo, a Spaniard who settled in Bolivia, claimed in his book Paraíso en al Nuevo Mundo that the Garden of Eden & the creation of man had occurred in Bolivia & that the rest of the world was populated by migrations from there   
  Similar ideas were also held by Emeterio Villamil de Rada, in his book La Lengua de Adán he attempted to prove that Aymara was the original language of mankind & that humanity had originated in Sorata in the Bolivian Andes   
  The first scientific defense of humanity originating in So America came from the Argentine paleontologist Florentino Ameghino in 1880 from his research in a book titled La antigüedad del hombre en el Plata  
  There was a revival of hyperdiffusionism in 1911 w/ the work of Grafton Elliot Smith who asserted that copper spread from Egypt to the rest of the world along w/ megalithic culture 
 
 
 Smith had claimed that all major inventions had been made by the ancient Egyptians & were carried to the rest of the world by migrants & voyagers.
 
 
 His views became known as Egyptocentric hyperdiffusionism 
 
 
 William James Perry elaborated on the hyperdiffusionist ideas of Smith by using ethnographic data 
 
  Another hyperdiffusionist was Lord Raglan in his book How Came Civilization (1939) where he theorized that instead of Egypt all culture & civilization had come from Mesopotamia   
 
 Hyperdiffusionism after this did not entirely disappear, but it was generally abandoned by mainstream academia 
 
  THERE WAS RAPID & SIGNIFICANT DIFFUSION OF TECH & MERCANTILE CAPITALISM IN EURO IN THE MID AGES   
  A noteworthy example of diffusion theory is the massive infusion of tech into Europe btwn 1000 & 1700 CE   
  In the early Middle Ages, Byzantine & Asian societies were far more advanced than Euro, however, the era beginning in the High Middle Ages reversed that balance & resulted in a Euro which surpassed Asian, Byzantine & Muslim cultures in pre industrial tech  
 
 Diffusion theory has been advanced as an explanation for the Euro shift in tech development   
 
 Many basic inventions had their roots elsewhere, notably gunpowder, clock mechanisms, shipbuilding, paper & the windmill; however, in each of these cases Euros not only adopted the tech, but improved the mfring scale, inherent tech, & applications to a point clearly surpassing the evolution of the original invention in its country of origin 
 
 
 Historians have questioned recently whether Euro really owes the development of such inventions as gunpowder, the compass, the windmill or printing to the Chinese or other cultures
 
 
 It is a matter of record that by the late 18th C, European fleets, armed w/ advanced cannon, decimated Arab & Chinese fleets, paving the way for unfettered domination of the seas that led to the colonial era
 
  Three theorists have addressed the pt today of what may be called 'Western exceptionalism,' including, Marx, Weber, & Diamond   
  Post modernists, southern hemispherists & many others would, 1st, deny the pt of Western exceptionalism noting that the West has wrecked havoc on many other societies, & 2nd, its rationalism may ultimately even be the downfall of humanity   
  Western exceptionalists argue that someone, by logic, had to be more advanced as society dev & since the mid ages, that has been the West, though it has not always been the most advanced, & probably will not retain that position at some time in the future   
  DIFFUSION MAY HAVE SEVERAL NEGATIVE EFFECTS, THE MOST COMMON OF WHICH ARE PATRIARCHY, ETHNOCENTRISM, ECON IMPERIALISM, GENOCIDE, & MORE   
  While the concept of diffusion is well accepted in general, conjectures about the existence or the extent of diffusion in some specific contexts have been hotly disputed   
  An example of dispute over the extent & direction of diffusion is the proposal by Thor Heyerdahl that similarities between the culture of Polynesia & the pre Columbian civilizations of the Andes are due to diffusion from the latter to the former   
   The theory of diffusion across the Pacific to So Am currently has few supporters among professional anthropologists, but is widespread in popular culture b/c of its inherent logic that So Pacific islanders could have traveled to So Am & spread their culture   
  Such books as Kon Tiki documents the adventure of one anthropologist who floated on a balsa wood raft across the Pacific, demonstrating that So Pacific islanders could have traveled the distance & spread their culture   
  Attempts to explain similarities btwn 2 cultures by diffusion are often criticized for being ethnocentric, since they imply that the supposed 'receptors' would not be capable of innovation, & some authors made such claims explicitly   
  Some theorists argue for pre Columbian trans oceanic contact as the only possible explanation for the origin of the great civilizations in the Andes & of Central Am  
  Many theorists argue that cultural diffusion is simply over used, starting in the late 19th C, as a blanket explanation for all similarities btwn widely dispersed cultures   
  Most social scientists believe diffusion is one among many factors for how cultures change   
  he most famous proponent of the primary diffusion theory was Grafton Elliot Smith, who argued that civilization first formed in ancient Egypt & then diffused to other places   
  Diffusion theories also suffer from being inherently speculative & hard to prove or disprove; esp for relatively simple cultural items like pyramid shaped bldings, solar deity, row of standing stones, animal paintings in caves, & more   
  The act of diffusion is a purely mental, or at most verbal, phenomenon, that usually leaves no archaeological trace   
  Diffusion can be deduced w/ some certainty only when the similarities involve a relatively complex & partly arbitrary collection of items, such as a writing system, a complex myth, or a pantheon of several gods   
  Another criticism that has been leveled at many diffusion proposals is the failure to explain why certain items were not diffused   
  Attempts to explain the New World civilizations by diffusion from the So Pacific, Euro, Egypt, etc should explain why a basic concept like the potter's wheel is not found in the Americas while writing is   
  MARX & WEBER SEE THE CULTURAL DIFFUSION OF IDEOLOGIES / WORLD VIEWS, WHILE SOC SCIENTISTS SUCH AS DIAMOND SEE THE DIFFUSION OF TECHNOLOGY & OTHER ASPECTS OF SOCIETIES AS CENTRAL TO SOC CHANGE   
  Marx argues in many of his works from Das Kaptial to 'The 1844 Manuscripts' that W Euro gained ascendancy through a process of historical materialism whereby the aristocratic & peasant classes was superseded by the capitalist & worker classes in the mid ages b/c of inherent contradictions in the feudal system   
  For Marx some of the factors which lead to the ascendancy of the capitalist & wking classes was the efficiency of the capitalist system compared to the feudal system   
  Marx argues that the development of class & econ systems has been at the center of the cultural / historical change throughout human history   
  Weber theorizes in The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism (19) that the Euro superiority which arose in the high middle ages is the result of the Protestant work ethic & doing 'good works'  
  See Also:  The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) (PESC)   
  Weber posited that the Protestant idea that 'good works,' ie doing 'god's work,' ie the right thing could be rewarded in this life & therefore wealth in the material world represents god's reward for doing good works was one reason for Euro superiority 
 
  Weber examined the cultures & religions of several civilizations in relation to their success or lack of success in the modern age 
 
  Weber essentially agrees w/ Marx that the development of class & econ systems has been at the center of the cultural / historical change throughout human history, & simply adds that one more factor in this development was the supplanting of the catholic (small c) w/ the protestant (small p) ethos of the work ethic & good works   
  Diamond posits in Guns, Germs & Steel that the diffusion of technology, ie guns & steel, & epidemiology in the form of native people's lack of resistance to W Euro diseases, esp the measles were central factors in 'Euro exceptionalism'   
  See Also:  Guns, Germs & Steel.  1997.  Jared Diamond  
  Guns, Germs & Steel explains why Eurasian civilizations, including No Africa, survived & conquered others, arguing that Eurasian hegemony is not due to any form of Eurasian intellectual, moral or inherent genetic superiority   
  The gaps in power & tech btwn human societies originate in env differences, which are amplified by various positive feedback loops 
 
  When cultural or genetic differences have favored Eurasians, for example, written language or the development among Eurasians of resistance to endemic diseases, Diamond asserts that these advantages occurred b/c of the influence of geography on societies & cultures, & were not inherent in the Eurasian genomes  
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 Outline on the   Technology & Social Change 
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  NEW TECH THAT IS ADOPTED BY A SOCIETY OFTEN RESULTS IN SOC CHANGE 
 
  Tech is the application of scientific knowledge to a practical task 
 
  New tech creates new occupations & often makes the formerly inaccessible or unusable resources valuable 
 
  New tech often makes old occupations obsolete 
 
  Changes is tech can cause soc change throughout society 
 
  An examples of societal change brought about by tech includes the advent of agriculture, the advent of mechanical power (eg water, then steam, then combustion power), the advent of the auto, the advent of the internet, & more 
 
  The development of ag, mechanical power, the auto, the internet create entirely new field of occupations & industries & made other occupations & industries obsolete 
 
  As Marx makes clear in his discussion of tech, it is not the tech per se which causes soc change, but how society allows it to develop through particular social structures such as the extent of private & public property, control & ownership of tech, the ownership of skills & education systems, & more 
 
  Marx calls the social factors that interact w/ tech to determine its ultimate application in society the forces of production & the relations of production 
 
  See also:  Marx   
  See also:  Mode of Production   
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 Outline on  Technology
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  Technology includes the  mechanical, industrial or applied sciences & their instruments, including their methods & procedures 
 
  Tech includes mechanical, industrial or applied sciences & their instruments   
  Tech includes methods & procedures   
  Tech includes physical apparatus & knowledge used to produce & solve problems   
  Tech includes physical objects, such as computers, activities such as email, & knowledge such as how to email texts & images   
  Tech & organizational structure are two sides of the same coin in that the social relations of production determine the type of, & the utilization of a particular technology in an environment of particular labor mgt relations   
  Tech & the org structure of labor mgt relations in which it is embedded may discussed separately but it must be noted that many theorists disagree on whether technology determines org structure & the social relations of production, or whether the social relations of production determine technology   
  Techl determinism is often misused as a justification for particular social relations of production that are to the advantage of mgt & the disadvantage of Labor   
  See Also:  The Mode of Production & the Forces of Production & the Social Relations of Production   
 
 TECHNOLOGY & THE ENVIRONMENT 
 
  I = PATE 
Humans' Impact on the environment is a function of a Population, their Affluence/wealth, Technology & Environmental values 
 
  Technological  systems are specialized:  info, transportation, manufacturing, agriculture, etc.
 
  The Core Countries technologies uses the most energy: 
The Industrialized world has  25 %  of the population & uses  90 %  of the resources 
The US has    world has has   5 %  of the population & uses   25 %  of the resources 
China has world has has    25 %  of the population & uses    6 %  of the resources 
 
  Core countries use more resources 
 
  Core countries pollute less partially because they export toxic industrial processes & waste 
 
  The U.S. consumes 42% of the hydrocarbons (oil, gas, oil, coal), 38% of the molybdenum, 21% of the lead, 19% of the copper, & 15% of the zinc produced globally 
 
  Technology now changes the global environment through the harvesting of resources, waste in manufacturing, waste in consumption  ( waste includes pollution ) 
 
  How does the coal commodity chain affect the environment? 
 
  Corporations can now move mountains, affecting 10s of square miles all the while using less labor than in the mines of the early 1900s 
 
  Today's mines make less water pollution via catching ponds & settling ponds, per ton of coal mined 
 
  Burning coal today makes less air pollution per ton of coal because of scrubbers & other technologies 
 
  Key natural resources are shaped by technology as is seen in cultivated land vs. natural landscape, energy development as a forest of well heads, mineral mining & strip mines, mountain top removal, deep mines, etc.   
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 Natural resources & technology do not guarantee wealth nor does a shortage of them relegate a nation to poverty as seen in the natural wealth of South Africa & Russia, & the lack of natural wealth in Japan & England   
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 There are THREE  fundamental types of technology including operations, materials, & knowledge technology   
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 a. Operations technology includes the people & machines that produce & the set of rules that governs their operations   
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 b.  Materials technology is any thing used in production   
  Materials may be natural or human made & may be new or old, but used in a new way   
  Materials used in one workplace affects others in that they may be subcomponents for another process of production:  e.g. plastic to microchips   
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 c.  Knowledge technology is the body of truths, facts, or information accumulated by humanity in the course of time as based in production   
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 There are FOUR technology stages including simple tool, craft, mass production, & high technology   
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 1.  Simple tool technology includes the use of no tools, i.e. only operations & knowledge tech, to the use of stone & bone, to the use of baskets & other early technologies   
  The division of labor w/ simple tool technology was stratified primarily & only by gender & age   
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 2.  Craft technology includes the use of more advanced tools which require greater materials & knowledge to manufacture   
  Craft tech includes clay fired pots, porcelain, bronze, wheels & gears, etc. as well as the tech to produce such tech such as mining of iron, copper & tin to make bronze   
  The division of labor w/ craft technology was stratified primarily by skill & craft as in apprentice, journeyman, & craftsman in masonry or silver smithing   
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 3.  Mass production technology includes the utilization of highly specialized tools & services integrated into mechanized production operation   
  With mass production tech, knowledge is advanced via the crafts as well as universities   
  The division of labor w/ mass production technology was stratified primarily by the wage system into workers & mgt., but also by industry   
  4.  High technology is knowledge based tech that today is based in computer & biotech technology   
  High tech allows for the refinement & exact control of mass production & service industries   
  Daniel Bell (1976) argues in the Coming of Post-Industrial Society that new knowledge based technology is transforming the nature of society as knowledge becomes the central resource in society   
  Bell believes that the economy is becoming knowledge intensive rather than capital intensive   
  For Bell, knowledge replaces capital as central resource in society   
  For Bell, in post industrial society, there is a shift from goods production to services production   
  But the services have remained labor intensive & low paying   
  The epitome of the high tech business is Microsoft whose power comes from a pattern of zeros & ones   
  While the core has indeed shifted to high tech & service industries, production has not decreased at all, it has merely shifted to the semi periphery & the periphery   
  With high tech, mass production industry, workers in the late 20th C produce more goods, & a greater variety of goods, than was ever before possible   
  With high tech, mass production industry comes the possibility of shorter hours, increased safety, greater employment security, & material abundance for all of society; yet none of this has come to pass   
  The organization of the economic social structure of society, & society itself have shaped the implementation of technology & the distribution of rewards in such a way that some people are excluded from the benefits of increase productivity   
  There is the widespread misconception that technology dictates the organization of work   
  While tech could bring an end to alienated labor, technology can deskill or increase the skill required, or routinize or provide variety on the job   
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 The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation  shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others   

 
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The Diagram of Blauner's  Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

                     |  Machine                  *         Assembly
                     |  Tending              *        *     Line
                     |                        *                *
                     |                  *                            *
                     |               *                                    *
Level of         | Craft   *                                          *       Continuous
Alienation      |         *                                                  *    Process
                     |     *                                                           *
                     |  *                                                                    *
                     |*________________________________________*_
                      Printing      Textiles         Autos        Chemicals

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 Outline on the  Media & Social Change 
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  THE MEDIA RARELY CREATES SOC CHANGE ON ITS OWN; RATHER IT ACCELERATES THE DIFFUSION OF SOC CHANGE BY MAKING IT MORE AVAILABLE TO MORE PEOPLE 
 
  The media from local org newsletters, as in the church bulletin, to Twitter, blogs, etc, is both criticized & praised as an agent of soc change 
 
  The effect of the media is often overstated in the sense that media more often responds to change than causes change 
 
  The media is more reflective of society than constructive of society 
 
  The speed at which info travels today has had the effect of making the world resemble a 'global village' in which everyone instantly knows what is happening elsewhere (McLuhan, 1964) 
 
  See Also:  McLuhan, Ecological Communication 
 
  The instant transfer of info & the parallel transparency or openness in society both facilitate the development of soc mvmts, while making dictatorial control more difficult 
 
  During the Tianamen Square uprising in China in 1989 protesters used fax machines & the telephone to communicate w/ one another & the outside world 
 
  In the US, the Civil Rights Mvmt of the 1950s & 60s gained support as TV showed images of protesters & children being beaten & water hosed by police 
 
  In 1991 the failed Soviet coup plotters shut down dissident Soviet newspapers but did nothing to control the intl media who broadcast the military moving to occupy Moscow & the image of the friendly tank commander popping out of his tank to shake the hand of the coup resistors' leader, Boris Yeltsin 
 
  The Arab Spring revolts from Tunisia to Egypt to Syria have all been aided by both the broadcast media sending their messages & plight around the world, making it more difficult for govt to violently crack down, & by the use of social media & cell phones to communicate & coordinate protest & revolutionary activities 
 
  One ultimate effect of the media & social change is that it allows advocates of democracy to communicate w/ one another & w/ supporters outside the country by many conduits of communication / the media 
 
  One ultimate effect of the media & social change is that it allows advocates of democracy to broadcast any bloody attacks to the world, preventing them from going unnoticed 
 
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 Outline on the   Media
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  9.  Media      SS Examples 
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most media groups today are formal orgs 
Positions:  Mgrs., admin, reporters 
Relationships:  similar to econ model 
Allocation of Resources:  typical 
History:
H-G society:  gossip 
Ancient:  Elites receive news orally by messenger 
Writing develops; elites receive some written communication 
Industrial:  Use of printing press expands;  Communication avail to all classes 
 
  Most media groups today are formal orgs 
Media sectors 
- entertainment 
- news 
- education 
- advertising 
 
  The Media is highly networked 
Entertainment sector:  similar to the Leisure / Recreation Social Structure 
Media networked to the  Ed Social Structure 
Advertising is networked to Econ / Wk Social Structure 
News networked to Govt Social Structure & others 
 
  There are Four Levels of the Media, including the: 
National media 
Regional media (large urban areas) 
Local media (small cities, towns, etc) 
The Web & Email Lists 		  
  Media Orgs 
NBC 
CBS 
ABC 
Time Warner CNN 
Fox 
Movie & performing arts 
Books & print media 
 
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 Outline on  Internal Conflict & Social Change
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  INTERNAL CONFLICT IS A SYMPTOM THAT  SOC CHANGE IS ABOUT TO OCCUR; IN THE PAST AUTOCRATIC GOVTS SUPPRESSED CONFLICT & SOC CHANGE; TODAY MODERN, DEMOCRATIC NATIONS EXPERIENCE MORE INTERNAL CONFLICT & MORE CHANGE 
 
  Internal conflicts & failures serve as the focal pt for organized efforts for change such as soc mvmts, revolutionaries, terrorists, political parties, etc 
 
  Inequality & discrimination toward workers, African Americans, women, & homosexuals in the US gave rise to the labor, civil rights, feminist, & gay rights mvmts 
 
  Each of these mvmts led to soc change both in the form of changed attitudes toward these grps & in the form of legislation 
 
  Mvmts also originate in an attempt to minimize internal conflict by preserving past traditions 
 
  The English wking class & early union mvmts emerged from attempts by wkrs to preserve the rights as independent skilled craftsmen that they had existed in pre industrial times 
 
  Thus the first unions were craft unions who actually fought against the organization of industrial wkrs 
 
  Craft unions dominated the Labor mvmt until 1935 when the Congress of  Industrial Organization (CIO) was founded   
  It was not until 1955 when the CIO merged w/ the lead craft union, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) to form the AFL CIO when the internal conflict btwn craft & industrial wkrs was institutionally healed 
 
  The anti abortion mvmt originated in an attempt to preserve what  mvmt members see as traditional religious values 
 
  Many internal conflict have led to revolutions, the most dramatic, if also one of the rarest forms of soc change
 
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 Outline on  Revolution & Social Change 
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  SOME REVS CAUSE SOC CHANGE; SOME DO NOT 
SOME REVS REPLACE ONE GOVT W/ ONE THAT IS SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT; EG, FROM AUTOCRATIC TO DEMOCRATIC 
SOME REVS REPLACE ONE GOVT W/ ONE THAT IS ESSENTIALLY THE SAME; EG, ONE KING REPLACES ANOTHER 
 
  Some revs are attempts to change the nature of a govt & sometimes to change an entire society, its econ system, its ideology, & the dist of wealth 
 
  Rebellions are attempts to change specific officeholders or policies 
 
  Although revs & rebellions are sometimes an expression of broad dissatisfaction, they often do not seek to change the structure of the govt or the society as a whole, & thus are limited forms of soc change 
 
  Examples of the limited form of social change via revolutions can be seen in the nearly continual occurrence of rev & war in the European Middle Ages 
 
  Many of the wars & revs during the Euro Mid Ages merely brought in a new King often of the same religion, who maintained the Kingdom much as it had been here 
 
  Some of the wars & revs during the Euro Mid Ages brought more extensive social change as when the people were forced to convert to a new religion, or a new form of social organization was implemented in the Kingdom as was the case w/ Charlemagne in France 
 
  On the side of revs actually resulting in broad soc change include the American Rev of 1776, the French Rev of 1789, the Russian Rev of 1917, the Chinese Rev of 1949, the Cuban Rev of 1959, the Iranian Rev of 1979, the Euro Spring Revs of 1989, & probably the Arab Spring Revs beginning in 2011 
 
  The Am, Fr, Russian, Chinese, Cuban, Iranian, Euro Spring & Arab Spring Revs all changed not only the govts, but the govt type of system, as well as changing most the major social structures & relationships in these societies 
 
  The Russian, Chinese, Cuban Revs resulted in some form of socialism while the Iranian Rev resulted in an Islamic republic 
 
  The Russian, Chinese, Cuban, & Iranian Revs resulted in govts that are more centralized & more authoritarian than the ones they replaced 
 
  The Euro Spring Revs of 1989 (& later) resulted in establishing democracy in place of dictatorship & to make mkt forces, rather than central govt planning, as key forces in driving the econ 
 
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  -  Project:  The Most Important Rev 
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 Revolutionary mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is to achieve some radical change, & remake the entire, or most of society   
  Revolution is a term that generally refers to a fundamental change in the character of a nation's govt, & possibly in the society, that may or may not be achieved through violent means   
 
 Revolutionary mvmts are a type of transformative mvmt 
 
 
 A revolutionary mvmt hopes to achieve radical change through the elimination of old social institutions & the establishment of new social institutions 
 
  Rev soc mvmts want to completely destroy the old social order & replace it w/ a new one   
  The goal of a rev is the total transformation of society by destroying the old govt & replacing all current leaders   
  Revolutions may also occur in other areas than govt, including cultural, economic, and social activities   
  Rev are the most threatening to existing social order, authority, & power   
 
 Sometimes revs have specific goals, sometimes only vague utopian dreams   
  For Marx, there is a clear distinction between political changes in governments and radical changes in the economic organization of society even when the former occurs violently   
  For Marx, most revs are simply the replacement of one political regime w/ another, while the fundamental structures of soc stay intact  
  The type of rev which Marx advocated was the replacement of one mode of production with another  
  For Marx, the history of societies is the history of class conflict or the contradiction within the mode of production between the forces and the relations of production, & thus rev must come about through class conflict, which need not be violent, but unfortunately often is  
  See Also:  Marx's Theory of Rev  
  Rev is an important example of mass protest operating outside orthodox political channels, but there are other, limited situations in which uprising or outbreaks of social violence occur in the actions of street crowds or mass demonstrations  
  Social mvmts, i.e. loose associations of people working collectively to achieve shared ends, play key roles in revolutions  
  The existence of soc mvmts which receive mass support is a defining characteristic of revolution  
  As w/ any mass action, soc mvmts come into being in many other situations besides those of a rev mvmt  
 
 See Also:  The Forms of Revolution  
 
 Revolutionary mvmts are rare compared to transformative or reformative mvmts
 
 
 Revolutionary mvmts usually occur when a series of reform mvmts have failed to achieve the objectives they seek
 
 
 There are "militia groups" in the US who believe the fed govt is evil & want to overthrow it
 
 
 The Montana Freemen could be considered rev soc mvmts 
 
  Many soc mvmts have actually led to real social & political revs in their society  
  Most revs intend to create a better society by replacing the power structure w/ one based on different principles  
  The nature of revs have changed over time being extremely rare throughout most of history, then occurring sporadically in the early industrial era, & these becoming plentiful in the industrial age  
  See Also:  The History of Rev  
  Many countries have also experienced unsuccessful revolutions, including Chile, Argentina, Hungary, etc.  
  While rare, revolutions do occur & are usually historic in nature as seen in countries as diverse as the US, Russia, France, Cuba, China, Iran, Mexico, Zimbabwe, & the Philippines  
  The English Parliamentary Rev in the 1500 & 1600s, the French anti monarchist mvmt beginning in the 1700s & continuing through the 1800s, the Russian Rev, the Communist Rev in China, & Fidel Castro's socialist mvmt in Cuba all succeeded in completely destroying the existing power structure & replacing it w/ a new idealized social order  
  Almost all 20th C revs occurred in developing societies such as Mexico, Turkey, Egypt, Vietnam, Cuba, & Nicaragua, not in industrial nations (Moore, 1965)  
  The revolutions that have had the biggest impact for the world in this century were the Russian Rev of 1917, Chinese Rev of 1949, & while the Cuban Rev was less important, it has had a greater impact because of the Cold War & geo-politics
 
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 Rev Mvmts  
  -  The Forms of Rev  
  -  The Socio Historical Development of Revolution  
  -  The US Rev, 1776  
  -  The French Rev, 1789  
 
 -  The Russian Rev, 1917  
  -  The Indian Rev, 1947  
 
 -  The Chinese Rev, 1949  
 
 -  The Cuban Rev, 1959  
 
 The Explanations of the Development of Social Mvmts & Revolutions  
  The Consequences of Rev  
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 Outline on  War & Social Change 
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  WAR IS ONE OF THE MAJOR AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE AS SEEN IN ITS:
A.  FREQUENCY 
B.  RESPONSE TO SOCIAL/POLITICAL CONFLICT 
C.  SIMULTANEOUS CREATION & USE OF FAILED & ROGUE NATIONS 
D.  FOSTERING THE DEV OF  TECH
E.  EFFECTS ON POP, ENV, SOC FABRIC, RELIGION, ECON, POL, & MORE
 
  Wars have many societal level effects, including:  the redefinition of political boundaries, new tech discoveries & inventions, new forms of govt, the redistribution of wealth, the relocation of millions of people, the end of entire societies, & much more   
  BOTH WAR & REV CAUSE SOC CHANGE, BUT EITHER MAY ALSO LEAVE A SOCIETY UNIMPACTED, DEPENDING ON CIRCUMSTANCES  
  War is often assoc w/ rev b/c of the presence of armies & violence, but the two are different 
 
  Revs are internal conflicts, whereas war is an organized conflict btwn 2 or more societies over a significant amt of time 
 
  Civil war is an armed conflict among different factions w/in the same nation 
 
  Like rev, civil war is a major internal conflict that can lead to major soc change much as when the US Civil War led to the abolition of slavery & the expansion of an industrial econ 
 
  HUMANITY WAS MOSTLY PEACEFUL UNTIL COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES BECAME PARAMOUNT:  WE HAVE NOT LEARNED TO SHARE
 
  Hunter gatherer societies were essentially peaceful until levels of human pop increased significantly enough to create some land pressure in some areas 
 
  In late hunter gatherer society, where pop levels created some land pressure, there were some wars, but these were small, limited, & rare compared to today's wars 
 
  Since the development of ag society, humans have been more or less in constant warfare 
 
  For nearly all of the last 9000 years wars have occurred somewhere every year 
 
  THE IMPACTS OF WARS MAY LAST FOR MILLENNIA 
 
  The changes that result from war are often, but not always, dramatic & far reaching 
 
  The effects of some wars reverberate through history for centuries as for example the  Euro kingdoms & Mid eastern kingdoms wars of the Mid Ages, the Mongol Invasions of the 1200s, the British wars of imperialism of the 1700s & 1800s, WW1, WW2, & many more 
 
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 Outline on an  Introduction to War
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  WAR IS VIOLENT ARMED CONFLICT, BTWN PEOPLE, &, OR NATIONS  
  According to Macionis, war is the organized & armed conflict among the people of 2 or more nations, directed by their govts 
 
  War is the organized armed conflict btwn grps of people or states   
  War is a general conflict or active hostility or contention often carried on by force of arms, as btwn nations or states or btwn parties w/in a state   
  For Clausewitz, war is the continuation of politics by other means   
  War is not found elsewhere in the animal kingdom   
  Since the dawn of history, but not so during the previous hunter gatherer stage of human existence, people have not always been able to resolve all of their conflicts w/o having to resort ot violence
 
  Since recorded hist began, man, most war has been waged mostly by men, has been involved in hostility for different aims including power, territory, wealth, ideological domination, security, independence, & more 
 
  Until modern times, most wars were fought w/ limited means for limited aims, but modern weapons of mass destruction & total warfare can eliminate whole populations & endanger the survival of human race   
  WAR IS A FREQUENT EVENT:  SOME LEVEL OF WAR HAS OCCURRED NEARLY EVERY YEAR ON EVERY CONTINENT FOR CENTURIES  
  See Also:  A List of Wars   
  One of the most critical issue that the world has faced is war 
 
  War is not exclusive to these past 10 yrs; however, war has been redefined during this time 
 
  From 2001 to 2013, every continent (except Antarctica) in this world was at war or was participating in some sort of armed conflict 
 
  At any moment during the 20th C, nations somewhere in the world were engaged in some type of armed conflict 
 
  The US specifically was involved in many major conflicts since the Revolutionary War, & if you count such operations as killing Osama bin Laden, that number rises to thousands of conflicts: Rev, 1812, Civil, Cuban, Mexico, WW 1, WW 2, Korean, Vietnam, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iraq 
 
  In the past 10 yrs, nearly 1.3 million US men & women have lost their lives b/c of these wars
 
  Wars are a constant occurrence in this world 
 
  MANY FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO THE  LIKELIHOOD OF WAR INCLUDING: 
A.  PERCEIVED THREATS 
B.  SOCIAL PROBLEMS 
C.  POLITICAL OBJECTIVES
D.  MORAL OBJECTIVES 
E.  ABSENCE OF ALTERNATIVES, & MORE 
 
  Quincy Wright (1987) cites five factors that promote war including perceived threats, social problems, political objectives, moral objectives, and the absence of alternatives
 
  See Also:  Causes of War   
  NEW PRACTICES IN WAR HAVE RECENTLY DEVELOPED IN RELATION TO TERRORISM:  AN EMPHASIS ON SPECIAL FORCES BY NATIONS, & AN EMPHASIS ON SMALL, SENSATIONAL ATTACKS BY NATIONALLY UNAFFILIATED CELLULAR ORGS   
  Our current war, 'The Global War on Terrorism' is a different war   
  Many of the traditional causes of war explain this conflict, but it is different in that it is modern limited war by extra national grps, ie grps that hold allegiance to no nation state .   
  The Global War on Terrorism is a war which does not fit the quintessential definition of war   
  Terrorism breaks from the pattern of traditional modern war   
  Terrorism has no clear line of demarcation; its lines are blurred   
  The enemy is not obvious, yet we are engaged in a deadly war w/ it   
  This war has had a detrimental effect on all nations involved & the whole world   
  People in the US are today less oblivious as to what is occurring around the globe, b/c the nation was attacked   
  TODAY 'FAILED STATES' & 'ROGUE REGIME' ARE FAVORABLE ENVIRONMENTS FOR VIOLENT FRINGE GRPS TO USE AS A BASE OF OPERATIONS TO MAKE WAR ON OTHER NATIONS   
  Failed states are those nations whose govt is so weak that they can neither maintain law & order, nor prevent militias from forming w/in their borders   
  Rogue nations are those nations who generally do not abide by UN conventions on war, human rights, etc & so are often ostracized via sanctions by the developed nations, & are therefore mostly isolated socially, economically, & politically from the global community   
  Failed states & rogue nations exist on every continent & while exactly who is labeled failed or rogue is highly controversial, some examples include:  Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Somalia, N Korea, Venezuela, Cuba, & others   
  In relation to the war in Afghanistan (2001- ), the people there have been living in a constant armed conflict for the better part of three decades   
  So war has brought our awareness of others up, & has redefined our understanding who is waging, ie who is friend, foe, innocent, ally, or neutral   
  The war in Afghanistan, like the war in Iraq, this time is not w/ one particular nation or people, rather it is w/ a subculture of people from across the region   
  WAR FOSTERS THE DEVELOPMENT OF  NEW TECHNOLOGY   
  Some of the greatest technologies that we use today were intended for use in combat   
  The technology used in the current day tablets (Ipad, Kindle, etc.) were being used years ago by the military   
  THE EFFECTS OF WAR IMPACT ALL SPHERES OF LIFE, INCLUDING: 
A.  POPULATION LEVELS 
B.  THE ENV 
C.  THE SOCIAL FABRIC OF SOCIETIES, CULTURES, PEOPLES 
D.  RELIGIOUS ALIGNMENT 
E.  ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY 
F.  POLITICAL ALIGNMENT, & MORE 		  
  Some of the greatest testaments to the human spirit and strength are shown during war   
  War's inhumanity can be seen in it's death & destruction while war's humanity can be seen in people's unbreakable bond for those he/she loves, the compassion found in those who are trying to save others, &  the bonds of war that can been seen in the veterans of today's wars &  wars of the past   
  The effects of war can last for centuries as they result in large migrations & the redrawing of national boundaries   
  After WW1, the bounders of the nations today known as Iran, Iraq, Syria, Jordan & more were redrawn & are seen as a large reason for many mid eastern conflicts today   
  After WW2, a nation of a scattered people migrated to form Israel which today is home to the Jewish people, and   
  The immediate area of Israel it is still in a continual state of violence b/c this migration & the establishment of the state of Israel displace Palestine & the Palestinian people   
  WAR IS ONE OF THE MAJOR AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE AS SEEN IN ITS:
A.  FREQUENCY 
B.  RESPONSE TO SOCIAL/POLITICAL CONFLICT 
C.  SIMULTANEOUS CREATION & USE OF FAILED & ROGUE NATIONS 
D.  FOSTERING THE DEV OF  TECH
E.  EFFECTS ON POP, ENV, SOC FABRIC, RELIGION, ECON, POL, & MORE		  
 
 See Also:  Wars & Social Change   
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 Outline on  Planned Social Change 
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  SOC CHANGE CAN OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE SOCIAL POLICY BY GOVTS, CORPS, ORGS, POWERFUL PEOPLE, & MORE 
 
  SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE GOVT POLICY 
 
  Planning soc change is perhaps the most challenging of human endeavors 
 
  Sometimes the intended changes bring about unforeseen & unwanted changes 
 
  The Chinese govt sought to control pop growth by restricting couples to one child & while the policy is effective it has had several unintended consequences 
 
  One unintended consequence of the Chinese one child policy is that children are spoiled & families must spend all their resources to help the one child succeed 
 
  One unintended consequence of the Chinese one child policy is that b/c China is so patriarchal, many couples have committed infanticide on girl babies, & thus there is a high % of boys compared to girls 
 
  Other examples of govt orchestrated soc change include labor laws, civil rts laws, gender equity laws, privacy laws, Social Security, Obamacare, & more 
 
  SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE CORPORATE POLICY 
 
  Western corps have embraced the practice of offering fringe benefits as part of a pay package 
 
  Corps make policies that impact the env & thus people 
 
  Corps decide where development is to occur or not occur 
 
  Corps have fostered a culture of consumerism
 
  SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE ORG/SOC MVMT / NGO POLICY 
 
  Other orgs that have fomented social change include religions, charities, social movements, non governmental orgs, think tanks, & more   
  Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, & many other religions often change a society as they gain adherents, & often stabilize a society in the fact of other forces of soc change   
  Charities such as the United Way & Red Cross have defined the who, what, where, why, & how we come to the aid of others   
  The NRA has helped create a culture that supports gun use for sports & self defense   
  The NAACP helped create a melting pot society where diversity on many levels is embraced   
  NGOs such as the Peace Corp or Doctors w/o Borders have a lasting, significant impact on many societies, including the people that send/support such orgs   
  Think tanks from the Heritage Foundation to Plowshares influence public opinion & the larger social & political conversation in society   
 
 SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE POLICY AS FORMED BY POWERFUL PEOPLE   
  Obviously billionaires can impact world history   
  The Coke Brothers are one of the leading forces behind the new wing of the Republican Party, the Tea Party   
  Bill Gates founded the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation which is funding, & more importantly managing, many initiatives such as the global eradication of polio   
  Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Airlines, is also funding space exploration by developing a commercial, public transportation system to take people to space   
  Oprah Winfrey funds & manages the Leadership Academy for Girls in South Africa, the Rebuilding the Gulf Coast Project & much more   
  Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer is the first female to be part of Annual 40 most powerful CEOs Under 40 List & she has sparked a new conversation of the role of women in business   
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 Outline on an Introduction to Modernity
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  -  Project:  Most Important Features of Modernity
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  MODERNISTS HOLD THAT SOCIETY CONTINUES TO EXIST AS THE RATIONALIZATION OF SOCIAL RELATIONS & OTHER ENLIGHTENMENT PRINCIPLES   
  Today, social theorists are trying to determine whether society, as well as theories about it, have undergone a transition from the modern era to a new & fundamentally different post modern era
 
  Modernists such as Habermas, Giddens, et al, believe we continue to live in a society that is still best described as modern  
  Modernists believe we theorize & research in much the same way that social thinkers have always done
 
  Post modernists, such as Jean Baudrillard, Jean Francois Lyotard, Fredric Jameson, et al, believe society has changed so dramatically that we now live in a qualitatively different world  
  Post modernists believe we theorize & research in new & different ways in the post modern world  
  Giddens uses terms like radical, high, or late modernity to describe society today & to indicate that it is not the same society as the one of the classical theorists, but it is continuous w/ that society
 
  WHILE SOCIETY CONTINUES TO RATIONALIZE, SOME BELIEVE THIS IS AN OUT OF CONTROL RATIONALIZATION, & A LIMITED RATIONALIZATION   
  Giddens sees modernity today as a juggernaut that is, to some degree, out of control
 
  Structuration theory best describes the processes & consequences of the juggernaut  
  In Modernity & Self Identity (1991) Giddens views the self as developing reflexively w/in the juggernaut of modernity  
  In The Transformation of Intimacy (1992) Giddens examines how intimate relations are affected by modernity, & how intimate relations may transform the structures of modernity itself  
  Ulrich Beck holds that classic modernity was an industrial society concerned w/ maximizing production / wealth & its distribution, while the new modernity is a "risk society" concerned w/ prevention, minimization, & channeling of risk
 
  In Risk Society:  Toward a New Modernity, (1992) Beck examines how modernity has generated both unprecedented risks & unprecedented reflexive capacities to deal w/ those risks  
  FOR HABERMAS THE PROBLEM IS LESS THE OUT OF CONTROL RATIONALIZATIONS, THAN THE REMNANTS OF TRADITIONALISM INCLUDING CORRUPTION, PATRIARCHY, RACISM, CRONYISM, ETC.   
  Habermas sees modernity as an unfinished project
 
  For Habermas, the central phenomena of the modern world today continues to be rationality as it was in Weber's day
 
  For Habermas, the utopian goal is still the maximization of rationality both in the system & in the life world
 
  Ritzer examines the growth of formal rationality & the danger of an "iron cage of rationality"
 
  While Weber focused on bureaucracy in general, Ritzer examines specific bureaucracies including McDonalds & American Express
 
  In The McDonaldization of Society, (1993) & Expressing America:  A Critique of the Global Credit Card Society, (1995) Ritzer examines operation & impact of hyperrationality in Modernity  
  Touraine, 1995; Wagner, 1994 see the world in modern terms & they use modernist techniques of standing apart from society, from a vantage point, rationally & systematically analyzing & describing & portraying using grand narratives
 
  Pre Enlightenment ideas had few glimpses of what modernity was about in terms of progress, science, rationality, etc.  
  The Enlightenment thinkers developed & made popular the idea of modernity  
  Marx viewed the development of the modern era as fraught w/ both immense problems & immense potentials  
  Weber viewed the development of the modern era as dominated by the iron cage of rationality  
  Durkheim viewed the development of the modern era as a difficult transition from traditional society to a new one characterized by isolation, the division of labor, etc.  
  Simmel viewed the development of the modern era as allowing people to express potentialities that were repressed in pre modern society  
  Rationality  
  An example of globalization can be seen in the US & Japanese auto industries  
  Fordism is an example of formal rationality  
  Globalization requires the development of rationalization  
  Americanization is a powerful quality of globalization  
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 Outline on  Modernization & Escalating Social Change
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  WHILE SOME PLACES & ERAS IN HIST HAVE SEEN GREAT STABILITY, TODAY WE ARE EXPERIENCING RAPID SOC CHANGE ACROSS THE GLOBE BY ALL MEASURES 
 
  Modernization, the transition from rural, traditional, ag societies to urban industrial, rationalistic societies, has brought both a degree of soc change & a rate of soc change unprecedented in human history 
 
  Rapid soc changes in the last 300 yrs include: (Deane, 1969) 
 
  1.  the widespread application of science, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, to the processes of production for the mkt, ie technology 
 
  2.  the specialization of the econ activity, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, directed to production for the mkt 
 
  3.  the mvmt of pops, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, from rural to urban communities 
 
  4.  shifts in production, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, to corp or public enterprises & away from the family 
 
  5.  the mvmt of labor, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, from raw materials, ie primary production, to mfr, ie secondary prod, to services, ie tertiary prod 
 
  6.  the use of capital resources, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, as a substitute for human labor 
 
  7.  a 600% increase in global pop 
 
  8.  a decline in birth rates & an even faster decline in death rates 
 
  9.  an increase in the size & number of cities 
 
  10.  changing econ roles for women, children, & the family 
 
  11.  a major rise in literacy rates 
 
  12.  a vast increase in per capita production & consumption of goods   
  13.  sharp decreases in the cost & time for transport of bulk goods   
  14.  the appearance of new econ & pol ideologies including capitalism, socialism, & representative democracy   
  15.  the technical capability to destroy the human race ... & many more, too numerous to list   
  While many changes have occurred in the last 300 yrs, or less, it is informative to compare them to the relatively few changes of the 1000 yrs of the Mid Ages, or the 1000 yrs before that of ancient societies from Egypt to Rome, to the 5000 yrs before that of primitive ag societies   
  The transition from traditional society to modernity has been the most dramatic soc change in history   
  Habermas notes that the transition from traditional society to modernity is not complete   
  See Also:  Habermas   
  Habermas notes that the majority of the nations of the world are traditional society structures, w/ hi tech aspects   
  Habermas notes that the modern nations still have many traditional aspects & that conservative forces w/in these nations promote traditional policies while other interests conflict w/ them, struggling to implement modernist policies   
  ONE REASON FOR ESCALATING SOC CHG IS THE FEEDBACK EFFECT BTWN SOCIETY & THE ENV:  AS SOC CHANGES THE ENV, IT FORCES PEOPLE TO CHANGE   
  In the 2000s, for the 1st time in history, more people migrated due to env causes than due to war   
  Historically, war & econ dev had always vied for being the major cause of migration, but in the 2000s, env reasons topped the list for several yrs   
  Some soc scientists expect that In the future, env changes, nat disasters, crop losses, deforestation, lack of water, & more may be the major impetus for migration, war, & econ dev combined   
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 Outline on  Beyond Modernization:  Even Faster Change
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  THE NATURE OF BOTH WORK & SOC LIFE TODAY IS EXPERIENCING AN INCREASE IN TEMPO OR PACE OF SOC CHANGE
 
  The transition from industrial society to a post industrial society is characterized by 
 
  a.  globalization, a transition from local to world wide econ exchange & competition
 
  b.  a shift from an ind or mfr econ base to an info & services based econ 
 
  c.  a renewed skepticism about worldviews based on science & rationalism & the emergence of a viewpoint sometimes called post modernism 
 
  Firms like Microsoft, Apple, & Google as well as restaurant & entertainment companies have experienced growth, whereas mfrs of cars & airplanes have 'downsized' 
 
  College graduates today will be more likely to work for a firm who provides info, services, or entertainment than for one that mfrs a product 
 
  If your firm does mfr a product, there is a good chance that it will be one that provides info, services, & / or entertainment 
 
  The amt of info & the rate of exchange has exploded 
 
  AS LIFE BECOMES MORE RATIONALIZED, & SUBJECT TO CAPITALISM AS ONE FORM OF RATIONALIZATION, SOC CHANGE HAS SPED UP 
 
  Post modernism is a critical re examination of the rationalist, scientific orient worldview that predominated during the ind era 
 
  The rationalist, scientific oriented worldview predominated in the industrial era 
 
  The rationalist pt of view created dramatic improvements in the standard of living, but it offered less in the form of meaningful philosophy of life than traditional religion 
 
  The rationalism of  the industrial era offered little in the ay of solutions to social  problem such as racism, poverty, gender inequality, mental disorders, & so on 
 
  Since then rationalism has allowed for the development of  the social sciences   
  Rationalism offered a continuing speed up of social change but so far has failed to offer comprehensive solutions to social problems   
  Some believe that the problems of poverty & inequality are getting worse, but this is not necessarily so   
  Society's faith in science, technology, & 'progress' is now often questioned even as the pace of social change continues to quicken   
  TECH & THE INFO REV HAVE RESULTED IN AN INCREASED PACE OF SOC CHANGE  
 
 We are in the middle, or perhaps the beginning, of the rapid change fomented by the info rev & so it is difficult to see the consequences, but one clear unintended consequence in the 'information divide'   
  The concept info div connotes that some people simply do not have the technology or the skills to make use of the info rev & so are left out of a major part of society; they are: 'on the other side of the divide,' so to speak  
  A consequence of the info rev is it changes the way we do everything from education (on line courses), to work (tele commuting & more), to socializing (from texting to Facebook), to buying (online shopping) to the military (cyber war), to religion (tele churches), & much more   
  A consequence of the info rev is that there is significantly less privacy from the fact that we have all entered personal info into numerous websites to the fact that govts & corps can collect more info about ourselves than even we know ourselves, eg Google knows every single thing I have bought online, but my records are not that good   
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 Outline on the  Consequences of Rapid Social Change 
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  RAPID SOC CHANGE PROVIDES A TACTICAL LIFE ADVANTAGE TO YOUNG PEOPLE, THUS SOCIETIES THAT HAVE RAPID SOC CHANGE ARE 'YOUTH CULTURES' 
 
 
Rapid social change gives a distinct advantage to young people over older people 
 
 
In an era of rapid change, older people must constantly learn new things & “unlearn” old ones 
 
 
Older people also find that they have less old knowledge that is of value to young people b/c the old knowledge has become outdated 
 
 
Rapid social change is one reason for the decreasing respect for the elderly
 
 
Living a long time used to mean you are esp capable & experience was highly valued, but this is less true today
 
 
Young people are primarily interested in learning current info that can be used in present day situations 
 
 
But knowledge today has a shorter ‘shelf life’ in that it becomes obsolete more rapidly than it did in the past 
 
 
Many people now long for simpler times; they romanticize ‘the good old days’ 
 
 
But the good old days were typically not all that good; people lived shorter lives & were sicker, there was greater discrimination, religious dissenters, child labor, physical & emotional abuse of child, & more
 
  IN EVERY CULTURE W/ RAPID SOC CHANGE, MANY ARE NOSTALGIC FOR THE PAST; 'NOSTALGICS' WILL ATTEMPT TO IMPLEMENT / RETURN TO ECON & SOC POLICIES FROM THE PAST 
 
  The longing for simpler times is one source of religious fundamentalism in nations ranging from the Muslim Iran to the Christian US 
 
  In the 70s, the Shah of Iran's rapid modernization produced anomie, ie normlessness & thus when this 'puppet' of the US was overthrown, Iran became more fundamentalist than before the West installed this puppet 
 
  The many changes that occurred in the US during any new era in the US has also caused periodic anomie, disturbing people's sense of security by undermining previous norms 
 
  A longing for the good old days can be seen w/:   
  -  the end of the 'cowboy West' & beginning of urbanization in the late 1800s as followed by a longing for & romanticization of the West  
  -  the rejection of the liberalization of social freedoms of the 'roaring 20s' as followed w/ Prohibition,  
  -  the rejection of the new freedoms of the 50s as followed by the McCarthy era  
  -  the rejection of the freedoms of the 60s / 70s as followed by Reaganism, culminating in the Tea Party Mvmt   
  RAPID SOC CHANGE CREATES ANOMIE, A FEELING OF NORMLESSNESS, B/C THE OLD SET OF NORMS IS BEING ELIMINATED, & IT TAKES A LONGER AMT OF TIME TO DEVELOP THE NEW NORMS   
  Rapid social change also increases the general level of anomie, ie a feeling of normlessness, in society  
  Things change so fast that people do not know what to do or how to behave   
  Rapid changes in the roles of men & women have led to anomie, which in turn has contributed to increased divorce rates   
  As more women work outside the home, the household div of labor is changing & this change is a source os stress for couples   
  We learn how to behave as a couple largely by observing our our parents, but for many of us, our parents had a different type of union than we do, or will have   
  As a society, people have not learned how to be a couple in a dual career relationship   
  Contrary to the arguments of those who long for a simpler past, it is not that the new system is 'bad,' but that we do no understand it, yet, & have not developed a workable set of norms to guide our behavior   
  The speed of change is a source of social problems not b/c of the change per se, ie changes often bring greater freedoms for some or many grps, but that we have not developed customs & norms around the new social relationships   
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 Outline on  Social Change as the Intersection of Historical & Structural Forces, & Change Agents 
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  SOC CHANGE IS OFTEN THE RESULT OF THE INTERSECTION OF HIST FORCES, CONTEMPORARY STRUCTURAL FORCES, & INFLUENTIAL INDIVIDUALS, IE CHANGE AGENTS 
 
  Understanding the causes of soc change, the effect of past soc change, the nature & extent of contemporary soc change, & forecasting future soc change are all important tasks for understanding our social world 
 
  Some researchers trace the origins of the Ind Rev further back in history (Chase Dunn, 1988; Abu Lughod, 1989), others are looking at the role of tech, ed, & pop change today (Meyer & Hannan, 1979; Chirot, 1986). 
 
  Studies of past & present soc change, along w/ studies in demographics & other areas, converge in analyses of what is to be expected in the future 
 
  CHANGE AGENTS MAY BE AGENTS FOR REACTIONARY CHANGE, IE RETURNING TO PAST SOC RELATIONS, OR PROGRESSIVES, IE ADVOCATING NEW SOC RELATIONS 
 
  The effects of individual activities on long term soc change is usually very limited 
 
  Exceptions to the limited effects of individuals on soc change abound as can be seen in looking at the leaders of the Fortune 500, or as Domhoff calls them, the Power Elite, social leaders such as in Time Magazine's Influential 100, & more
 
  Even such powerful people may be able to alter soc trends, but they usually cannot crete or reverse them 
 
  An insightful leader like Mikhail Gorbachev can take steps to institute democracy in the Soviet Union, but democracy cannot take hold unless conditions favorable to it exist 
 
  See Also:  Conditions Necessary for Democracy 
 
  Even w/ favorable conditions for democracy, deep ethnic & nationality conflicts can forestall democracy & modernization in general 
 
  Illustrations of ethnic & nationalistic conflict abound:  Tiananmen Square in 1989, Former Yugoslavia in the 90s,  the mideast since the 40s to the present, & Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, & the nations of the Arab Spring today 
 
  A key to understanding society is to determine, via social insight, is to understand the effects of leaders, individuals, & larger social trends 
 
  Tilly notes that every one of us plays a part in these larger societal changes, both contributing to & being affected by them 
 
  Today we are free to make quite different decisions regarding family relations & structures, relations btwn men & women, racial & ethnic relations, & sexual behavior than were made 2, 3, or 4 generations ago in our own society   
  In making these different, free decisions, we are influenced by the rapid soc change that has & is taking place in our society & thus we are in a small way, contributing to the soc change of today & tomorrow   
  In understanding past, present & future soc change, we will be better positioned to make useful & desirable forms of soc change   
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 Outline on the   Tilly:  On the Way to Revolution 
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  TILLY EXAMINED REVS & SOC CHANGE & DISCOVERED THAT HIST CONDITIONS, CONTEMPORARY STRUCTURAL FORCES, & THE EXPERIENCES OF ORDINARY PEOPLE COMBINE TO FORM SOC CHANGE IN SLOW DEVELOPMENTAL FORM OR RAPID REV FORM 
 
  Tilly, via Sorokin (vet & victim of the Russian Rev), advocated confronting large theories of soc change w/ systematic evidence 
 
  It is possible to undertake large comparisons of theory applied to sweeping hist events such as revs, soc mvmts, major hist crises, trends, general soc changes, & so on, in order to seek answers to urgent contemporary questions such as the social foundations of tyranny 
 
  Tilly examined how & why large processes of structural change such as urbanization, industrialization, & the formation of nation states occur & the impact they have on the lives of ordinary people 
 
  Tilly examined what conditions & which what outcomes ordinary people act together on behalf of common interests, ie how we find common interests to act on 
 
  Tilly examined how large structural changes alter the conditions for collective action 
 
  Functionalist held that social order was normal, & deviations from the soc order were the result of system breakdowns & excessively rapid so change, & intense collective action, a symptom of sys overload 
 
  Contrary to functionalism, Tilly found that rapid soc change does not disorganize people & does not cause individual disorder nor collective protests 
 
  Tilly examined what he labeled as 6000 'contentious gatherings' that occurred from 1828 to 1834 in the UK, the period of the 1st successful popular mobilization for  reform of Parliament & the expansion of suffrage 
 
  For Tilly analyses of collective action moved away from ideas of breakdown, disorder, & protest to ideas of organized claim making 
 
  Tilly's research continues around explaining the rise of military power & of the military coup as a form of succession the the world's poorer nations 
 
  While examining an array of topics in his research, Tilly always had at the core, the question of how large structural changes & the experiences of ordinary people mutually interact on each other w/ cause & effects dynamics running in both directions 
 
  Tilly's research examined factor spread over blocks of time & space about the connections btwn large structural changes such as state formation, rev, urbanization, soc mvmts, etc, & how the collective & individual experiences of ordinary people were both the causes & effects of such changes 
 
  Researchers, & people in general, have the bias to tell a coherent story about how events unfolded overlooking chaos, chance, contradictions, random events, & so on   
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Summary of the   Environmental Solutions Process
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  There are two aspects of any social / political issue that must be addressed in order to find a societally accepted solution, including:
I.    the reduction physical problems
II.  the process of social change		  
  I.  The reduction of environmental physical problems in finding a solution to a social issue / problem may be accomplished via FOUR stages including prioritizing, examining context, invoking best practices, conducting a cost / benefits analysis, & proposing actual solutions  
  A.  In order to find a solution, problems must be prioritized & examined in their context of relations & dynamic feedback loops of other problems / issues  
  B.  In order to find a solution, the best available practices / sciences must be invoked to reduce the physical aspects of the problem / issue  
  The science to reduce most social problems / issues is generally available, but not applied, as seen in that we know how to reduce pollution, but as a society we choose not to  
  Society knows how to feed & give health care to children worldwide, but as a society, we choose not to  
  C.  In order to find a solution, a cost & the benefits analysis of reducing / eliminating the problem must be done w/ attn paid to the economic multiplier effect & economic incidence  
  D.  In order to find a solution actual alternatives must be proposed   
  II.  The achievement of social change around any issue / problem can only be accomplished through the involvement of participants & the institutional of social change  
  A.  Involvement of participants in finding a solution to a social problem / issue must seek to involve all participants in open dialogue w/ the aim of solution seeking  
  1.  Involvement of environmental movement  
  2.  Involvement of industrialists  
  3.  Involvement of recreationists  
  4.  Involvement of general public  
  5.  Involvement of government  
  B.  The institutionalization of social change is accomplished by way of making new social roles & relationships standardized w/in society so that they are integrated into the very fabric of society as a normal part of everyday life  
  1.  Education of the general public on environmental issues via media, schools, etc. is generally considered to be one of the most effective ways to achieve social change  
  Emotionality:  Many people find personal fulfillment & reward in the environment & thus solutions must take this into account:  They offer a high level of energy & a clear vision  
  2.  Environmentalists help others prioritize  
  3.  Industrialists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates  
  4.  Recreationists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates  
  5.  The govt encourages voluntary change & implements laws where necessary  
  a.  The govt passes new laws as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure  
  b.  The govt passes new regulations as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure   
  c.  The govt reforms agencies as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure   
  6.  Legal suits have been very important in changing environmental policy by both upholding & creating law  
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Outline on the   Environmental Solutions Process
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 Summary: 
I.     The reduction of the physical problems in the env 
        A.  The env issues must be prioritized
        B.  The best available practices must be chosen 
II.  Achievement of  social change 
      A.  Involve the participants 
           1.  Involvement of environmental movement 
           2.  Involvement of industrialists 
           3.  Involvement of recreationalists 
           4.  Involvement of general public
     B.  Institutionalization of change
          1.  New laws
          2.  New regs
          3.  Reform of agencies
          4.  Legal suits
          5.  Educate general public via media, etc.
               Involvement in political process around issues		  
 
 There are two aspects of any social / political issue that must be addressed in order to find a societally accepted solution, including: 
I.    the reduction physical problems 
II.  the process of social change 
 
 
 I.  The reduction of environmental physical problems in finding a solution to a social issue / problem may be accomplished via FOUR stages including prioritizing, examining context, invoking best practices, conducting a cost / benefits analysis, & proposing actual solutions 
 
  The reduction of env physical problems is usually specific to particular environmental issue ranging from global warming to endangered species   
 
 A.  In order to find a solution, problems must be prioritized & examined in their context of relations & dynamic feedback loops of other problems / issues
 
  How would you prioritize environmental issues?
 


 
 

Usually specific to particular envl issues, a problem w/ prioritization is that most environmental problems are interrelated
1.  Population control
    - Consumption control
2.  Global warming
3.  Oceans
4.  Endangered species
5.  Pollution
6.  Forests

  
 
 B.  In order to find a solution, the best available practices / sciences must be invoked to reduce the physical aspects of the problem / issue
 
  The science to reduce most social problems / issues is generally available, but not applied, as seen in that we know how to reduce energy consumption, but as a society we choose not to   
  Society knows how to, & has the resources to feed all the people in the US, even around the world, but we 'choose' not to   
 
 C.  In order to find a solution, a cost & the benefits analysis of reducing / eliminating the problem must be done w/ attn paid to the economic multiplier effect & economic incidence
 
  The cost issue related to env issues is never straight forward b/c, for example, reducing coal & petroleum dependency is linked to the cost of the alternative fuels, conservation, etc   
  And the reduction of an old industry & the expansion of a new industry has env multiplier effects which ripple through econ as jobs are lost & created, related businesses fail & new ones start up   
  The costs of alternatives is also linked to the econ of scale; alternatives need to be a sufficient share of the mkt in order to achieve the econ of scale   
  Solutions of many env problems may have actual net cost benefits for society, but require econ dev of new sectors of the econ, & econ sun setting of other econ sectors   
  Econ development & econ sun setting causes participants extreme social strain, but various social safety net policies can reduce this strain   
 
 D.  In order to find a solution actual alternatives must be proposed 
 
  The heart of competition is freedom of choice & cost reduction is achieved through freedom of choice   
  The present system of envl problems operates as a "monopoly"  ie, what choice do I have for my gas powered car & my coal fired electricity?  
  Alternative must be social alternative in the the form of, for example, public transportation, or a law which allows each citizen to have solar power which feeds back into the grid; TN has pro solar power laws, VA does not 
 
 
 II.  The achievement of social change around any issue / problem can only be accomplished through the involvement of participants & the institutional of social change
 
 
 A.  Involvement of participants finding a solution to a social problem / issue must seek to involve all participants in open dialogue w/ the aim of solution seeking 
 
 
 1.  Involvement of environmental movement 
 
 
 Envl orgs include all of those envlist orgs who lobby at all levels & take direct action 
 
  Local grps include all of those who are most likely to influence the state regulatory agency to do a better job   
  Any env policy must achieve some level of consensus of goals amongst envlists to be effective   
 
 Any env policy must work w/ other participants to be effective 
 
 
 Any env policy must recognize the necessity of econ priorities in that 
  -  people need & want products 
  -  people need jobs 
 
 
 2.  Involvement of industrialists 
 
  When involving industrialists in the env sol process, all costs of doing business, including 'externalities', must be recognized   
  An externality is a side effect or consequence of an industrial or commercial activity that affects other parties w/o this being reflected in the cost of the goods or services involved   
  An externality is a consequence of an economic activity that is experienced by unrelated 3rd parties   
  An externality can be either positive or negative   
  A positive externality is the pollination of surrounding crops by bees kept for honey   
  A negative externality is the pollution of surrounding crops by a factory   
  When involving industrialists in the env sol process, the limits of econ development in the industry must be recognized   
  When involving industrialists in the env sol process, the value of green tech vs traditional tech must be taken into acct   
 
 3.  Involvement of recreationalists 
 
  When involving recreationalists in the env sol process, all costs of recreation, including impacts on the env, must be recognized   
  When involving recreationalists in the env sol process, the limits of econ / recreation development must be taken into acct   
  When involving recreationalists in the env sol process, all the types of recreationists must be taken into acct b/c sometimes recreational interests conflict   
  Common recreationist conflicts include hikers & horse riders, or snowmobilers & cross country skiers   
 
 4.  Involvement of general public
 
  When involving the general public in the env sol process, they must be educated to the pts of view of all the 'special interests,' including the envlists, indlists, reclists, govt, & others   
  When involving the general public in the env sol process, the general public itself must be educated to the fact that their participation in env issues is good for the political process; there can be no bystanders in a vibrant democracy   
 
 5.  Involvement of government
 
  When involving the govt in the env sol process, it must be 'watch dogged' by the participants to ensure it is fulfilling its duties   
  A lack of enforcement & non compliance by the govt w/ its own laws & regs creates corruption, & a lack of respect   
  When involving the govt in the env sol process, laws & regs which are not enforced must be eliminated   
  When involving the govt in the env sol process, the govt must be reformed to be small, efficient, & effective   
 
 B.  Institutionalization of Social Change 
 
 
 1.  Education of the general public on environmental issues via media, schools, etc. is generally considered to be one of the most effective ways to achieve social change
 
 
 Emotionality:  Many people find personal fulfillment & reward in the environment & thus solutions must take this into account:  They offer a high level of energy & a clear vision
 
  The instit of soc change often necessitates the education of the general public via media, the political process, etc, as to the facts of the issues & the pts of view of conflicting parties   
  The instit of soc change often necessitates that the political process addresses the issues   
  Particular env issues from oil spills to climate change to endangered species appear on the top 5 list of issues for the public, & then often a year later fall off it when in fact the issue has not changed or been addressed   
  The politicization of an env issue is necessary b/c it draws public attn to it, & it often results in changes of laws & regs   
  The instit of soc change often necessitates the prioritization of env issues to guide: 
   -  the public 
   -  politicians 
   -  agency bureaucrats 
   -  scientists		  
  The instit of soc change often necessitates that education of the issues increase the trust of the public for participants, but trust must be earned by responsible positions on the issues by the special interest participants   
 
 2. Environmentalists help others prioritize
 
 
 3.  Industrialists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates 
 
 
 4.  Recreationists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates 
 
 
 5.  The govt encourages voluntary change & implements laws where necessary 
 
 
 a.  The govt passes new laws as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure 
 
  i.  The passage of laws to an envl problem must be specific & effective   
  ii.  Congress must recognize & fulfill their role in making specific & effective laws, & oversight of govt:  
  Congress passes general laws & must allow agencies to implement them   
  Congress must pass laws where judicial decisions have set major policy; if a judicial decision is dominating policy, then Congress has shirked its authority   
  Laws must reflect best compromise among participants but also recognize needs of  Earth / future generations  
  iii.  Campaign & lobbying reform is needed to make law & rule making more rational   
 
 b.  The govt passes new regulations as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure 
 
  Campaign & lobbying reform will help rationalize & take the 'politics' out of writing of new regs specific to an envl problem  
  Part of the rationalization & depoliticization of campaign & lobbying reform is to eliminate regs which are not not enforced; laws, regs, rules which are not followed encourages an ethic of 'rule bending,' or even worse, corruption   
 
 c.  The govt reforms agencies as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure
 
  i.  Agencies must be reformed in order to to fulfill their duties   
  Lack of enforcement & non compliance by agencies w/ their own regs creates a climate w/ a lack or respect or even corruption   
  Agencies must eliminate regs w/in their agencies which are not enforced   
  Agencies must create new, rational, depoliticized regs  
  ii.  Agencies must be reformed in order to limit undue influence while remaining in touch w/ public  
 
 6.  Legal suits have been very important in changing environmental policy by both upholding & creating law 
 
  Law suits are very individualized, making their strength the ability to impact very specific issues, & their weakness is the lack of generalizability   
  Law suits may be used to fine tune laws & regs   
  Law suits may be used by  individuals to advocate for themselves or an issue they find important   
  If law suits are used to set broad policy, that policy should be passed into law or limited by law, otherwise this is a usurpation of Congressional authority   
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 Outline on  Social Impact Analysis
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  -  Supplements:  SIA 
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 -  Project:  SIA Short Project 
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  -  Project:  SIA Long Project 
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  SIA EXAMINES THE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF A POLICY & THEIR INTERACTIONS   
  NEPA defines Social Impact Assessment (SIA) as a method of analyzing what impact a project or action, govt or private, may have on the social aspects of the environment   
  The FSH 1909.17 defines SIA as a component of the Envl Analysis process in which social science info & methodology are used to determine how present programs or proposed actions may affect humans   
 
 SIA is used by many govt agencies, & private orgs, who undertake projects which are so expansive in scope that they may impact lifestyles & ways of life of people in a community or even a region   
  SIA is often done in conjunction w/ projects as diverse as a shopping maul, a logging sale, or an auto plant because each of these will have major impacts on the community & even the region in which they are found   
  SIA & other social & econ analyses may be integrated w/ the env analysis process, the land mgt planning process, the urban development process, etc.   
  THE STEPS OF THE PLANNING PROCESS RANGE FROM GATHERING PUBLIC INPUT, TO ANALYSIS, TO IMPLEMENTATION, TO MONITORING   
  A frequently used model for planning any type of project includes the steps of 
1.  scoping 
2.  collecting data 
3.  interpreting data 
4.  formulating alternatives 
5.  estimating effects 
6.  determining the criteria for making a decision 
7.  selecting an alternative 
8.  implementation 
9.  monitoring 		  
  SIA SHOULD BE INTEGRATED IN W/ THE PLANNING PROCESS   
  The env analysis process has unique tasks in each of the steps of project planning   
  See Also:  The Env Impact Statement Process   
  SIA has unique tasks in each of the steps of project planning   
  In scoping, the social analyst conducts a preliminary investigation to identify or validate issues, select key vars for analysis, determine analysis areas, & assess data needs & sources   
  The purpose of scoping for the social analyst is to identify public & agency concerns & mgt opportunities & threats   
  In data collection & interpretation, the social analyst the depth of analysis depends on the importance of the expect social effects   
  In formulating alts, the social analyst should assist decision makers by clarifying the potential social impacts of each alt   
  In estimating the effects of the alts, the social analyst should examine all effects, direct & indirect, short, mid, & long term, & cumulative   
  In determining the criteria for making a decision, & selecting an alternative the social analyst should w/ the decision makers prioritize criteria & alt & choose the best alt in relation to social factors & the physical or operational goals of the proposed project   
  In implementing & monitoring the project, the social analyst should observe the effectiveness of the program, including mitigating efforts through direct observation, conversations w/ knowledgeable people   
  SIA OBJECTIVES   
 
 The objectives of SIA are to 
 
 
 1.  identify public needs, concerns, & demands 
 
 
 2.  inform decision makers & the public about likely or potential social effects 
 
  3.  contribute to effective public involvement   
  4.  contribute to effective collaborative planning   
  5.  assess effectiveness of program planning, implementation, & soc impact mitigation   
  6.  operate outside our set(s) of assumptions via scientific assessments   
  7.  decrease the element of risk of the project or action   
 
 THERE ARE EIGHT MAJOR SIA VARIABLES 
 
  1.  Population characteristics   
  2.  Community & institutional structure   
  3.  Political & social resources   
  4.  Individual & family factors   
  5.  Community resources   
  6.  Knowledge, Beliefs, Values, Norms, Attitudes, Opinions, Interests, Ideologies   
  7.  Lifestyles   
  8.  Economics   
  Although every project, and every SIA, is unique, in most cases there is a series of more or less standard steps through which the analysis must proceed in order to achieve good results 
 
  THERE ARE THIRTEEN STEPS IN THE SIA PROCESS 
 
  1.  Dev an effective public involvement plan, so that all affected interests will be involved   
  2.  Conduct Scoping to identify the stakeholders & the  issues   
  3.  Identify and characterize alternatives   
  4.  Define baseline conditions   
  5.  Describe & project probable social impacts   
  6.  Predict responses to impacts   
  7.  Consider direct & indirect impacts, & short term , midterm, and long term impacts, & cumulative impacts   
  8.  Recommend new alternatives if necessary   
 
 9.  Develop a mitigation plan   
  10.  Implement the project   
 
 11.  Monitor the project   
  12.   Evaluate the project   
 
 13.  Modify the project as needed   
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 Outline on  Plan B by Lester Brown & the Earth Policy Instit
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  AN ORGANIZED, COMPREHENSIVE, & AGGRESSIVE RESPONSE TO THE ENV SITUATION TODAY IS NECESSARY & BROWN & THE EARTH INSTIT BELIEVE THAT PLAN B IS THAT RESPONSE 
 
  Plan B, written by Lester Brown under the auspices of the Earth Institute, argues that we are at the edge of an envl disaster & to avert it, we must take for urgent action w/ wartime like commitment of resources . 
 
  Individuals can only accomplish so much, so unified, group or social level actions are necessary 
 
  Informed & forward looking responsible national leadership is a missing ingredient in estbing societal level responses to the env as seen in the contention that even Al Gore's track record while Vice President & as a candidate for president was disappointing in this regard   
  While Gore's record on the env is disappointing to Brown & the Earth Instit, he has been the most env focused politician in history   
  If Gore was ineffective, this only shows that even a politician must have a mvmt to lead, even while leadership can help build a mvmt   
  Govt must take the lead & estb new policies & priorities 
 
  Brown & the Earth Instit have not pursued getting other actors on the env involved, esp industrialists / business, recreationists, & even the general public, & more 
 
  FOR PLAN B, THE ENVL PROBLEMS WE FACE TODAY ARE MANY, & THE TREND IS TOWARD AN ENVL CRISIS  
  World population has doubled & the world economy has expanded by 7 x in the past 50 yrs   
  We have a 'bubble econ' that is using resources at an unsustainable rate & that will collapse w/o drastic intervention 
 
  Major concerns are overgrazing range land, over pumping aquifers, draining rivers dry, over fishing the oceans, destroying habitat, increasing CO2 release leading to global warming, the first mass extinctions of species since 65 million years ago, soil erosion & expanding deserts, etc 
 
  As of about 1980, we are consuming not just the interest earned by nature but also the principal of our natural endowment, & this will lead to env bankruptcy 
 
  We are currently (as of 1999) exceeding nature's capacity by about 20 %, perhaps 24 % by 2003 
 
  World population grew from 2.5 bb in 1950 to 6.1 bb in 2000, exceeding the total of the past 40 mm yrs 
 
  Our global econ output rose from $7 tt in 1950 to $46 tt in 2000 to $85 tt in 2012 
 
  Population growth & increasing prosperity promotes increased consumption of grain, tripling demand from 1950 to 2000 & the production of this grain has accelerated topsoil erosion 
 
  Water use has tripled, causing water tables to fall & wells to dry up   
  Fossil fuel consumption has gone up 4 x, &  CO2 emitted exceeds natural fixation capacity, leading to the rise in atmospheric CO2 from 316 PPM in 1959 to 369 in 2000 to 393 ppm in 2013   
  Food such as grain will be in increasingly short supply, in the yrs 2000 to 2002, the grain harvest fell short of consumption (for example, in 2002 the grain harvest of 1807 million tons fell 5 % short)   
  Farmers are unlikely to be able to close the food gap w/o causing further envl degradation   
  Progress toward reducing world hunger has essentially halted & the number of undernourished people in 2000 is est by the UN at 840 million   
  The UN Food & Ag Org est that nearly 870 mm people of the 7.1 bb people in the world, or one in eight, were suffering from chronic undernourishment in 2010 - 2012 
 
  Brown & the Earth Instit foresee many env issues today that will develop into a full blown env crisis unless organized, comprehensive, & aggressive action is taken   
 
 The env issues for Brown & the Earth Instit include: 
 
  -  the wide ranging problems farmers face such as changing climate, drought, soil depletion, & many more  
  -  food production is so fragile in many nations that if could become a National Security Issue   
  -  emerging water shortages b/c of increased population as well as the depletion of fresh water sources   
  -  falling water tables around the world are impacting farmers & cities   
  -  rivers running dry around the world are impacting farmers & cities   
 
 -  water pollution around the world are impacting farmers & cities 
 
  -  farmers are losing land to the cities   
  -  scarcity of food as well as other resources is crossing national borders, ie is widespread, affecting all nations  
  -  the 'food bubble econ,' ie plentiful food in many developed nations, masks the famine, food shortages, & the fragile state of food production around the world   
  -  eroding soils & shrinking cropland   
 
 -  advancing deserts
 
  -  crops & cars competing for land  
  -  'land hungry' crops such as soybeans, ie the development of mono culture, hybrid crops which can only be grown w/ modern, fertilizer & pesticide intensive methods, as opposed to native crops which can be grown more cheaply using traditional methods   
  -  grain land gains & losses due to modern, fertilizer & pesticide intensive methods, as opposed to native crops which are grown more cheaply using traditional methods   
  -  spreading land hunger as people who have lived a traditional lifestyle on the land for centuries are displaced for urban dev or large corp farms   
  -  rising temps & Rising seas  
 
 -  the decreasing of biodiversity of both flora & fauna 
 
 
 -  social problems, eg poverty, famine, disease, ed, & so on, dividing world & thus making people live life in 'survival mode' & thus ignoring the env & other issues 
 
 
 PLAN A IS THE BUSINESS AS USUAL PLAN WHERE WE PROCEED INTO THE FUTURE, RECOGNIZING MANY PROBLEMS, BUT FINDING ONE REASON OR ANOTHER FOR NOT ADDRESSING THEM 
 
 
 Proceeding as we are doing w/o radical redirection constitutes Plan A, no change at all, & will lead to eventual bursting of the envl bubble & severe consequences 
 
 
 The rate of envl degradation is accelerating 
 
 
 Species are going extinct at an alarming rate 
 
 
 Pollution & toxic wastes are rapidly increasing 
 
 
 Pop growth in excess of resources leads to conflicts, contributing to the genocide in Rwanda, as well as tensions in Nigeria, India, etc 
 
 
 Water competition among countries is increasing in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia; Turkey, Syria, Iraq; the 5 'states' sharing the Aral Sea basin, Israel, the US, Mexico, & more 
 
  PLAN B CALLS FOR MAJOR CHANGES IN HOW WE ORGANIZE SOCIETY & HOW WE USE RESOURCES IN ORDER TO AVERT AN ENVL CRISIS   
 
 Plan B offers a 5 part solution to avoid envl crisis, including: 
 
 
 1.  raising water productivity 
 
 
 2.  raising land productivity 
 
 
 3.  cutting carbon emissions in half 
 
 
 4.  responding to the social challenge 
 
 
 5.  rising to the challenge 
 
 
 1.  RAISING WATER PRODUCTIVITY INCLUDES INCREASING THE HARVESTING OF WATER AS WELL AS REDUCING WATER INEFFICIENCY & WATER POLLUTION 
 
  The needed solutions for raising water productivity include the the adoption of realistic prices for water by using a sliding scale that starts at a low base rate   
  Metering the use of ground & river water is the first step in the efficient use of these resources   
  Providing econ incentives for more efficient water use is often cheaper than finding new sources of water   
  Place control of water in the hands of local associations will allow for more detailed water development plans   
  In ag, water productivity (kg grain per ton of water used) can be raised w/ the appropriate selection of crops (eg, wheat rather than rice, sorghum rather than corn), reducing seepage, employing drip irrigation, laser leveling of land, etc.   
  Water productivity can be increased by harvesting rain water, terracing hill sides to reduce runoff & increasing rain absorption for recharging aquifers   
  Water productivity can be increased by reducing non farm uses of water to wash away wastes including toxic pollutants   
  Water productivity can be increased by diminishing sewage by using composting toilets   
  Water productivity can be increased by recycling sewage water to potable water, but some people question whether drug contaminants can be fully removed   
 
 Desalination programs currently have limited viability b/c of the high cost; desalination plants today cost $1 to $2 per cubic meter of desalted sea water 
 
  2.  RAISING LAND PRODUCTIVITY CAN BE DONE BY PRESERVING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF THE LAND WE HAVE & BY EFFICIENTLY USING LAND FOR ECON DEVELOPMENT, EG URBANIZATION   
  Applying more fertilizer will not generally be the solution to raising land productivity   
  Crop yields are not generally rising as much as in the past   
  Increasing yields can be done by planting leguminous trees, employing multiple cropping, eg, raising winter wheat & summer corn, or wheat plus rice, or wheat plus soybeans   
  Farmers also need to produce animal protein more efficiently   
  Cattle in feedlots require 7 kg of grain to produce 1 kg gain in live weight, whereas pigs require 4 kg, poultry require only 2 kg, & herbivorous farmed fish (such as tilapia, catfish, & carp) require less than 2 kg   
  Aqua culture has considerable potential due to the high efficiency of converting feed into protein   
  China is the leading producer of farmed fish   
  Although public controversy exists about farming carnivorous salmon & shrimp, world aqua culture is dominated by herbivorous species & shellfish, & this is where the potential for growth lies   
  Use of crop residues for animal (cattle, water buffalo) feed is increasing esp in India, which has eclipsed the US in milk production as a result   
  Wind erosion can be countered by planting tree shelter belts, by strip cropping, & by paying farmers to plant trees   
  Water erosion can be reduced by terracing, conservation tillage including no tillage or minimal tillage, permanent vegetative covers, curbs on urban sprawl & the dominance of the automobile   
  People should eat down the food chain, somewhere in the middle like the Italians, for whom meat is more a condiment than a main dish   
  Sheep & goats destroy grass & vegetation, so a shift to dairy cattle is recommended   
  Reducing overgrazing shifting from fuel wood to solar cookers or wind generated electricity are all practices that could help env preservation, esp in developing nations   
  Banning clear cutting would reduce erosion, improve water sheds & often leads to faster re generation of forests   
  3.  CUTTING CARBON EMISSIONS IN HALF IS AN ATTAINABLE GOAL THAT ONLY REQUIRES USING OFF THE SHELF TECHNOLOGY   
  Tony Blair, former Prime Minister of Britain has joined Sweden's PM in urging reducing CO2 emissions by 60 % by 2050, much greater than the 5% by 2012 called for by the Kyoto Protocol   
  Canada is phasing out coal fired power plants which lead to acid rain & mercury pollution   
  Germany has set the pace in reducing CO2 emissions by 40% by 2020   
  The US so far is lagging, due to a lack of leadership   
  It would be entirely feasible to cut in half CO2 emissions by 2015   
  Improving energy efficiency is a needed goal   
  Some methods to improve energy efficiency include:   
  1.  improved household appliance energy efficiency   
  2.  improved building & home energy efficiency   
  3.  banning non refillable beverage containers b/c aluminum is more expensive than refillable glass   
  4.  switching to compact fluorescent lighting   
  5.  doubling the fuel efficiency of autos, esp via hybrid engines   
  6.  redesigning urban transport for greater efficiency by, for example, light rail, congestion tax, bike sharing programs, promotion of car pooling, & so on   
  Cutting carbon emission w/ public transport & reduction of autos also can be fostered by restructuring incentives & subsidies   
  7.  wind farm  generation of electricity; the cost in 2001 was as low as 4 cents per kWh   
  8.  conversion to hydrogen fuel cell power for building & autos   
  9.  shifting subsidies from petroleum consumption to use of wind & hydrogen power, etc., photo voltaic cell conversion of sun to electricity, & geothermal energy for heating & power generation   
  The hydrogen economy has problems of storage of hydrogen esp in autos   
  There is also a question of who will provide the hydrogen, & how hydrogen production might be developed   
  Two way or net metering can help individuals operate wind power generators that feed electricity back into the grid   
  This can help to reduce coal power generation w/ resultant CO2 emission & mercury pollution.  
  4.  MANY COMPREHENSIVE PLANS TO ESTB ENV SUSTAINABILITY INCLUDE POPULATION GROWTH CONTROL  
  Slowing population growth could result in the medium projection of 8.9 bb by 2050 not becoming reality   
  For Plan B's population control effort calls for:   
  -  universal birth control, reproductive health, & family planning to assist in controlling population growth   
  -  the US President to advocate a policy of 2 children per couple as a voluntary limit   
  -  universal basic education, esp for poor girls   
  -  more teacher training   
  -  combating the AIDS epidemic by closing the condom gap, addressing high risk gps such as sex wkrs & IV drug abusers, & making anti-retroviral drugs available to all   
  -  promotion of basic health initiatives, esp for infectious diseases in 3rd world countries, assisted by reducing hunger which contributes to health & disease problems  
  -  providing better water supplies, reduce auto accidents, discourage smoking, provide school lunches in poor countries, develop women, infants, & children (WIC) programs.   
  Some of the efforts advocated by Plan B will help to reduce the conditions that breed terrorism   
  Govts implementing some of these programs can experience productivity rises & other social benefits instead of worsening 'demographic fatigue'   
  The total cost to implement a global set of basic social goals is $62 billion per year, which is significantly less than the cost of the Iraq war, & includes:  
  -  $15 billion for universal primary education  
  -  $4 billion for adult literacy  
  -  $10 billion for family planning  
  -  $2 billion for closing the condom gap  
  -  $6 billion for school lunches  
  -  $4 billion for WIC assistance in the 44 poorest countries,  
  -  $21 billion for universal basic health care  
 
 The US would contribute perhaps $20 billion, & other countries would provide the rest   
 
 5.  MANY COMPREHENSIVE PLANS FOR ENV CHANGE POSIT THAT IMMEDIATE, RADICAL CHANGE IS NEEDED, & ANYTHING LESS MAY BE DISASTROUS 
 
 
 To save the env, our way of life, Earth as we know it, a massive mobilization is needed at wartime speed, just as the US did after Pearl Harbor 
 
 
 Plan B's 'war' for env change includes battling for: 
 
 
 -  restructuring the tax system to reduce destructive activities & promote more env sound initiatives 
 
 
 -  slowing world population growth to stabilize at 7.5 bb people 
 
 
 -  shifting to a hydrogen based econ
 
 
 -  stabilizing water tables, & reducing soil erosion
 
  -  planting more trees   
 
 -  increasing envl ed 
 
 
 By 1942, the US made the greatest expansion of industrial output in the nation's history, complete w/ auto & gasoline rationing
 
 
 Our mkts must include in prices the indirect costs, ie the externalized costs of providing goods & services deriving from consuming nonrenewable resources 
 
 
 See Also:  Externalization, Spill Over Costs & Benefits   
 
 SInce cigarettes, coal, oil, nuclear power, & many other products have externalized costs, Plan B advocates, for example setting cigarette & gasoline prices to reflect the real costs to society including future health problems 
 
 
 Gasoline should be $3-8 / gallon 
 
 
 Taxation can be used to cover externalized costs 
 
 
 Taxing carbon burning, emissions of heavy metals, garbage production, auto congestion in urban cores, CFCs, energy consumption & more would begin to help cover their externalized costs to society & the env 
 
 
 Shift subsidies to more desirable goals than petroleum use is designed to promote industries that are under utilized due to mkt distortions that promote traditional env practices 
 
 
 We in the US need great political leaders now, such as Tony Blair 
 
 
 Corporate leadership is also needed is promote env change 
 
 
 While many feel that the scope of envl change needed is daunting, even unachievable, but Plan B maintains that the level of env change needed is significant, but not as great as many other societal level achievements 
 
 
 The focus of the US on military security is greater than the world has ever seen: we 
 
  The spent $ 343 bb  in 2002 compared to 205 for US allies combined, 60 for Russia, 42 for China, 12 for Iran Iraq & N Korea, whereas much world improvement could be purchased for 62 billion per yr as outlined by Plan B   
 
 Industrialized countries should spend  a ratio of 1:7 for foreign aid vs defense, meaning that the US should spend $48 billion in foreign aid 
 
 
 These goals are doable, we must adopt Plan B or suffer the consequences of our inaction 
 
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 Overview on the   Millennium Development Goals
External
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  -  Supplement:  The Millenium Goals 
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  THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs) ADDRESS POVERTY, ED, GENDER, CHILD MORTALITY, MATERNAL HEALTH, DISEASE, ENV, & THE PARTNERSHIPS NECESSARY TO ACHIEVE THEM 
 
  The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight intl development goals that were estbed following the Millennium Summit of the UN in 2000 
 
  All 189 UN member states at the time (there are 193 currently) & at least 23 intl orgs committed to help achieve the MDGs by 2015 
 
  The Millennium Development Goals include: 
1.  eradication of extreme poverty & hunger 
2.  achievement of  universal primary education 
3.  promotion of gender equality & empowering women 
4.  reduction of child mortality rates 
5.  improvement of maternal health 
6.  combating HIV/AIDS, malaria, & other diseases 
7.  ensuring environmental sustainability 
8.  development of a global partnership for development 
 
  The G8 Finance Ministers, from the Canada, Fr, Ger Italy, Japan, Russia, UK, & the US, agreed in June 2005 to provide enough funds to the World Bank (WB), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) & the African Development Bank (AfDB) to cancel $40 to $55 bb in debt owed by members of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) 
 
  Debt cancellation allowed the HIPC to redirect resources to programs for improving health & education & for alleviating poverty 
 
  THE MDG ADDRESS THE ISSUES OF HUMAN CAPITAL, INFRASTRUCTURE, & HUMAN RIGHTS 
 
  The MDG emphasized three areas: human capital, infrastructure & human rights (social, econ & political), w/ the intent of increasing living standards 
 
  Human capital objectives include: nutrition, healthcare, including child mortality, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis & malaria, & reproductive health, & education 
 
  Infrastructure obj include: access to safe drinking water, energy & modern info / communication tech; increased farm outputs using sustainable practices; transport, & env 
 
  Human rights objectives include: empowering women, reducing violence, increasing political voice, ensuring equal access to public services & increasing security of property rts
 
  The goals were intended to increase an individual's human capabilities & 'advance the means to a productive life' 
 
  The MDGs emphasize that each nation's policies should be tailored to that country's needs; therefore most policy suggestions are general 
 
  THE MDG ARE SUCCEEDING B/C THEY ARE COMPREHENSIVE & ARE ESTBING PARTNERSHIPS AMONG NATIONS & INTL ORGS TO FUND & TO BUILD STRAT ALLIANCES 
 
  MDGs emphasize the role of developed countries in aiding developing countries, as outlined in Goal Eight, which sets objectives & targets for developed countries to achieve a "global partnership for development" by supporting fair trade, debt relief, increasing aid, access to affordable essential medicines & encouraging technology transfer  
  developing nations ostensibly became partners w/ developed nations in the struggle to reduce world poverty   
  GOAL 1:  ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY & HUNGER   
  Target 1A: Halve, btwn 1990 & 2015, the proportion of people living on less than $1.25 a day   
  One measure to judge poverty is the poverty gap ratio, ie incidence x depth of poverty   
  One measure to judge poverty is the share of the poorest quintile in national consumption   
  Target 1B: achieve decent employment for women, men, & young people   
  One measure to judge employment is the GDP Growth per Employed Person   
  One measure to judge employment is the employment Rate   
  One measure to judge employment is the proportion of employed population below $1.25 per day (PPP values)   
  One measure to judge employment is the proportion of family based workers in employed population   
  Target 1C: Halve, btwn 1990 & 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger  
  One measure to judge hunger is the prevalence of underweight children under five years of age   
  One measure to judge hunger is the proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy consumption   
  GOAL 2:  ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION   
  Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls & boys   
  One measure to judge education is the enrollment in primary education   
  One measure to judge education is the completion of primary education   
  GOAL 3:  PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY & EMPOWER WOMEN   
  Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary & secondary education preferably by 2005, & at all levels by 2015   
  One measure to judge gender equality is the ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary & tertiary education   
  One measure to judge gender equality is the share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector   
  One measure to judge gender equality is the proportion of seats held by women in national parliament   
  GOAL 4:  REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY RATES   
  Target 4A: Reduce by two thirds, btwn 1990 & 2015, the under five mortality rate   
  One measure to judge child mortality is the under five mortality rate   
  One measure to judge child mortality  is the infant (under 1) mortality rate   
  One measure to judge child mortality is the proportion of 1 yr old children immunized against measles   
  GOAL 5:  IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH   
  Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, btwn 1990 & 2015, the maternal mortality ratio   
  One measure to judge maternal health is the maternal mortality ratio   
  One measure to judge maternal health is the proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel   
  Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health  
  One measure to judge reproductive health is the contraceptive prevalence rate   
  One measure to judge reproductive health is the adolescent birth rate   
  One measure to judge reproductive health is the antenatal care coverage   
  One measure to judge reproductive health is the unmet need for family planning   
  GOAL 6:  COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA, & OTHER DISEASES   
  Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 & begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the HIV prevalence among population aged 15 to 24 yrs   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the condom use at last high risk sex   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the proportion of population aged 15 to 24 yrs w/ comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS   
  Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it   
  One measure to judge access to treatment is the proportion of population w/ advanced HIV infection w/ access to antiretroviral drugs   
  Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 & begun to reverse the incidence of malaria & other major diseases   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the prevalence & death rates associated w/ malaria   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide treated bed nets   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the proportion of children under 5 w/ fever who are treated w/ appropriate anti malarial drugs   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the incidence, prevalence & death rates associated w/ tuberculosis   
  One measure to judge progress against disease is the proportion of tuberculosis cases detected & cured under DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment Short Course)   
  GOAL 7:  ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY   
  Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies & programs; reverse loss of environmental resources   
  Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss   
  One measure to judge biodiversity is the proportion of land area covered by forest   
  One measure to judge biodiversity is the CO2 emissions, total, per capita & per $1 GDP (PPP)   
  One measure to judge biodiversity is the consumption of ozone depleting substances   
  One measure to judge biodiversity is the proportion of fish stocks w/in safe biological limits   
  One measure to judge biodiversity is the proportion of total water resources used   
  One measure to judge biodiversity is the proportion of terrestrial & marine areas protected   
  One measure to judge biodiversity is the proportion of species threatened w/ extinction   
  Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population w/o sustainable access to safe drinking water & basic sanitation  
  One measure to judge access to water & sanitation is the proportion of population w/ sustainable access to an improved water source, urban & rural   
  One measure to judge access to water & sanitation is the proportion of urban population w/ access to improved sanitation   
  Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers  
  One measure to judge slum dwelling is the proportion of urban population living in slums   
  GOAL 8:  DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT   
  Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule based, predictable, nondiscriminatory trading & financial system  
  Developing global partners for development includes a commitment to good governance, development, & poverty reduction, both nationally & internationally   
  Target 8B: Address the special needs of the least developed countries (LDCs)   
  Developing global partners for development includes: tariff & quota free access for LDC exports; enhanced program of debt relief for HIPC & cancellation of official bilateral debt; & more generous Official Development Assistance (ODA) for countries committed to poverty reduction   
  Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries & small island developing States   
  Developing global partners for development is taking place through the Program of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States & the outcome of the 22nd special session of the General Assembly   
  Target 8D: Deal comprehensively w/ the debt problems of developing countries through national & international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term   
  Some of the indicators are monitored separately for the least developed countries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked developing countries & small island developing States official development assistance (ODA)   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the net ODA, total & to LDCs, as percentage of OECD/DAC donors’ GNI   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the proportion of total sector allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition, safe water & sanitation)   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC donors that is untied   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the ODA received in landlocked countries as proportion of their GNIs   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the ODA received in small island developing States as proportion of their GNIs   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is market access:   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the proportion of total developed country imports (by value & excluding arms) from developing countries & from LDCs, admitted free of duty   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products & textiles & clothing from developing countries   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as percentage of their GDP   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the debt sustainability:   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points & number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative)   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the debt relief committed under HIPC initiative, US$   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the debt service as a percentage of exports of goods & services   
  Target 8E: In co-operation w/ pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable, essential drugs in developing countries   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the proportion of population w/ access to affordable essential drugs on a sustainable basis   
  Target 8F: In cooperation w/ the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information & communications   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the telephone lines & cellular subscribers per 100 population   
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the personal computers in use per 100 population  
  One measure to judge global partnerships for development is the internet users per 100 Population   
  THE CRITICS OF THE MDGs PROJECT CITE A NUMBER OF PROBLEMS, INCLUDING:  EQUALITY, GRASS ROOTS ORGANIZING, A FOCUS ON DONATIONS OVER ACHIEVEMENTS, TOO LITTLE FOCUS ON HUMAN RTS, ED PROGRESS MADE AT THE EXPENSE OF OTHER GOALS, WEAK ENGAGEMENT ON DISEASE, & THE ENV, & MORE   
  One criticism of the MDGs is that there is insufficient focus on w/in country equality   
  In the opinion of some the MDG project needs to less focus on introducing local change through external innovations supported by external financing & more focus on developing goals by community initiative, building from resources of solidarity & local growth w/in existing cultural & government structures   
  One criticism of the MDGs is the focus on donor achievements, rather than development successes   
  One criticism of the MDGs is that they lacking legitimacy as a result of a failure to include the voices of the very participants that the MDGs seek to assist   
  Some feel there was more a focus on the right to adequate food, but a lack of primacy of human rights & of human rights based monitoring & accountability   
  The MDGs were attacked for insufficient emphasis on environmental sustainability  
  Agriculture was not specifically mentioned in the MDGs even though most of the world's poor are farmers   
  While the MDGs focus on primary education & emphasizes enrollment & completion, in some countries, primary enrollment increased at the expense of achievement levels   
  In some cases, the emphasis on primary education has negatively affected secondary & post secondary education   
  Some critics of the MDGs maintain that the goals related to maternal mortality, malaria & tuberculosis are impossible to measure the current UN estimates lack scientific validity or are missing   
  THE ADVOCATES OF THE MDGs PROJECT NOTE THAT YES MEASUREMENT IS DIFFICULT, PROGRESS IS SLOW, & ALMOST ANYONE WOULD PRIORITIZE THE GOALS DIFFERENTLY, BUT PROGRESS IS BEING MADE   
  Advocates of the MDGs Project counter the critics by pting out that setting goals is still valid despite measurement difficulties, as they provide a political & operational framework to efforts   
  Advocates of the MDGs Project counter the critics by noting the attention to well being other than income helps bring funding to achieving MDGs   
  MDGs prioritize interventions, estb obtainable objectives w/ useful measurements of progress despite measurement issues & increased the developed world's involvement in worldwide poverty reduction   
  MDGs include gender & reproductive rights, environmental sustainability, & spread of technology, though the attn to these goals may seen insufficient to some critics   
  Prioritizing interventions helps developing countries w/ limited resources make decisions about allocating their resources   
  MDGs also strengthen the commitment of developed countries & encourage aid & info sharing   
  The global commitment to the goals likely increases the likelihood of their success   
  They note that MDGs are the most broadly supported poverty reduction targets in world history   
  Achieving the MDGs does not depend on economic growth alone b/c the MDG Project is broad in scope & w/ the focus on partnerships, helping the poor & LDCs helps the donor nations too   
  ACHIEVEMENT OF THE GOALS HAS BEEN MIXED IN THAT ONLY A FEW ARE ON TRACK TO BE FULLY MET, & MANY ARE NOT ON TRACK TO BE MET, BUT PROGRESS IS BEING MADE ON ALL, & DONORS CONTINUE TO STEP UP   
  The reduction of the share of the population living on under $1, $1.25 & $2 a day as a proportion of world population from 1981 to 2008 has been uneven across countries   
  The World Bank estimated that halving the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day was achieved in 2008 mainly due to the results from two countries:  China & India   
  The World Bank estimated btwn 1990 & 2010 the population living on less than $1.25 a day in developing countries halved to 21%, or 1.2 billion people   
  The World Bank estimated that the child mortality & maternal mortality are down by less than half, though they are moving in the right direction   
  The World Bank estimated that the sanitation & education targets will also be missed, though progress is being made   
  One success was to strengthen rice production in that by the mid 1990s rice imports to recipient nations were reduced to nearly $1 billion annually b/c New Rice for Africa (NERICA) developed a high yielding & well adapted strain   
  Some 18 varieties of the hybrid varieties of rice became available, enabling farmers to produce enough rice to feed their families & have extra to sell   
  The World Bank estimated that malaria deaths declined by more than one third, saving millions of lives   
  Although developed countries' aid rose during the Millennium Challenge, more than half went towards debt relief & much of the remainder aid money went towards disaster relief & military aid   
  Attempts to increase US political attention to the MDGs include the Borgen Project which worked w/ then Senator Barack Obama on the Global Poverty Act, a bill requiring the White House to develop a strategy for achieving the goals, but he bill has never passed despite Obama's ascendancy to the Presidency   
  The US has consistently opposed setting specific foreign aid targets since the UN General Assembly first endorsed the 0.7% goal in 1970   
  Former President BIll Clinton has founded the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) which led the effort to bring private money in to support the MDGs, as well as encourage private orgs & other philanthropic orgs to pursue goals of their own   
  CGI has brought in the Boeing Company to address the Millennium Development Goals 4 & 5 (reduce child mortality & improve maternal health).  
  After acknowledging that poverty, lack of education & poor access to health services are major contributors to childhood malnutrition, which leads to many more complex economic & social issues, Boeing committed US $212, 700 at CGI Asia 2008   
  Boeing's commitment has enabled the UN's World Food Program (WFP) to expand the scope of & number of people reached by the existing Mother & Child Health / Nutrition Programs in Indonesia & the Philippines   
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 Outline on the  Clinton Global Initiative  (CGI)
External
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 -  Supplement:  CGI Meetings 
Link
 
 -  Supplement:  CGI Memberships 
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 -  Supplement:  CGI Commitments 
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  THE MISSION OF THE CLINTON GLOBAL INITIATIVE (CGI) IS TO TURN IDEAS INTO ACTION TO HELP HUMANITY & THE EARTH THROUGH PARTNERSHIPS AMONG PRIVATE CORPS, NGOS, CHARITIES, GOVTS, & OTHERS 
 
  The misison of the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) is to form partnerships among private corps, non govtl orgs (NGOs), govt, & others to take action in the areas of econ dev, env sustainability, human rts, gender equality, health, & many more   
  Established in 2005 by President Bill Clinton, the Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), an initiative of the Clinton Foundation, convenes global leaders to create & implement innovative solutions to the world's most pressing challenges   
  CGI Annual Meetings have brought together 180 heads of state, 20 Nobel Prize laureates, & hundreds of leading CEOs, heads of foundations & NGOs, major philanthropists, & members of the media   
  To date, CGI members have made more than 2,500 commitments, which are already improving the lives of more than 430 million people in over 180 countries   
  When fully funded & implemented, these commitments will be valued at $88 billion   
  CGI is not a grant making org, rather it brings together people w/ ideas, initiative, money, & a bias toward action   
  Funding pledged through commitments does not come through CGI, & is not donated to CGI, rather, orgs commit to raise & distribute money on their own   
  CGI's nine tracks include: 
1.  the built env  4.  env stewardship  7.  mkt based approaches 
2.  edu & wkforce dev  5.  girls & women  8.  response & resilience 
3.  energy  6.  global health  9.  tech 
 
  CGI MEETINGS ARE DESIGNED FIRST TO FORGE PARTNERSHIPS, THEN DEVELOP COMMITMENTS, FUND THE COMMITMENTS, TAKE ACTION, MEASURE THE ACTION, & FOLLOW UP / ADJUST   
  CGI convenes a community of global leaders to forge solutions to the world's most pressing challenges   
  CGI fosters action through a rich yr round calendar of events designed to help members connect, collaborate, & make effective & measurable commitments 
 
  Every September, the CGI community comes together in NYC for the Annual Meeting 
 
  The CGI Annual Meeting in September is scheduled to coincide w/ the UN General Assembly   
  At the Annual Meeting, CGI members discuss major global issues, share ideas & knowledge about effective solutions, & form partnerships that enable them to enhance their work   
  The CGI Annual Meeting gives CGI members the opportunity to assess the progress of ongoing commitments, develop new partnerships, & recognize the innovative action currently underway by CGI members across the world 
 
  The 2014 CGI Annual Meeting will be held from September 22-24 in New York City 
 
  The CGI Annual Meeting is attended by heads of state, business leaders, nonprofit directors, prominent members of the media, Nobel Prize winners, & other notable global leaders   
  Attendees of the CGI Annual Meeting have included President Barack Obama, Her Majesty Queen Rania Al Abdullah, UN Secretary General Ban Ki Moon, Mayor Michael Bloomberg, Lance Armstrong, Lloyd Blankfein, Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, former Vice President Al Gore, Hillary Clinton, Ruchira Gupta, Paul Farmer, Wangari Maathai, Rupert Murdoch, Rex Tillerson, Jeff Gordon, Muhammad Yunus, & others   
  CGI also convenes CGI America, a meeting devoted to econ recovery & job creation in the US, & CGI University (CGI U), which hosts an annual meeting for undergraduate & graduate students who are developing commitments in their communities & around the world   
  CGI America is a working meeting which brings together hundreds of leaders from the business, govt, & nonprofit sectors to devise real & effective solutions for econ recovery & job creation in the US   
  The CGI University builds on the successful model of the CGI, CGI U convenes approximately 1,000 students from all over the world, along w/ nonprofit leaders, entrepreneurs, & celebrities engaged in efforts to create positive change   
  At the CGI U participants come together at a different college or university each year to work on their commitments & learn about innovative approaches to the world's most pressing issues  
  CGI Latin America will engage key leaders from the private sector, govt, civil society, & NGOs to generate lasting solutions to the region's, & the world's, most pressing challenges   
  CGI follows the logic that by strengthening the partnerships, examining successful initiatives, & developing new strategies, global challenges can be met by a prosperous global community   
  CGI's first intl meeting, CGI Asia was held in Hong Kong in 2008 to bring together heads of state, top CEOs, directors of NGOs, philanthropists, scholars, & members of the media to address local & global challenges in the areas of ed, energy & climate change, & public health   
  CGI MEMBERSHIP INCLUDES CORPS, NGOs, PHILANTHROPISTS, GOVTS, & OTHERS, & IS BY INVITATION ONLY   
  CGI members include some of the world's largest companies, leading NGOs & foundations, govt representatives from around the world, & prominent individual philanthropists   
  CGI drives action among its members through:  inspiration, networking, knowledge building, & commitment to action   
  Inspiration in the CGI community motivates the world's foremost thinkers to envision tomorrow's groundbreaking solutions   
  Thought leaders & visionaries push the conversation forward, inspiring all members to be creative & innovative in their collective action   
  Networking connects the diverse CGI membership, offering a unique opportunity to interact w/ individuals across multiple sectors & industries   
  Networking is encouaged among the participants who include the world’s largest companies, leading NGOs & foundations, govt representatives, & prominent philanthropists   
  At CGI, knowledge building creates the foundation for informed action   
  Industry leaders analyze their most effective programs, fresh voices put forth innovative approaches, & established experts debate different interventions   
  Members provide each other w/ a constant flow of new solutions & lessons learned   
  Collaboration is fostered through the CGI environment which creates & supports partnerships   
  Some commitments develop organically from networking, while others grow through issue specific member gatherings or CGI staff facilitation   
  Spurred by a collective sense of urgency & shared responsibility, CGI members collaborate to best leverage their unprecedented combination of influence, expertise, & passion   
  The commitment to action is seen in CGI members' commitments to bold new ways to address global challenges, implemented through new methods of partnership & designed to maximize impact   
  Commitments can be small or large, global or local   
  No matter the size or scope, commitments help CGI members translate practical goals into meaningful & measurable results   
  A person or an organization becomes a member of the CGI by intivation only   
  If a person or org has not received an invitation & would like to be considered, the CGI has a membership inquiry form   
  CGI COMMITMENTS ADDRESS SIGNIFICANT GLOBAL CHALLENGES, & MUST BE NEW, SPECIFIC, & MEASURABLE   
  A Commitment to Action, the defining feature of CGI, is a plan for addressing a significant global challenge   
  Commitments can be small or large & financial or nonmonetary in nature   
  Many commitments are the result of cross sectoral partnerships, w/ CGI members combining efforts to expand their impact   
  To date, CGI members have made more than 2,500 commitments, which are already improving the lives of more than 430 million people in over 180 countries   
  When fully funded & implemented, these commitments will be valued at $88 billion   
  CGI supports the development of commitments by facilitating dialogue, providing opportunities to identify partners, showcasing the actions taken by commitment makers, & communicating results   
  CGI serves as a catalyst for action, but does not engage in the actual implementation of commitments   
  Each CGI member develops a Commitment to Action,  a plan to take specific action to make the world a better place   
  Every CGI Commitment must meet the basic criteria of being new, specific, & measurable   
  New:  A CGI commitment is a plan that presents a new idea or approach to a major challenge  
  While preexisting work is not eligible, an expansion of a successful program also qualifies as a valid Commitment to Action   
  Participants can become partners on other CGI commitments, for example, by providing in kind support or technical expertise   
  Specific:  A CGI commitment must outline a specific approach to a problem, have clear & feasible objectives to be accomplished w/in a defined period of time, & articulate the desired outcome of the effort   
  Measurable:  A CGI commitment must have specific quantitative or qualitative goals that can be monitored by the commitment maker to evaluate progress over time   
  As each commitment is implemented, annual progress is reported to CGI to show the extent of its impact   
  Commitments must be new, specific, &  measurable, but beyond those three criteria, members have wide latitude to determine which actions to take   
  CGI monitors the progress & success of these commitments throughout the yr   
  CGI HAS A BROAD RANGE OF PROJECTS, INCLUDING:  CGI U, CGI AM, CGI INTL, CLINTON GLOBAL CITIZEN AWARD, CLINTON DEV INITIATIVE, ALLIANCE FOR A HEALTHIER GENERATION, CLINTON ECON OPP INITIATIVE, CLINTON GINSTRA SUSTAIN GRWTH INITIATIVE, CLINTON HEALTH MATTERS INITIATIVE, DISASTER RELIEF FOUNDATION, & MORE   
  In 2007, President Clinton launched CGI University, which expanded the successful model of CGI to students, universities, & national youth orgs   
  CGI U includes two days of plenary sessions & hands on breakout sessions, followed by a day long service project   
  CGI U has been held at Tulane University in New Orleans, University of TX at Austin, University of Miami in Coral Gables, FL, University of CA, San Diego, the George Washington University in Washington, DC, Washington University in St. Louis, & others   
  CGI America is an annual event that is focused on finding solutions that promote econ recovery in the US   
  CGI America is a working meeting purportedly brought together leaders from the business, foundation, NGO, & govt sectors to develop solutions to increase employment, advance access to ed & skills development, strengthen energy security, & promote an env for business growth & innovation   
  CGI International focuses on business & govts around the world to supplement the Annual Meeting in NY to address local, regional, & global challenges   
  The focus of the CGI meeting in Asia was on three main areas: ed, energy & climate change, & public health   
  The Clinton Global Citizen Awards are a set of awards which have been given by the Clinton Global Initiative every year since 2007   
  The awards are given to individuals who, in the opinion of the Clinton Foundation, are outstanding individuals who exemplify global citizenship through their vision & leadership   
  Past recipients of the award include Mexican business magnate & philanthropist Carlos Slim, Moroccan entrepreneur Mohammad Abbad Andaloussi, Rwandan President Paul Kagame, Dominican Republic President Leonel Fernández, & others   
  The Clinton Development Initiative will invest $100 mm over the next 10 yrs in projects that will improve food security, clean water & sanitation, & quality health care   
  Right now, these programs are focused in Rwanda & Malawi, but can potentially be expanded to other countries in the future   
  Together w/ the govts of Rwanda & Malawi, CDI has had such successes as helping farmers access fertilizer, disease resistant seeds, irrigation systems, advanced planting techniques & micro credit   
  This assistance of the CDI has led to a record harvest in eastern Rwanda & CDI has also helped Partners in Health build new health care facilities in Neno, Malawi.  
  The Alliance for a Healthier Generation was founded following Clinton's quadruple bypass surgery in 2004   
  After his quadruple bypass surgery, President Clinton became even more outspoken on the importance of a healthy lifestyle & the prevalence of childhood obesity in America   
  The Alliance for a Healthier Generation is a partnership btwn the Clinton Foundation & the American Heart Assoc that is wking to end the childhood obesity epidemic in the US by 2010   
  The Alliance for a Healthier Generation includes The Healthy Schools Program, The empowerME Mvmt for youth leadership to fight obesity, an industry team wking to make deals w/ food & beverage orgs (which is why The Alliance does not accept money from food & beverage companies), & a healthcare initiative   
  The Clinton Economic Opprtunity Initiative promotes financial stability & money mgt skills & helping to develop sound business knowledge   
  The Clinton Giustra Sustainable Growth Initiative (CGSGI) is working w/ local communities, the private sector, govts & other non govtl orgs to develop new, practical models for businesses to spur sustainable social & econ development as an integral part of their operations in the developing world   
  CGSGI is focusing on mkt driven development that creates jobs & increases incomes, & on enabling factors such as health & ed   
  Clinton Health Matters Initiative (CHMI) is a national initiative, building on the Clinton Foundation's work on global health & childhood obesity, that works to improve the health & well being of people across the US by activating individuals, communities, & orgs to make meaningful contributions to the health of others   
  CHMI works to implement evidence based systems, envl & investment strategies, w/ the goals of ultimately reducing the prevalence of preventable diseases, reducing health care costs assoc w/ preventable diseases, & improving the quality of life for people across America   
  The Disaster Relief Foundation has funded extensive disaster relief programs following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake & Hurricane Katrina in 2005   
  Shortly after Hurricane Katrina hit, President George W Bush asked former Presidents George HW Bush & Bill Clinton to raise funds to help rebuild the Gulf Coast region   
  Presidents George HW Bush & Bill Clinton, having wked together to assist victims of the Indian Ocean tsunami, established the Bush Clinton Katrina Fund to identify & meet the unmet needs in the region, foster econ opportunity, & to improve the quality of life of those affected   
  In the first month after the hurricane, the Fund collected over 42,000 online donations alone; approximately $128.4 million has been received to date from all 50 states & $30.9 million from foreign countries 
 
  The Disaster Relief Foundation was again involved following the 2010 Haiti earthquake & Clinton has spent considerable time in Haiti following that disaster   
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 Outline on the  Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) & the Environment
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  -  Supplement:  CGI Meetings 
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  -  Supplement:  CGI Memberships 
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  -  Supplement:  CGI Commitments 
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  THE CLINTON GLOBAL INITIATIVE (CGI) IS HAS MANY ENV & ENERGY ORIENTED PROGRAMS EVEN THOUGH THE MAJORITY OF ITS PROGRAMS ARE FOCUSED ON OTHER GLOBAL CHALLENGES SUCH AS HEALTH, GENDER EQUALITY, ECON DEV, DISASTER RELIEF, & MORE 
 
  While many of CGI's projects are explicitly environmentally oriented, many projects such as those addressing issues of health, access to food & water, econ dev, resource dev, & more also have indirect env impacts   
  Some examples of environmentally oriented include: 
1.  Online Consumer Resource Center for Green Homes
Commitment by: U.S. Green Building Council
Focus Area: Environment & Energy
Introduction: The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), w/ support from Newland Communities, commits to launch the first program in a comprehensive yearlong campaign to ed consumers about the benefits of green homes 
2.  Green Schools Conference
Commitment by: U.S. Green Building Council
Focus Area: Environment & Energy
Introduction: Green Building Initiatives, sponsored by the U.S. Green Building Council, The Turner Corporation & Haverford College, will promote sustainable design & construction in ed w/in the next academic year by hosting a series of conference focused on green building in edl construction & renovations 
3.  Grants for Healthy Ecology
Commitment by: Compton Foundation, Inc.
Focus Area: Environment & Energy
Introduction: In order to scale back global climate change, the Compton Foundation commits to provide grants to outstanding projects that will: 1. Reduce domestic greenhouse gas emissions from both public & private sources; 2. Develop, advocate, & implement state & regional policy initiatives to decrease greenhouse gas emissions; & 3. Analyze & communicate the regional effects of climate change 
4.  SolarAid Carbon Offset Scheme
Commitment by: SolarAid
Focus Area: Environment & Energy
Introduction: In 2006, SolarAid committed to establish a carbon partnership scheme that enables individuals, companies, & orgs to offset their own carbon emissions w/ payments that fund the installation of solar energy systems in Africa. SolarAid's model, known as micro solar, involves teaching local communities in Africa how to convert kerosene lamps into solar lanterns, which they can then sell to earn a profit as well as reduce carbon emissions 		  
  CGI commitments to the env & energy can focus on local env projects such as building green buildings, which also supplies wkforce training, to global projects focused on climate change   
  WHILE CGI HAS PROJECTS SPECIFICALLY FOCUSED ON THE ENV, MANY OF ITS OTHER PROJECTS ALSO HAVE A SECONDARY ENV FOCUS WHICH IS NECESSARY TO ADDRESS THE PRIMARY FOCUS OF HEALTH, GENDER EQUALITY, ECON DEV, DISASTER RELIEF & MORE   
  Some examples of CGI projects in other areas that are also environmentally oriented include:
1.  Realizing Pro Poor Multiple Use Water Services 
Commitment by: Winrock International
Focus Area: Global Health
Introduction: Winrock International has pledged to convene a high level group of private & public water sector leaders to galvanize & accelerate emerging efforts to design, finance & pilot pro poor community managed water systems that simultaneously meet multiple domestic & productive water needs 
2.  Building Funding for Water & Sanitation Projects 
Commitment by: Wynnette LaBrosse
Silicon Valley Community Foundation
Agora Foundation
Focus Area: Global Health
Introduction: In 2006 Wynnette LaBrosse of the Agora Foundation & Silicon Valley Community Foundation committed to provide $1 million per year for four years to WaterPartners International & $100K per year to Water 1st International for organizational development & it's targeted water projects; & up to $300K in year one to study the efficacy of the triple intervention approach of providing hygiene ed, sanitation, & point of source safe drinking water
3.  Securing the Building Block of Life: Water 
Commitment by: OneXOne Foundation
Focus Area: Global Health
Introduction: ONEXONE & H20 Africa aim to improve the lives of women & children by empowering them to attend school & participate in income earning activities.
4.  JAM - Sudan Water Wells 
Commitment by: Laurie Cunnington
Focus Area: Global Health
Introduction: This project will provide clean, safe drinkable water to 25 villages in the Sudan 		  
  Though the majority of CGI commitments are not focused on the env, many take the env, sustainability, natural resources, climate change, & more into acct as a factor that must be dealt w/ when addressing such issues as poverty, health, fundamental needs like food & water, econ dev, & more   
  THE CLINTON CLIMATE INITIATIVE (CCI) HAS PARTNERED W/ CITY GOVTS, CORPS, NGOs, PHILANTHROPISTS, & OTHERS TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUES B/C CITIES HAVE BEEN MORE RESPONSIVE TO CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUES THAN ANY OTHER SINGLE ENTITY 
 
  The Clinton Foundation's Climate Initiative (CCI) builds on his long term commitment to preserving the env 
 
  President Clinton launched in August 2006, w/ the mission of applying the Foundation's business oriented approach to fight against climate change in practical, measurable, & significant ways 
 
  Recognizing the opportunity to fight climate change in the world's cities, CCI is working w/ 40 of the world's largest cities to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions through a variety of large scale programs, a purchasing alliance, & measurement tools to track progress & share best practices 
 
  In 2006, the CCI entered into a partnership w/ the Large Cities Climate Leadership Grp, agreeing to provide resources to allow the participating cities to enter into an energy saving product purchasing consortium & to provide technical & communications support 
 
  In 2007, CCI announced its 1st project which will help some large cities cut greenhouse gas emissions by facilitating retrofitting of existing bldings 
 
  Five large banks committed $1 bb each to help cities & blding owners make energy saving improvements aimed at lowering energy use & energy costs   
 
 At the 2007 Clinton Global Initiative Annual Meeting, President Clinton announced the 1Sky campaign to accelerate bold federal policy on global warming 
 
  The 1Sky campaign supports at least an 80 % reduction in climate pollution levels by 2050   
 
 On May 19, 2009, CCI announced the global Climate Positive Development Program where it will work w/ the US Green Building Council to promote 'climate positive' city growth 
 
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 Outline on  Going Green:  Individual Solutions to Environmental Problems
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  -  Supplement:  Solarizing Blacksburg 
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  -  Supplement:  Going Green?  Maybe Not Virginia 
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  -  Supplement:  Wind vs Public Opinion 
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  INDIVIDUAL SOLUTIONS ARE ONE VERY IMPORTANT PART OF IMPROVING THE ENV & THEY MUST ACCOMPANY SYSTEMIC LEVEL SOLUTIONS 
 
  Some methods to help improve the env require individual action, while others do not 
 
  Some methods to improve the env that require an individual component include:  recycling, reusing, source reduction, shopping green, accepting a green job, green investing, & more 
 
  Few methods to improve the env can be accomplished solely individually 
 
  Examples of a completely individual method to improve the env include:  reusing plastic food containers as storage containers, using bathtub water to water the lawn or plants, reusing plastic or cloth shopping bags, reusing old shirts as cleaning cloths, turning down the thermostat, driving slower, driving less, car pooling, & more   
  Examples of methods to improve the env which require both individual effort & societal effort include recycling which takes individual to recycle & a recycling center, mass transit which requires individuals willing to take the bus or train & a system of buses & trains, taking a green vacation which requires people willing to do such & recreation orgs to put them together, adding solar power to your home which require people willing to do such & 'smart power grids' that can accept power from home producers & more   
  Examples of methods to improve the env which require mostly societal effort & little or no individual effort include energy systems such as wind or solar, producing products which are more efficient in production & use, reducing emissions from cars, factories, etc, capturing methane gas from garbage dumps, & more   
  INDIVIDUALS ACT TO IMPROVE THE ENV B/C OF SELF INTEREST, B/C OF AN ANTI CONSUMERIST OR TRADL SENTIMENT, OR B/C OF A FELT MORAL IMPERATIVE   
  There are several reasons individual's engage in individual methods to improve the env, including:  self interest, ie save money, anti consumerism, moral reasoning, & more 
 
  One reason people take individual action to support the env is the belief that one can help the env & benefit individually such as when driving slower or less uses less fuel, & therefore saves money   
  Saving gas, using LED lights, conserving on heating & cooling, eating vegetarian & more all benefit the consumer as well as the env   
  One reason individuals help the env is the belief that denial of material comfort will lead to envl sustainability   
  The anti consumerism sentiment present in the env mvmt is that conservation alone will not be enough, but even so, it is necessary for each person to do their part b/c it is a necessary component of any env lifestyle 
 
  An important difference btwn those whose self interest leads them to take action to improve the env & those whose anti consumerism leads them to take action to improve the env is that the former believe we can essentially maintain the typical American lifestyle while the anti consumerists believe radical changes are necessary   
  In practice many people practice some of both self interested envlism & anti consumerist envlism when they take some actions which save them money, & deny themselves some things they could afford but believe are bad for the env   
  The anti consumerism sentiment is also used by those having interests in promoting throwaway consumerism to accuse well meaning envlists of stifling personal freedoms as when famously, former Vice President Dick Cheney said "Conservation may be a sign of personal virtue but it is not a sufficient basis for a sound, comprehensive energy policy" 
 
  The ethical imperative to improve the env often springs from a broader ethic to simply do good in the world 
 
  The imperative to do good is applied to the env 
 
  Some individual's ethics  improve the env are well organized as when they are supported by an explicit religious or moral code similar to that of the Quakers, the Amish, or the Ana Baptists 
 
  Many individual's ethics to improve the env are experienced more at an individual or emotional level as when a simple love of animals or the forest motivates them to envl action 
 
  THERE ARE FOUR BROAD CATEGORIES OF INDIVIDUAL ACTION TO SUPPORT THE ENV: 
1.  REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE
2.  SHOP GREEN 
3.  WORK GREEN 
4.  INVEST GREEN 
 
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 1.  Reducing, reusing, & recycling aims to simply use or reuse less of any resource one typically consumes & are important strategies to go green, & they require individual effort; however, they are more efficient if there is a societal level system to back it up such as a recycling center   
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           Recycling is extracting useful materials from garbage or waste in order to reuse that material to make new products   
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          Source reduction   
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 2.  Green shopping aims to purchase products that are more envly friendly thus allowing the consumer to use more envly friendly products & to signal mfrs to produce in envly friendly manner & to produce envly friendly products for the consumer in use   
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 3.  Green jobs range from those that are directly green such as installing wind mills to those that are indirectly green, ie improving the energy efficiency of a computer, home heating unit, etc   
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 4.  Green investing is the process of investing to support env goals from carbon reduction to saving dolphins   
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 Outline on  Conservation, Recycling, & Source Reduction
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Summary of Conservation, Recycling, & Source Reduction
Primary recycling
Secondary recycling
Conservation
Preservation
Source reduction
Individual conservation & recycling
Individual recycling has severe limits
Individual cons has severe limits
Societal conservation is the most efficient
Shortage of mkt for recycled goods
Govt & voluntary incentives to make recycling more attractive
Implementation:  oversight of collection, processing, buyers
Source reduction costs & benefits
 
  CONSERVATION, RECYCLING & SOURCE REDUCTION ARE THE MOST EFFICIENT STRATEGIES FOR PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION IF ALL THE COSTS OF A THROW AWAY SOCIETY ARE TAKEN INTO ACCT 
 
  Primary recycling occurs when the original material is made into the same material 
 
  Secondary recycling occurs when used products are made into other products 
 
  Conservation is using less of a material; conserving / saving 
 
  Preservation is the use of resources, which may involve not using them at all,  in such a manner that their original integrity is preserved, sustained 
 
  Usually conservation denotes using a resource wisely or sustainably while preservation denotes little or no use 
 
  Source Reduction occurs when one reduces the total amt of  waste or garbage by reducing the amt consumed, ie conservation or reducing amt of waste 
 
  Individual conservation & recycling is conservation & recycling that you can do on your own such as wearing a sweater, turn out lights, compost pile, use water conserving appliances, & much more 
 
  Examples individual recycling include recycling paper, cardboard, alum cans, glass, plastic, oil, antifreeze, tires, metal, batteries, & much more 
 
  Individual recycling has severe limits 
 
  Individual recycling must be enhanced by societal conservation & recycling:   
  In Wise County, VA, there is a low level of recycling available;  it is possible to recycle paper, cardboard, plastic, & aluminum w/ the county; one must take other metals to a metal buyer   
  When recycling is non existent or disorganized, then the individual must sort & take items to the recycle site, therefore many do not recycle & trash is more likely to end up on the side of road  
  Many cities which have well developed recycling programs, they collect recyclables as they do trash; all one has to do is put them all in one container   
 
 INDIVIDUALIZED CONSERVATION HAS MAJOR LIMITS   
 
 Only upper & upper middle class homes have the resources necessary to install alternative energy systems such as solar, wind, geo thermal, high levels of insulation, & others, even though such investments save both money for the investor as well as env resources 
 
  Just since the late 00s, is it possible for individuals to buy the most efficient vehicles such as the Toyota Prius or the Chevy Volt   
  More efficient than any individual transport such as the Prius or the Volt is an efficient public transport system such as buses, trains, subways, etc   
  Public transport is a societal level conservation system   
  Choices to conserve, recycle, or reduce are presented to us on both the individual & societal levels, & inevitably societal level solutions have the efficiencies & economies of scale which are greater than those possible at the individual level   
  Choosing societal level env efficiencies are not indiv choices, but societal level choices   
  SOCIETAL CONSERVATION & RECYCLING IS THE MOST EFFICIENT   
  A sys or infrastructure that allows individuals to conserve & recycle through a recycling center, elec car recharge network, & so on is one part of an env solution while the other half is to develop societal level solutions such as mass transit, solar power generation plants, a smart electric grid, etc   
  Today there is often a shortage of mkts for recycled goods   
  In the past, nearly all soda pop & beer bottles had a deposit & were thus recycled   
  Once this practice was stopped, in the 60s & 70s only 7% of solid waste was recycled   
  In the 2000s, 13 % of solid waste is recycled, though NYC is beginning a program to estb a system of 100 % recycling of solid waste   
  One problem w/ the current recycling sys is that there is a shortage of mkts for recycled goods   
  Many businesses today plan only to use new materials & have not adapted to using recycled materials   
  Consumers are reluctant to absorb the any higher cost assoc w/ recycling & often are not given the choice on whether to recycle or not   
  Govt & voluntary incentives to make recycling more attractive could include: 
-  boosting demand through govt use or private sector incentives 
-  sanctions against virgin material use 
-  tax incentives for recycling operations 
-  a mandate for recycling, esp big ticket items like car batteries or appliances 
-  increasing the cost to residents for each can of garbage, ie material not recycled, to reflect the cost of disposal vs recycling 		  
  Implementation of policies on conservation, recycling, & source reduction should include the oversight of collection, processing, & the use of these materials   
  Recycling is more popular in Euro   
  The popularity of conservation, recycling, & source reduction depends on how the program is implemented:  is it easy to use?   
  Implementation need a mgr who oversees all stages of process from PR to mfr to buyers   
  The benefits of source reduction include the reduction of toxins in the env, the preservation of natural resources, & the reduction of pollution   
  A recent example of source reduction includes Rainier Beer returning to the old practice of refilling bottles   
  A recent example of source reduction includes Toyota re using car containers   
  The costs of source reduction include the fact that today it is often simpler & cheaper simply to not reduce material usage   
  We have designed a throw away society & so disposal, under current conditions, is often cheaper & easier than conservation, recycling or source reduction simply b/c all the costs of disposal are not taken into acct   
  THE COSTS OF A THROW AWAY SOCIETY ARE OFTEN 'EXTERNALITIES.' IE COSTS NOT ACCOUNTED FOR   
  See Also:  Externalities   
  One example of an externality is the cost of the disposal of a product after it has been used; ie, the cost of the landfill or dealing w/ any haz mat from the product   
  One cost of a throw away society is the cost of garbage collection, land fills, haz mat from the refuse, gases given off by land fills, & more   
  Many local govts have found it economical to fund a recycling program to reduce garbage collection & land fill costs   
  One cost of a throw away society is the cost harvesting an extra unit of a raw material vs the cost of re using or using less of the same material   
  The cost of harvesting vs re using can be seen in the externalities of oil production which are not included in new production & would not accrue to re use such as the subsidies given to oil corps for exploration, the cost of   
  A well run curbside recycling program can cost anywhere from $50 to more than $150 per ton, while trash collection & disposal programs, on the other hand, cost anywhere from $70 to more than $200 per ton   
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 Outline on  Recycling
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  RECYCLING IS THE CONVERSION OF WASTE INTO USEABLE MATERIAL(S) 
 
  Recycling is a process to change waste materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution, esp from waste incineration, & water pollution from land filling by reducing the need for 'conventional' waste disposal, & lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to plastic production   
  Recycling is often closely intertwined w/ programs to reuse resources & to reduce resource use, ie source reduction   
  Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, textiles, & electronics   
  Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection center or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned, & reprocessed into new materials bound for mfr  
  In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same material, for example, used office paper would be converted into new office paper, or used foamed polystyrene into new polystyrene 
 
  Recycling into the original product is often difficult or too expensive compared w/ producing the same product from raw materials or other sources, so 'recycling' of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials eg, recycling paper into paperboard instead of back into paper, though much paper is recycled into paper 
 
  THE FOUR BASIC TYPES OF RECYCLING ARE SINGLE STREAM RECYCLING, SOURCE SEPARATION RECYCLING, SALVAGE, & COMPOSTING  
  In a commingled or single stream system recycling process, all recyclables for collection are mixed but kept separate from other waste   
  Single stream system recycling  greatly reduces the need for post collection cleaning but does require public ed on what materials are recyclable   
  Source separation recycling is the other extreme, where each material is cleaned & sorted prior to collection   
  Source separation recycling requires the least post collection sorting & produces the purest recyclables, but incurs addl operating costs for collection of each separate material   
  Source separation recycling requires an extensive public ed program, which must be successful if recyclables contamination is to be avoided   
  Source separation recycling used to be the preferred method due to the high sorting costs incurred by commingled collection   
  Advances in sorting tech, however, have lowered this overhead substantially, many areas which had developed source separation programs have since switched to commingled collection   
  An important form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value, eg, lead from car batteries, or gold from computer components, or due to their hazardous nature, eg, removal & reuse of mercury from various items   
  Although similar in effect, the composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste such as food or garden waste, is not considered to be recycling by most people, technically it is recycling   
  Putting manure, fish, other carcasses, alfalfa, etc in a garden or field for fertilizer is also similar to recycling, but is not considered to be recycling by most people   
  INDUSTRY RECYCLES B/C IT IS COST EFFICIENT  
  The process of recycling as well as reusing the recycled material proves to be advantageous to industry as it reduces amt of waste sent to landfills, conserves natural resources, creates a positive corp image to the customer base, helps create new jobs, saves energy, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, & more   
  Recycled materials can also be converted into new products that can be consumed again such as paper, plastic, &  glass   
  Although many govt programs are concentrated on recycling at home, a large portion of waste is generated by ind   
  The focus of many recycling programs done by ind is the cost effectiveness of recycling; ie ind recycles everything from scrap metal to heat b/c it is cost effective   
  The ubiquitous nature of cardboard packaging makes cardboard a commonly recycled waste product by companies that deal heavily in packaged goods, like retail stores, warehouses, & distributors of goods   
 
 The glass, lumber, wood pulp, & paper manufacturers all deal directly in commonly recycled materials   
 
 Old rubber tires may be collected & recycled by independent tire dealers for a profit   
  Tires are routinely recycled by shredding them & then selling this material for such products as shoes, tracks, gaskets, tire, & more   
  However, many tires are not recycled   
  The construction ind recycles concrete & old road surface pavement, selling their waste materials for profit   
  Some industries, like the renewable energy ind & solar photo voltaic technology in particular, are being proactive in setting up recycling policies even before there is considerable volume to their waste streams, anticipating future demand during their rapid growth   
  A SOCIO HIST ANALYSIS OF RECYCLING REVEALS THAT RECYCLING WAS MORE PREVALENT IN THE PAST & IN NON INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES THAN IT IS TODAY   
  Recycling has been a common practice for most of human history, w/ recorded advocates as far back as Plato in 400 BC   
  Ancient, pre industrial societies as well as contemporary pre industrial societies recycle at a much higher level that contemporary, industrial societies do today   
  During periods when resources were scarce, archaeological studies of ancient waste dumps show less household waste such as ash, broken tools & pottery, implying more waste was being recycled in the absence of new material   
  In pre industrial times, there is evidence of scrap bronze & other metals being collected in Europe & melted down for perpetual reuse   
  In Britain dust & ash from wood & coal fires was collected by 'dustmen' & 'down cycled' as a base material used in brick making  
  The main driver for pre industrial recycling of yesterday or today was the econ advantage of obtaining recycled feed stock instead of acquiring virgin material, as well as a lack of public waste removal in ever more densely populated areas   
  In 1813, Benjamin Law developed the process of turning rags into 'shoddy' & 'mungo' wool in Batley, Yorkshire   
  This material combined recycled fibers w/ virgin wool   
  The West Yorkshire shoddy ind in towns such as Batley & Dewsbury, lasted from the early 19th century to at least 1914   
  Industrialization spurred demand for affordable materials; aside from rags, ferrous scrap metals were coveted as they were cheaper to acquire than was virgin ore   
  Railroads both purchased & sold scrap metal in the 19th C, & the growing steel & automobile industries purchased scrap in the early 20th C   
  Many secondary goods were collected, processed, & sold by peddlers who combed dumps, city streets, & went door to door looking for discarded machinery, pots, pans, & other sources of metal   
  By World War I, thousands of such peddlers roamed the streets of American cities, taking advantage of mkt forces to recycle post consumer materials back into industrial production   
  Beverage bottles were recycled w/ a refundable deposit at some drink mfrs in the UK around 1800, notably Schweppes   
  An official recycling system w/ refundable deposits was established in Sweden for bottles in 1884 & aluminum beverage cans in 1982, by law, leading to a recycling rate for beverage containers of 84 to 99 % depending on type, & average use of a glass bottle is over 20 refills   
  Wartime Resource shortages caused by the World War, & other such world changing occurrences greatly encouraged people to recycle   
  Massive govt promotion campaigns were carried out in World War II in every country involved in the war, urging citizens to donate metals & conserve fiber, as a matter of significant patriotic importance   
  In 1939, Britain launched its Paper Salvage campaign to encourage the recycling of materials to aid the war effort   
  Resource conservation programs estbed during the war were continued in some countries w/o an abundance of natural resources, such as Japan, after the war ended   
  The last big investment in recycling occurred in the 1970s, due to rising energy costs & we have experienced a slow & unsteady increase in our recycling ind since then   
  THE ECON FEASIBILITY OF RECYCLING IS COMPLEX & ONE MUST TAKE INTO ACCT EXTERNALIZED COSTS & BENEFITS  
  According to the US Recycling Economic Informational Study, there are over 50,000 recycling establishments that have created over a million jobs in the US   
  Two years after NYC declared that recycling programs would be 'a drain on the city, Mayor Bloomberg went ahead & NYC saved the city over $20 mm   
  Municipalities often see fiscal benefits from implementing recycling programs, largely due to the reduced landfill costs   
  A study conducted by the Technical University of Denmark according to the Economist found that in 83 % of cases, recycling is the most efficient method to dispose of household waste   
  THERE ARE MANY EXTERNALITIES ASSOC W/ THE RECYCLING PROCESS INCLUDING:  THE COST OF DISPOSAL, COST OF HAZ MAT, POLLUTION, NEW RESOURCE REDUCTION, & MORE   
  Econ analysis of recycling often do not include what economists call externalities, which are unpriced costs & benefits that accrue to individuals outside of private transactions   
  See Also:  Externalities   
  Examples include of recycling related externalities include decreased air pollution & greenhouse gases from incineration, reduced hazardous waste leaching from landfills, reduced energy consumption, & reduced waste & resource consumption, which leads to a reduction in envly damaging mining & timber activity   
  About 4,000 minerals are used by ind, of these only a few hundred minerals in the world are relatively common   
  At current rates, current known reserves of phosphorus will be depleted in the next 50 to 100 yrs  
  W/o mechanisms such as taxes or subsidies to internalize externalities, businesses will ignore them despite the costs imposed on society   
  To make such non fiscal benefits economically relevant, advocates have pushed for legislative action to increase the demand for recycled materials   
  The EPA has concluded that recycling efforts reduced the country's carbon emissions by a net 49 mm metric tons in 2005   
  In the UK, the Waste & Resources Action Programme stated that recycling efforts reduced CO2 emissions by 10 to 15 mm tons a yr   
  ECONOMIES OF SCALE ARE IMPORTANT FOR RECYCLING TO SUCCEED, IE THE MORE PEOPLE RECYCLE, THE MORE THE ECON & THE ENV WILL BENEFIT   
  Certain requirements must be met for recycling to be economically feasible & envly effective   
  Recycling is more efficient in densely populated areas, as there are economies of scale involved   
  An adequate source of recyclables, a system to extract those recyclables from the waste stream, a nearby factory capable of reprocessing the recyclables, & a potential demand for the recycled products   
  W/o both an ind mkt for production using the collected materials & a consumer mkt for the mfred goods, recycling is incomplete & in fact only 'collection'   
  Many economists favor a moderate level of govt intervention to provide recycling services   
  Economists of this mindset probably view product disposal as an externality of production & subsequently argue the govt is most capable of alleviating such a dilemma.  
  SUSTAINABLE DESIGN IS THE PROCESS WHERE PRODUCTS ARE DESIGNED SO THAT THEY MAY BE MORE EFFICIENTLY RECYCLED   
  Much of the difficulty inherent in recycling comes from the fact that most products are not designed w/ recycling in mind   
  The concept of sustainable design aims to solve this problem, & was laid out in the book Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things by architect William McDonough & chemist Michael Braungart   
  They suggest that every product & all packaging they require should have a complete 'closed loop' cycle mapped out for each component, a way in which every component will either return to the natural ecosystem through biodegradation or be recycled indefinitely   
  SUSTAINABLE DESIGN LOOKS AT PRODUCTION & CONSUMPTION AS A PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE, INCLUDING:  RESOURCE EXTRACTION, PRODUCTION, USE, RECYCLING, & SO ON   
  Comparing the mkt cost of recyclable material w/ the cost of new raw materials ignores econ externalities, the costs that are currently not counted by the mkt   
  Creating a new piece of plastic may cause more pollution & be less sustainable than recycling a similar piece of plastic, but these factors will not be counted in mkt cost   
  A life cycle assessment can be used to determine the levels of externalities & decide whether the recycling may be worthwhile despite unfavorable mkt costs   
  Alternatively, legal means, such as a carbon tax, can be used to bring externalities into the mkt, so that the mkt cost of the material becomes close to the true cost   
  LEGISLATION TO SUBSIDIZE & / OR MANDATE RECYCLING HAS BEEN IMPLEMENTED IN SOME CITIES & STATES TO REDUCE LOCAL GOVT COSTS OF WASTE DISPOSAL & HAZ MAT DISPOSAL & TO COVER THE COST OF OTHER EXTERNALITIES   
  For a recycling program to work, having a large, stable supply of recyclable material is crucial   
  Legislation has been used to increase & maintain a demand for recycled materials   
  Legislation has created a sufficient supply for the recycling ind, including: mandatory recycling collection, container deposit legislation, refuse bans, minimum recycled content mandates, utilization rates, procurement policies, recycled product labeling, & more   
  Mandatory collection laws set recycling targets, usually in the form that a certain % of a material must be diverted from the city's waste stream by a target date   
  Container deposit legislation involves offering a refund for the return of certain containers, typically glass, plastic, & metal   
  When a product in such a container is purchased, a small surcharge is added to the price   
  This surcharge can be reclaimed by the consumer if the container is returned to a collection point   
  These programs have been very successful, often resulting in an 80 % recycling rate   
  Despite good results in deposit programs for decades, the soft drink & beer ind lobbyists have succeeded in ending effective deposit programs   
  The few states that have 5 cent deposit programs today do not have the success of programs of the 1970s & earlier b/c when adjusted for inflation, the deposits are much lower today   
  A method of increasing supply of recyclables is to ban the disposal of certain materials as waste, often including used oil, old batteries, tires & garden waste   
  One aim of this method is to create a viable econ for proper disposal of banned products   
  Care must be taken that enough of these recycling centers exist, or such bans simply lead to increased illegal dumping   
  CRITICS OF RECYCLING CLAIM THAT RECYCLING IS NOT ECONOMICAL BUT THE WIDESPREAD SUCCESS OF MANY RECYCLING PROGRAMS, & THE CONSIDERATION OF EXTERNALITIES, NEGATES THIS CRITICISM   
  Critics dispute the net econ & envl benefits of recycling over its costs, & suggest that proponents of recycling often make matters worse & suffer from confirmation bias   
  Critics argue that the costs & energy used in collection & transportation detract from & outweigh the costs & energy saved in the production process   
  The jobs produced by the recycling ind are not training for the jobs lost in logging, mining, & other industries associated w/ virgin production   
  Materials such as paper pulp can only be recycled a few times before material degradation prevents further recycling   
  Proponents of recycling dispute each of these claims, & the validity of arguments from both sides has led to enduring controversy   
  In a 2007 article, Michael Munger, chairman of political science at Duke University, wrote that 'If recycling is more expensive than using new materials, it can't possibly be efficient.   There is a simple test for determining whether something is a resource... or just garbage... If someone will pay you for the item, it's a resource.... But if you have to pay someone to take the item away,... then the item is garbage'   
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 Outline on  Source Reduction
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  SOURCE REDUCTION IS ANY PROCESS OR PROCEDURE IN MFR, CONSTRUCTION, ASSEMBLY, OR OTHER PRIMARY ECON ACTIVITY WHICH DIMINISHES ANY RESOURCE, FROM HAZ MAT TO RAW MATERIALS, USED IN THE PROCESS OR PROCEDURE 
 
  Source reduction is any practice which reduces the amt of any hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste stream or otherwise released into the env, including fugitive emissions, prior to recycling, treatment, or disposal & reduces the hazards to public health & the env assoc w/ the release of such substances, pollutants, or contaminants   
  The process of source reduction includes the equipment or technology modifications, process or procedure modifications, reformulation or redesign or products, substitution of raw materials, & improvements in housekeeping, maintenance, training, or inventory control   
  Source reduction includes the activities designed to reduce the volume or toxicity of waste generated, including the design & mfr of products w/ minimum toxic content, minimum volume of material, & / or a longer useful life   
  An example of source reduction is bringing a reusable bag to the grocery store   
  SOURCE REDUCTION IS OFTEN FOCUSED ON REDUCING POLLUTION, TOXIC WASTE, HAZ MAT, BIO HAZARDS, & MORE B/C THESE SUBSTANCES CAUSE MORE SEVERE PROBLEMS, HAVE MORE REGS CONTROLLING THEIR USE, HAVE LONGER LASTING EFFECTS, & COST MORE TO DEAL W/  
  Pollution prevention (or P2) & toxics use reduction are also called source reduction b/c they address the use of hazardous substances at the source   
  Source reduction may be achieved through improvements in production, product design, recycling, environmentally preferable purchasing (EPP), & other techniques   
  The US, the Federal Trade Commission offers guidance for labeling claims 'source reduction' including reducing or lowering the weight or volume of the toxicity of a product or package 
 
  To avoid being misleading, source reduction claims must qualify the amt of the source reduction & give the basis for any comparison that is made 
 
  SOURCE REDUCTION IS ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH: 
1.  RESOURCE SUBSTITUTION 
2.  PROCESS MODIFICATION 
3.  PRODUCT REFORMULATION
4.  PRODUCTION MODERNIZATION 
5.  IMPROVEMENTS IN OPS & MAINTENANCE 
6.  RECYCLING PRODUCTION MATERIALS 
 
  The Massachusetts Toxics Use Reduction Program (TURA) offers 6 strategies to achieve source reduction, including: 
1.  toxic chemical substitution 
2.  production process modification 
3.  finished product reformulation 
4.  production modernization 
5.  improvements in operations & maintenance 
6.  in process recycling of production material 
 
  1. Toxic chemical substitution is the replacement of a chemical or compound w/ a less toxic or biodegradable substitute 
 
  An example of toxic chemical substitution is the replacement of oil as a lubricant w/ a peanut based oil 
 
  2.  Production process modification is the conversion of the mfr process so that less material is used, esp toxic material or haz mat 
 
 
 An example of production process modification would be substituting a sulfuric acid bath for metal cleaning w/ a lemon juice based metal cleaning process   
  3.  Finished product reformulation is the redesign of a product to meet any of the other strategies to achieve source reduction   
  An example of finished product reformulation is designing a thermometer that does not use mercury   
  4.  Production modernization is the redesign of a product to bring it up to date to other standards such as energy efficiency & achieving any of the other strategies to meet source reduction   
  An example of production modernization is upgrading computers & using less toxic chemicals in production   
  5.  Improvements in operations & maintenance is the modification of operations & maintenance to reduce resource use, esp toxic & hazardous materials   
  An example of improvements in operations & maintenance is the improvement of nuclear power plant operation so uranium rods do not need to be replaced so often   
  6.  In process recycling of production material is the recycling of waste materials in production, during that process of production   
  An example of in process recycling of production material is the capture of gases given off by a bakery & burning them for fuel   
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 Outline on  Green Shopping
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  GREEN SHOPPING BOTH HELPS THE CONSUMER LIVE A MORE SUSTAINABLE LIFE BY USING SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTS & IT SENDS 'MKT SIGNALS' TO PRODUCERS TO PRODUCE MORE GREEN PRODUCTS   
 
 Buying green products can be difficult both b/c what is a green product & what is not is a complicated issue, & b/c corps often use 'green washing,' ie claiming green qualities in their products that are false or less than advertised   
  Green washing is a mkting technique where producers claim a product has some green or sustainable quality when in fact it is little different than similar products   
  Consumer advocates such as GoodGuide can help a consumer choose green consumer products like toothpaste, cars, air conditioners, etc   
  Led by Professor Dara O'Rourke of UC Berkeley, GoodGuide's science team, chemists, toxicologists, nutritionists, sociologists, & life cycle analysis experts, rates products & companies on their health, environmental & social performance   
  GoodGuide's 0 to 10 rating system helps consumers quickly evaluate & compare products   
  GoodGuide's mission is to help you shop your values wherever you shop   
  GoodGuide  http://www.goodguide.com/ 
Link
  The GoodGuide has phone apps for both the iPhone & Android   
  GoodGuide Newsweek.  Oct 25, 2010 
 Link
  GREEN SHOPPING IS A SUBSET OF ETHICAL CONSUMERISM WHERE THE CONSUMER USES A NUMBER OF INDICATORS TO GUIDE ONE TO PURCHASING PRODUCES THAT MEETS OR SUPPORTS ONE'S VALUES RELATED TO THE ENV, CHILD LABOR, HUMAN RTS, POLITICS, & MORE   
  Green shopping is one form of ethical consumerism, also called ethical consumption, ethical purchasing, moral purchasing, ethical sourcing, ethical shopping or green consumerism   
  Any form of green or ethical shopping is a type of consumer activism that is based on the concept of dollar voting   
  Dollar voting is practiced through 'positive buying' in that ethical products are favored, or a 'moral boycott', where 'unethical' or env unfriendly products are avoided   
  THE DETERMINATION OF ETHICAL CONSUMERISM IS CARRIED OUT BY THE ETHICAL CONSUMER RESEARCH ASSOC IN CONJUNCTION W/ THE ETHICAL CONSUMER MAGAZINE   
  While people have been dollar voting, consuming ethically, green shopping, using their money for influence, & so on since the beginning of mkts, the term 'ethical consumer.' now used generically, was first popularized by the UK magazine The Ethical Consumer, first published in 1989   
  The Ethical Consumer magazine's key innovation was to produce 'ratings tables,' inspired by the criteria based approach of the then emerging ethical investment mvmt   
  The Ethical Consumer's ratings tables awarded companies negative marks & overall scores across a range of ethical & envl categories such as animal rts,  human rts, pollution & toxics, empowering consumers, & more to make ethically informed consumption choices & providing campaigners w/ reliable info on corp behavior   
  Criteria based ethical & envl ratings have subsequently become commonplace both in providing consumer info & in business to business corp social responsibility & sustainability ratings such as those provided by Innovest, Calvert, Domini, IRRC, TIAA-CREF, KLD Analytic, & others   
  Today, Bloomberg & Reuters even provide 'envl, social & governance' ratings direct to the financial data screens of hundreds of thousands of stock mkt traders   
  The not for profit Ethical Consumer Research Association continues to publish The Ethical Consumer magazine & its associated website, which provides free access to ethical ratings tables   
  BOTH RELIGIOUS & SECULAR ETHICS OF CONSUMERISM CALL FOR GOOD STEWARDSHIP OF THE EARTH   
  In The Global Markets As An Ethical System, 1998, John McMurtry argues that no purchasing decision exists that does not itself imply some moral choice, & that there is no purchasing that is not ultimately moral in nature   
  This mirrors older arguments, especially by the Anabaptists, eg Mennonites, & Amish, that one must accept all personal moral & spiritual liability of all harms done at any distance in space or time to anyone by one's own choices   
  It is often suggested that Judeo-Christian scriptures further direct followers towards practicing good stewardship of the Earth, under an obligation to a God who is believed to have created the planet for us to share w/ other creatures   
  A religion based argument can be presented from an entirely secular humanist pt of view, & there are many people who believe that it is simply better for human beings to acknowledge that the planet supports life only b/c of a delicate balance of many different factors   
  While for the typical consumer, all that is needed is the desire & ability to purchase, the needs of vanity or status are abhorred & shunned by those who employ ethical consumerism   
 
 This theory is echoed in some modern eco villages who adopt very similar stances, effectively blocking all goods that do not satisfy their moral criteria at the village gate, & relying on internally produced food & tools as much as possible 
 
 
 ETHICAL CRITERIA ARE ONE AMONG MANY PEOPLE EMPLOY WHEN MAKING PURCHASES 
 
 
 Some trust criteria, eg creditworthiness or implied warranty, are considered to be part of any purchasing or sourcing decision 
 
  Credit & warranty refer to broader systems of guidance that would, ideally, cause any purchasing decision to disqualify offered products or services based on non price criteria that do not affect the functional, but rather moral, liabilities of the entire production process   
  In essence proponents of ethical consumerism desire to add another criteria of ethics to the present criteria of credit, warranty, functionality, fulfillment, & so on   
 
 Paul Hawken, a proponent of Natural Capitalism, 2008, refers to 'comprehensive outcomes' of production services as opposed to the 'culminative outcomes' of using the product of such services 
 
 
 Often, moral criteria are part of a much broader shift away from commodity mkts towards a deeper service economy where all activities, from growing to harvesting to processing to delivery, are considered part of the value chain & for which consumers are 'responsible' 
 
 
 Andrew Wilson, Director of the UK's Ashridge Centre for Business & Society, argues that 'shopping is more important than voting,' & others that the disposition of money is the most basic role we play in any system of economics 
 
 
 Some theorists believe that it is the clearest way that we express our actual moral choices, ie, if we say we care about something but continue to buy from parties that have a high probability of risk of harm or destruction of that thing, we don't really care about it, we are practicing a form of simple hypocrisy 
 
  THERE ARE A NUMBER OF RELIGIOUS & SOC MVMT ORGS THAT PROMOTE ETHICAL CONSUMERISM   
  In an effort by churches to advocate moral & ethical consumerism, many have become involved in the Fair Trade Movement   
  Ten Thousand Villages is affiliated w/ the Mennonite Central Committee   
  SERRV is partnered w/ Catholic Relief Services & Lutheran World Relief   
  Village Markets of Africa sells Fair Trade gifts from the Lutheran Church in Kenya   
  Catholic Relief Services has their own Fair Trade mission in CRS Fair Trade   
  Positive Buying   
  MANY CORPS HAVE ACTUALLY EMBRACED ETHICAL CONSUMERISM BY MAKING MORE 'ETHICAL PRODUCTS,' WHILE OTHERS HAVE MERELY ENGAGED IN GREEN WASHING, ONLY CREATING THE APPEARANCE OF PRODUCING ETHICAL PRODUCTS   
  As large corps have tried to position themselves as moral, principled or ethical orgs, the definition has become wider & means different things to different grps of people   
  McDonald's started to sell salads, (a more healthy choice) & has a corporate social responsibility blog   
  The appearance of ethical consumerism can be seen as a mvmt in green washing which is often merely a mkting program, which may or may not reflect actual changes in the practices of businesses   
  Particular areas of interest for large businesses are env impact & the treatment of wkrs at the bottom of the org hierarchy   
  The corp change toward ethical or green products reflects an increasing awareness of ethical issues & corp identity amongst both mainstream consumers & major corps   
  Positive buying means favoring ethical products, be they fair trade, cruelty free, organic, recycled, re used, or produced locally   
  The positive buying option is arguably the most important since it directly supports progressive companies   
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 Outline on  Green Jobs
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  GREEN INDUSTRY W/ GREEN JOBS IS A GROWING FIELD B/C BOTH ENV & THE DOLLAR ARE GREEN & B/C GREEN IND & JOBS GROWS THEM BOTH 
 
 
 Michael Dell, CEO of Dell computers, was given the number one spot on Newsweek's Greenest Companies b/c of their commitment to minimizing waste 
 
 
 Dell reports that minimizing waste is good for the bottom line 
 
 
 Dell offers free recycling of all of its products & has designed computers that use 25% less energy than their competitors
 
  GREEN JOBS PROMOTE OR PRESERVE ENV QUALITIES, & WHILE THERE IS NO ABSOLUTE STANDARD, EACH JOB MAY BE JUDGED ON A SCALE OF ENVIRONMENTALISM   
  A green job, also called a green collar job is, according to the UN Env Program, work in ag, mfr, R&D, admin, & service activities that contribute(s) substantially to preserving or restoring envl quality   
  Generally green jobs includes jobs that help to protect ecosystems & biodiversity; reduce energy, materials, & water consumption through high efficiency strategies; decarbonize the econ; & minimize or altogether avoid generation of all forms of waste & pollution   
  THE NUMBER OF GREEN JOBS IS GROWING & MANY ARE IN THE GREEN INDUSTRY SECTOR WHICH IS ALSO GROWING   
  A 2004 study by the Renewable & Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) at UC Berkeley reported that the renewable energy sector generates more jobs than the fossil fuel based energy sector per unit of energy delivered ie, per average megawatt across a broad range of scenarios   
  Contrarily, a report by Gabriel Calzada Alvarez analyzing the impact of an 11 yr green energy project in Spain concluded that the US should expect a loss of at least 2.2 jobs on average for each green job created, or about 9 jobs lost for every 4 created, in addition to those jobs that non subsidized investments w/ the same resources would have created   
 
 A rebuttal to the Spanish study by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) presented numerous allegations of methodological flaws in the Spanish study, citing outdated data, nonstandard measures of job creation, & a lack of accompanying statistical analysis among the limitations of the study 
 
 
 In 2010, the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) received funding to analyze data about green jobs 
 
 
 The goal of the BLS initiative is to map:  the number of & trend over time in green jobs,  the industrial, occupational, & geographic distribution of the jobs, &  the wages of the workers in these jobs.
 
 
 In September 2010, the BLS published its final definition of green jobs in the Federal Register, organizing them in 2 types, including: 
1.  jobs in businesses that produce goods & provide services that benefit the env or conserve natural resources 
2.  jobs in which workers' duties involve making their establishment's production processes more environmentally friendly or use fewer natural resources 
 
 
 GREEN WORKFORCE TRAINING PROGRAMS ARE BEING ESTABLISHED 
 
 
 In 2007 the UN Env Programme (UNEP), the Intl Labor Organization (ILO), & the Intl Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) jointly launched the Green Jobs Initiative 
 
  The National Council for Workforce Ed & AED published a report, Going Green:  Going Green: The Vital Role of Community Colleges in Building a Sustainable Future & a Green Workforce that examines how wkforce ed & community colleges contribute to the overall efforts in the move toward renewable & clean energy   
  The report gives examples of initiatives currently in effect nationally as well as offering information as to how to implement programs   
  In response to high unemployment & a distressed econ, wkrs need skills that are relevant to their specific geographical locations & b/c green jobs are a growing econ sector they are esp useful for a recovering econ   
  Ken Warden, an administrator in wkforce education, believes that instead of making green jobs, we need to make jobs green  
 
 PRESIDENTS BUSH & OBAMA SIGNED LEGISLATION TO SUPPORT GREEN JOBS & THUS ENERGY INDEPENDENCE 
 
 
 The Green Jobs Act of 2007 (HR 2847), introduced by Reps. Hilda Solis (D-CA) & John Tierney (D-MA), authorized up to $125 million in funding to estb national & state job training programs, administered by the US Dept of Labor, to help address job shortages that are impairing growth in green industries, such as energy efficient buildings & construction, renewable electric power, energy efficient vehicles, & biofuels development
 
 
 The Energy Independence & Security Act passed in December 2007 incorporates the Green Jobs Act of 2007 & was signed by President Bush 
 
  Supplement:  Energy Independence & Security Act of 2007 
Link
 
 The American Recovery & Reinvestment Act (ARRA), passed in early 2009, includes provisions for new jobs in industries such as energy, utilities, construction, & manufacturing w/ a focus toward energy efficiency & more environmentally friendly practices 
 
 
 In March 2009, U.S. President Obama appointed Van Jones as Special Advisor for Green Jobs, Enterprise & Innovation at the White House Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) 
 
 
 Following Jones' resignation in September 2009, no further candidates appear to have been appointed to this position as of 2014 b/c of the refusal of Congress to approve anyone 
 
  Pathways out of Poverty (POP) is a national wkforce training program that was estb on August 14, 2009 by the Obama admin & funded by the American Recovery & Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009   
  POP targets individuals living below or near the poverty level to provide them w/ skills needed to enter the green job market, focusing on the energy efficiency & renewable energy industries   
  The training programs focus on teaching basic literacy & job readiness skills & some of the programs also provide supportive assistance w/ childcare & transportation to overcome barriers to employment   
 
 Ashville Green Opportunities (Ashville GO) in Ashville, NC helps youth & adults living in poverty get & keep jobs that support their families & improve community & environmental health 
 
 
 Ashville GO envisions a community, made up of resilient, interconnected neighborhoods, whose residents have access to jobs that support their families & improve community & envl health 
 
 
 Ashville GO  http://www.greenopportunities.org/ 
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 Supplement:  Ashville GO 
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 MANY OF OUR LARGEST CORPS ARE GOING GREEN IN CREATING GREEN JOBS & SOURCE REDUCTION B/C IT HELPS THEIR PROFITS & B/C THE PUBLIC REWARDS SUCH CORP ACTION BY SHOPPING GREEN AT THESE CORPS 
 
 
 Tech companies often dominate the corp Green Ranking b/c they make low impact products & have a smaller env footprint than a utility or mfr firm 
 
 
 Bottom line considerations are driving corps in the green direction to create products that are cheaper to mfr & operate 
 
 
 Supplement:  The 100 Greenest Companies in America.  Newsweek.  Oct 25, 2010 
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 Supplement:  The 25 Greenest Companies in the World.  Newsweek.  Oct 25, 2010 
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Link
 Table:  The 100 Greenest Companies in America lists the companies based in the US that produce in a more green manner, supply green products, offer green jobs based on criteria such as energy efficiency, amt of waste discarded, etc 
 
Link
 Table:  The 100 Greenest Companies in the World lists the global companies  that produce in a more green manner, supply green products, offer green jobs based on criteria such as energy efficiency, amt of waste discarded, etc 
 
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 Outline on  Green Investments
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  GREEN INVESTMENTS MAY BE DISTINGUISHED FROM TYPICAL INVESTMENTS BY THE FACT THAT, AS JUDGED BY A SET OF ENVL CRITERIA, THEY TEND TO IMPROVE THE ENV & PROVIDE A RETURN ON INVESTMENT   
 
 Every major investing firm from JP Morgan to Kiplinger has a green investing portfolio 
 
 
 Generally investors can choose a number of green investment types such as:  energy, conservation, source reduction, transportation, & many more 
 
 
 Green investing or eco investing is the practice of investing in companies that support or provide environmentally friendly products & practices as judged by a set of env criteria 
 
 
 GREEN INVESTING BEGAN SHORTLY AFTER THE ENVL MVMT EXPANDED IN THE 1970s W/ SIGNIFICANT INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES AVAILABLE IN THE 1980s & FOLLOWING 
 
 
 In the 1990s many investors began to look for those companies that were better than their competitors in terms of managing their envl impact
 
 
 While some investors still focus their funds to avoid only the most egregious polluters, the emphasis for many investors has switched to changing the way money is used, & using it in a positive, transformative way to get society from where it is now to a sustainable society 
 
 
 The Global Climate Prosperity Scoreboard, launched by Ethical Markets Media & The Climate Prosperity Alliance to monitor private investments in green companies estimated that over $1.248 trillion has been invested in solar, wind, geothermal, ocean / hydro & other green sectors since 2007 
 
 
 The number $1.248 trillion has been invested in solar, wind, geothermal, ocean / hydro & other green sectors since 2007 represents investments from No America, China, India, & Brazil, as well at other developing countries 
 
 
 THE UK HAS DEVELOPED A GREEN INVESTMENT BANK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL INVESTING 
 
 
 The UK Green Investment Bank PLC is a funding institution created in 2012 by the UK govt to attract private funds for the financing of the private sector's investments related to envl preservation & improvement 
 
 
 The UK Green Investment Bank PLC is structured as a public limited company & is owned by the Dept for Business, Innovation & Skills (BIS) 
 
 
 As a result of the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK became legally committed to significantly reducing its carbon emissions by 2050 
 
 
 The fiscal yr 2010 British govt budget contained the first mention of a green investment bank scheme, earmarked w/ £2 billion 
 
 
 GREEN INVESTMENT SECTORS INCLUDE RENEWABLE ENERGY, EFFICIENT BUILDINGS, EFFICIENCY, & ECO LIVING 
 
 
 There are several sectors that fall under the eco investing umbrella 
 
 
 Renewable energy refers to solar, wind, tidal current, wave & conventional hydro technology 
 
  The renewable energy sector includes companies that build solar panels or wind turbines, or the raw materials & services that contribute to these technologies  
  The renewable energy sector also refers to energy storage companies that develop & use technologies to store large amts of energy, particularly renewable energies   
  A good example of the important of the energy storage sector of the econ is the fuel cells used in hybrid cars   
  Biofuels are in the renewable energy sector   
  The biofuel sector includes companies that use or supply biological resources like algae, corn, waste wood, switch grass, & more to create energy or fuel   
  Technologies that are included in the renewable energy group are:  geothermal companies who use or convert heat to electric energy, hydroelectricity companies who harness water energy to make electricity   
  The efficient buildings sector refers to companies that manufacture green building materials or energy efficient services in the world of engineering & architecture   
  Green building materials include energy efficient glass, insulation, lighting, heating, cooling, & more   
  Recycling companies & energy conservation companies are in the green buildings sector   
  The eco living sector refers to companies that offer sustainable goods & services for healthy living   
 
 The eco living sector includes organic farming, green pesticides, health care, pharmaceuticals, & more 
 
 
 Green investment has significantly grown in the UK & there are now 136 funds listed on the Worldwise Investor fund library under the themes:  agriculture, carbon, clean energy, forestry, environmental, multi thematic & water 
 
 
 Green investments funds acct for around £21.8bn in the UK 
 
  GREEN INVESTMENTS ARE ONE SUBSET OF SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE INVESTING   
 
 While many green investments may be considered socially responsible investments, & vice versa, the two are not mutually exclusive 
 
 
 Socially responsible investing is the practice of investing only in those companies which satisfy a certain moral or ethical criteria 
 
 
 This may include companies w/ an interest in the environment, but also supports various other social & religious issues 
 
 
 Eco investing focuses in on the interests of sustainable env issues 
 
 
 Specifically, green investments focus on companies who work on renewable energy & clean technologies 
 
 
 Supplement:  The 100 Greenest Companies in America.  Newsweek.  Oct 25, 2010 
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 Supplement:  The 25 Greenest Companies in the World.  Newsweek.  Oct 25, 2010 
Link
Link
 Table:  The 100 Greenest Companies in America lists the companies based in the US that produce in a more green manner, supply green products, offer green jobs based on criteria such as energy efficiency, amt of waste discarded, etc 
 
Link
 Table:  The 100 Greenest Companies in the World lists the global companies  that produce in a more green manner, supply green products, offer green jobs based on criteria such as energy efficiency, amt of waste discarded, etc 
 

 
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Table: The 100 Greenest Companies in America 
1.  Dell 26.  Ecolab 51.  Wal Mart 76.  Kinberly Clark
2.  HP 27.  Travelers 52.  Avon Products 77.  Computer Sciences
3.  IBM 28.  United Technologies 53.  Estee Lauder 78.  Marsh & McLennan
4.  Johnson & Johnson 29.  Microsoft 54.  Coca Cola 79.  McDonalds
5.  Intel 30.  CB Richard Ellies Grp 55.  Intuit 80.  Oracle
6.  Sprint Nextel 31.  Con Edison 56.  Capital One 81.  Ball
7.  Adobe Systems 32.  Citigroup 57.  Owens Corning 82.  Ford Motors
8.  Applied Materials  33.  Starbucks 58.  Eli Lilly 83.  GE
9.  Yahoo 34.  Texas Instruments 59.  Procter & Gamble 84.  Heinz
10.  Nike 35.  State Street 60.  American Express 85.  Lockheed Martin
11.  Accenture 36.  Google 61.  Target 86.  Best Buy
12.  Advanced Micro Systems 37.  Medtronic 62.  UPS 87.  ITT
13.  Cisco Systems 38.  Colgarte-Palmolive 63.  JC Penny 88.  Prudiential
14.  Johnson Controls 39.  McGraw-Hill 64.  ACE 89.  Genworth Financial
15.  Baxter International 40.  Kohl's 65.  Apple 90.  Starwood Hotels
16.  Eaton 41.  Wells Fargo 66.  EMC 91.  Hanesbrands
17.  Bristol-Myers Squibb 42.  Abbott Labs 67.  Darden Restaurants 92.  Praxair
18.  Office Depot 43.  Motorola 68.  Merck 93.  Whole Foods
19.  Allergan 44.  Symantec 69.  Walt Disney 94.  Pepco Holdings
20.  PG & E 45.   JP Morgan Chase 70.  Allstate 95.  Domtar
21.  Pfizer 46.  CA Technologies 71.  Gap 96.  Ingersoll Rand
22.  3M 47.  BNY Mellon 72.  Caterpillar 97.  XL Group
23.  Staples 48.  Agilent Tech 73.  Bakes Hughes 98.  eBay
24.  Becton Dickinson 49.  Met Life 74.  Hospira 99.  Verizon
25.  Xerox 50.  Clorox 75.  Raytheon 100.  Limited Brands
Table:  The 100 Greenest Companies in America lists the companies based in the US that produce in a more green manner, supply green products, offer green jobs based on criteria such as energy efficiency, amt of waste discarded, etc 

 
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Table:  The 25 Greenest Companies in the World 
1.  IBM 6.  Novartis 11.  Vodafone 16.  Nippon Telegrph Phone 21.  Lloyds Banking Grp
2.  HP 7.  Deutsche Telekom 12.  Barclays 17.  Toyota 22.  Citigroup
3.  Johnson & Johnson 8.  Panasonic 13.  Intesa San Paolo 18.  Honda 23.  Microsoft
4.  Sony 9.  HSBC Holdings 14.  Nokia 19.  Allianz 24.  Canon
5.  Glaxo Smith Kline 10.  Toshiba 15.  ING Group 20.  Pfizer  25.  France Telecom
Table:  The 25 Greenest Companies in the World lists the global companies that produce in a more green manner, supply green products, offer green jobs based on criteria such as energy efficiency, amt of waste discarded, etc 
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 Outline on the  Social Action & Solutions for Mining
External
Links
  -  Project:  Mining & Mining Solutions 
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  Mining the Solutions 
Link
  I.  REDUCTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICAL PROBLEMS 
 
  A.  PRIORITIZATION & INTERRELATION OF ENVIRONMETNAL PROBLEMS 
 
  In order to find a solution to problems / issues in mining, these must be prioritized:  AMD, siltation / erosion, degradation of top soil, degradation of ground water, CO2 emissions, others 
 
  The prioritization of the issues may best be done by consensus of all the the participants   
  Note that worker safety in many extractive industries is much lower than that in other industries & thus prioritization of this issue would tend to create an alliance or common interest w/ labor 
 
  Prioritize these, or tackle them all?  Others? 
 
  B.  APPLY THE SCIENCE TO REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 
 
  The science to deal w/ problems in mining is widely available even while better technological solutions are being developed every day
 
  C.  MAKE BOTH COST & BENEFITS OF  REDUCING ENVL PROBLEMS APPARENT 
 
  The costs & benefits of reducing envl problems are linked to the economic multiplier effect & economic incidence  
  The costs & benefits to society for each of the mining problems & the scientific solutions that accompany them often, but not always offer a net benefit to society
 
  The costs & benefits to society for mining problems & solutions will harm one industry, but increase another, & will result in increased costs to electricity, steel, & other coal related products
 
  It is difficult to balance the increased costs to coal related products w/ increased health & ecological benefits, cleaner water, etc.
 
  Presently, the costs of mining are relegated to the mining regions, & the benefits accrue to other regions  
  Since the costs of mining coal are relegated to the mining regions, these regions will benefit at the cost of other regions
 
  D.  OFFER ACTUAL ALTERNATIVES 
 
  Reducing the direct effects of mining AMD, erosion, top soil degradation, & the ground degradation ground water can be accomplished by using more effective mining methods, that are also more expensive 
 
  Reducing CO2 emissions requires more expensive emissions scrubbing technology & increased conservation & recycling   
  Reducing CO2 emissions is closely linked to other env problems & solutions   
  II.  ACIEVEMENT OF SOCIAL CHANGE 
 
  A.  INVOLVEMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 
 
  The participants in mining are not in agreement on these or many solutions & instead often engage in social conflict using power, money, etc. to achieve their individual & divergent goals 
 
  Through outside social pressure, the participants may come together & agree on continual tactics for the continual improvement of mining problems   
  Presently the industrialists & their allies have greater resources in the social conflict around mining problems, & thus little is done to change the situation   
  Presently many observers recognize that the govt regulators are "organizationally co-opted" by the industry   
  B. INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF SOCIAL CHANGE   
  To improve the conditions of mining the pubic should be educated about all costs & benefits of mining & proposed changes   
  Those outside of the mining industry who experience spillover costs & benefits must help set env'l priorities, thus diluting the power of the mining industry itself   
  Mining industrialists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates since they will best be able to minimize the costs of adjustment to direct mining solutions   
  Recreationists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates since they will best be able to maximize the costs of adjustments to reduced mining spillover costs   
  Govt encourages voluntary change & implements laws where necessary   
  How to follow mine activity under SMCRA on private land 
1.  Check newspaper for permits 
2.  File timely comments on permitting, bonding & performance standards 
3.  File timely appeals against permits or renewals 
4.  Ask state or OSM for on-site inspection 
5.  Consider a "lands unsuitable" petition 
6.  Ask OSM to review state program &/ intervene 
7.  Consider a citizen's suit 
8.  Contact state about restoration 		  
  How to follow mining activity on fed land 
1. Get on fed mailing lists to receive notice of proposed mining 
2. File timely comments during NEPA process w/ appropriate agency 
3. For FS land, get involved in forest plan process 
4. Gain support & help from other relevant fed agencies, e.g. Fed Marine Fisheries Service 
5. Organize citizen support & citizen grp support 

Most potent tool against mining abuse has been public support 

  
  NEPA on Mining 
NEPA process is used to review any sign env'l project & always applies to mining 		  
  Trout Unlimited 
2 formalized nat'l partnerships 

1. TU/FS Partnership has promoted & coordinated TU involvement in FS planning, stream restoration, fishery mgt. 

2.  Bring Back the Natives Program 
  TU 
  FS 
  BLM 
  Nat Fish & Wildlife Foundation 
  Bureau of Reclamation 
In this area, the Program worked to bring back native fish to Great Smokey Mtns Nat Park in NC & TN 

  
  Conclusion 
Most mining is influenced by: 
1. Legislation by Congress or the states 
2. Rules by the OSM, implemented by states 
3. Legal suits, which are very individualized 
4. Local grps who most likely influence the state reg agency to do a better job 		  
  Mineral Policy Center:  discusses reform efforts for 1872 Mining Act        www.mineralpolicy.org 
Link
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 Outline on  Forestry Solutions
External
Links
  -  Project:  Solutions for Forestry 
Link
  REDUCE FORESTRY PHYSICAL PROBLEMS   
  Solutions to forestry physical problems include 
-  the reduction of erosion & siltation
-  leaving buffers around waterways
-  leaving corridors for wildlife connectivity to prevent fragmentation
-  matching cut w/ growth rate:  find sustainable quantity
-  expanding the forest to counter global warming
-  preserving a sufficient amt & quality of forest & old growth
-  reducing or eliminating roads
-  burning or mechanically reducing undergrowth & stands that are too dense 
 
  REDUCE FORESTRY SOCIAL PROBLEMS   
  Solutions to forestry social problems include 
-  reducing unequal access
-  reducing unequal allocation of costs & benefits of forest use, esp btwn East & West states & forests
-  reducing the capture of govt land mgt. agencies
-  creating oppositional as opposed to consensus building strategy & tactics by the major participants in the forestry debate
-  balancing a wide variety of forest use
-  reducing forest over-use		  
  INVOLVEMENT OF FORESTRY PARTICIPANTS
 
  To achieve forestry goals:
Involve the participants
  1.  Involvement of env mvmt
  2.  Involvement of indlists
  3.  Involvement of reclists
  4.  Involvement of gen public
 
  The three major participants in the forestry debate, i.e. the Env Mvmt, the Indlists, & the Reclists, are engaged in a zero sum competition whereby they believe if one side wins, then the other side looses  
  The three major participants in the forestry debate oppose every action of their counterparts, regardless of whether they think it matters in the big picture or not  
  The three major participants in the forestry debate often promote positions that they regard as extreme because they expect to be opposed, even in reasonable proposals, & so offer the extreme position w/ the expectation that they will have to compromise, i.e. reduce their proposal  
  1.  Involvement of Env Mvmt 
 
  Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public
 
  2.  Involvement of Indlists
 
  Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public
 
  3.  Involvement of Reclists
 
  Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public
 
  4.  Involvement of Gen Public
 
  The public needs more education on forestry issues so that a national consensus can be created on the use of the forest
 
  The East West split of the public must be addressed & reduced by any reasonable means such as more compensation going to the Western nations for the use of the forest & forest products by the rest of the nation, increased public lands in the East accompanied by a reduction in public lands in the West, etc.  
  5.  Involvement of Govt
 
  The govt is not perceived by any as being an honest broker & is often accused of co-optation or orgl capture by ind
 
  The history of forest reg has created a vast, unwieldy body of law, regs, & rules which needs to be reduced, streamlined, & implemented  
  The vast body of forest regs has resulted in the failure of the land mgt. agencies to implement their own policies, & thus the govt must implement its policy in a timely manner & only embrace policy that can be implemented  
  INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF CHANGE IN THE FORESTRY DEBATE   
  Institutionalization of change
  1.  New laws
  2.  New regs
  3.  Reform of agencies
  4.  Legal suits
  5.  Educate gen public via media, etc.		  
  1.  New laws  
  Laws must be matched to each of the physical & social problems in forestry  
 
 2.  New regs  
 
 Regs must be matched to each of the physical & social problems in forestry  
  3.  Reform of agencies  
  Implement policy, do not ignore it  
  Streamline & rationalized policy  
  4.  Legal suits, which are very individualized  
  Use legal suits to address gaps, inequities, etc. in policy  
  5. Indl, Envl, & Recl grps lobby at all levels & take direct action  
 
 The three major players in forestry must strive for consensus among themselves & bring in the public, reducing the East West split
 
  6. Local grps who most likely influence the state reg agency to do a better job  
  Local grps provide grass roots influence  
  Conclusion
Most logging is influenced by
1.  legislation by Congress or the states
2.  rules by the FS, BLM & others, implemented by states
3.  reform govt agencies
3.  legal suits, which are very individualized
4.  envl grps who lobby at all levels & take direct action
5.  local grps who most likely influence the state reg agency to do a better job		  
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 Outline on  Let Burn & Prescribed Burn Policies
External
Links
 
 LET BURN POLICY DETERMINES WHEN WILDFIRES ARE NOT SUPPRESSED, OR WHEN SUPPRESSION IS LIMITED 
 
  PRESCRIBED FIRE POLICY DETERMINES THE EXTENT & THE FOREST THAT IS INTENTIONALLY BURNED TO ASSIST FLORA & FAUNA GROWTH, & THE REDUCE FUEL LOADS   
  Under let burn policy, if a natural fire starts, under some conditions the fire will be allowed to burn, or be suppressed only on 1 front   
  Under prescribed fire, outside of the normal fire season, some fires will be started, under carefully controlled conditions, in order to improve habitat for plant or animal growth or to reduce fuel build up   
 
 We have had approx 100 yrs of wildland fire suppression in the US 
 
 
 Most analysts, not all, believe fire suppression itself has caused a fuel build up & created hi fire danger 
 
 
 SOME LET BURNS WILL BECOME LARGER THAN ANTICIPATED & SOME PRESCRIBED FIRES WILL ESCAPE 
 
 
 Most fed land agencies now limit fire suppression in several ways & start many prescribed burns 
 
 
 The public needs to understand that limited fire suppression & prescribed burning are not exact processes in that often we cannot completely control these types of fires 
 
 
 Some fires that have been allowed to burn, such as the Yellowstone Fire in 1988 have developed into very large fires & others will become very large in the future 
 
 
 Some prescribed burns, such as the Cerro Grande Fire around Los Alamos, NM in 2000, have escaped & damaged nat resources & homes, & others will escape in the future 
 
 
 Whenever there is an extreme fire season, fire policy becomes highly politicized b/c of the threat to homes & development in the wildland urban interface (WUI) & b/c timber industry wants to substitute intensive logging for let burns & prescribed burns 
 
 
 LET BURNS & PRESCRIBED FIRES ARE NECESSARY, DESPITE THE THREATS THEY EMBODY, ARE NECESSARY TO REDUCE FUEL LOAD & IMPROVE HABITAT 
 
 
 Fire suppression has been called 'job security' security b/c when natural fires are stopped, they allow fuel to build up, causing more fires & more fire danger 
 
 
 Systematic fire suppression in wildlands began in late 1800s 
 
 
 The first let burns began in the 1970s, but still most fires are suppressed   
 
 The widespread suppression of fire has created build up of forest fuels   
 
 The build up of  forest fuels through fire suppression is said to creating 'job security' for wildland firefighters b/c it may create more fire danger in the future   
 
 LET BURNS, PRESCRIBED RUNS, THINNING, HARVESTING, & FIRE BREAKS ARE ALL ENVL SOLUTIONS TO REDUCE FIRE DANGER & IMPROVE HABITAT, IF IMPLEMENTED EFFECTIVELY 
 
 
 Solution:  Burn, thin, harvest, allow more mature forests
 
 
 As w/ any broad policy, the devil is in the details 
 
  There is prescribed burning where is might not be needed   
  Agencies fear burning risky areas   
  Loggers want to harvest old growth, which is fire resistant & thus should not be harvested b/c it makes fires less likely & provides good habitat   
  Mature forests (large trees) are more fire resistant & limit the growth of flammable brush  
  Loggers do not want to harvest immature, thick, hi fire danger forests, which is more fire prone & is generally not good habitat   
  While thinning does occur, no one has ever extensively thinned the forest b/c it is too expensive   
  But most commercially viable forests are 'teenagers,:' ie relatively young, & fast growing   
  Thus commercial forests are generally more fire prone b/c they have less mature growth   
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 Outline on  Tourism & Economic Development
External
Links
  -  Project:  A SWOT Analysis of Tourism
Link
  THE SCOPE OF TOURISM   
  By 2000, tourism was the largest single item in world trade  
  1 in 15 wkrs, or 150 mm, worldwide, wk in tourism   
  The primary occupation in tourism are in the areas of: 
a.  transporting
b.  feeding
c.  housing		 d.  guiding
e.  amusing
 
  Only 10% of Am have passports
 
  Most tourism is done in people's home country  
  In 1970 there were 147 mm tour trips abroad
 
  In 1995 there were 650 mm tour trips abroad  
  In 2010 there are est to be 1 bb tour trips abroad  
  Intl tourism is increasing in breath & so now 1/8 of all tourists go to peripheral nations in Africa, Asia, & Lat Am
 
  INVESTMENT IN TOURISM 
 
  Tourism requires only a lo cost infrastructure because there are no heavy plants & little hi tech equip
 
  The cost of creating 1 job in tourism is < 20% that of mfr job & < 2% of the cost of a hi tech job
 
  EFFECTS OF TOURISM 
 
  The effects of tourism are not always strong at the local level
 
  The concentration of tourists in 20 affluent countries yields 70% of tourists
 
  Transnat corps own many tourism assets such as hotels, tour ships, resorts, golf courses, amusement parks, tour agencies, ski areas, etc.  
  Because transnat corps own so many tourism assets, profits often return to core countries & do not go to the countries where the tourism occurs  
  Typically, only 40% of the cost of a tourist's trip is reaped by the local region in which the tourism takes place
 
  If a tourist trip involves a foreign owned hotel, the port of the trip reaped by the local region falls to only 25%
Who gets the $$ & why?		  
  TOURISM INCREASES ECONOMIC INSTABILITY   
  Tourism often fosters econ vulnerability in the region or nation in which it occurs
 
  All industries have some level of risk / volatility tourism, like all hi end aspects of consumption depends on style & fashion & thus is especially vulnerable
 
  Thus a tourist region may lose it's popularity & experience an econ downturn  
  Some tourist destinations are sought because of their remoteness & "natural" undev quals & thus are econlly successful  
  Thus thru their own success, tourist areas become congested & thus less popular & experience an econ downturn  
  Example Mediterranean beaches were abandoned by the NW Euro mid class tourists, who go to more distant, exotic locales
creating a 70% \/ in tourism on the Med beaches		  
  Various exogenous factors can affect tourism such as warm weather at a ski resort, a change in currency exchange rates, & political unrest in Ireland, the Mid-East, Africa, Lat Am etc.  
  LOCAL BENEFITS OF TOURISM   
  Local tourism provides income to: 
a.  local hotel owners
b.  tour guide firms		 d.  tourism wkrs
e.  local businesses
 
  Local benefits of tourism include that it: 
a.  help sustain indigenous lifestyles 
b.  help sustain a regions cultures, arts & crafts 
c.  provide wildlife preservation		 d.  increase envl protection 
e.  support conservation of historic buildings & sites 
 
  LOCAL DISADVANTAGES OF TOURISM   
  Local disadvantages of tourism include that it can: 
a.  adulterate & debase indigenous cultures
b.  foster unsightly dev
c.  increase pollution		 d.  result in envl degradation
e.  bother or threaten local flora & fauna
 
  An example of the threat of tourism can be seen in the Caribbean where sewage poisoned mangrove trees & polluted the coast, boats & divers damaged coral reefs  
  An example of the threat of tourism can be seen in the Alps where 40,000 ski runs attracts tourists in numbers 10 time greater than the local pop  
  Local disadvantages of tourism include that it can: 
a.  support exploitative relationships
b.  package lifestyles & regional cul for sale
c.  strip the meaning from cul & cul artifacts		 d.  turn trad ceremonies into acts
e.  turn artifacts are mfr not for original use, but as cul items
 
  ALTERNATIVE TOURISM   
  On an alternative vacation, there is an emphasis on self determination, authenticity, social harmony, preservation of env, small scale dev, use of local techniques, materials, architecture styles, etc.   
  To be successful, alternative tourism must be aimed @ tourists who are both 
- wealthy & 
- envlly conscious 		  
  Alternative tourism is not a large mkt, but it is growing   
  See Also:  
  -  Costa Rica:  Alternative Tourism   
  -  Ecuador:  Alternative Tourism   
Internal
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 Outline on   Eco Tourism
External
Links
  ECOTOURISM IS CHARACTERIZED BY ITS ABILITY TO PRESERVE OR EVEN IMPROVE THE REGIONAL ENV & SUSTAIN OR IMPROVE THE LIVES OF REGIONAL PEOPLE 
 
  Tourism is a significant factor in envl destruction 
 
  Tourism today consists of large hotels, using large amts of energy, of cruise ships, planes, & automobiles propelled by fossil fuels 
 
  The alternative to mainstream tourism is green, or 'eco' tourism 
 
  Ecotourism, as defined by ecotourism.org is: 'responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the env & improves the well being of local people' 
 
  There are various types of ecotourism & it is becoming more popular as the 21st C continues moving forward 
 
  TOURISM IS AS OLD AS HUMANITY BUT ECOTOURISM, AS A MAINSTREAM ALTERNATIVE, HAS ONLY DEVELOPED SINCE THE 80s 
 
  Ecotourism has a very short history, starting w/ the beginning of strong environmental efforts in the 1980s 
 
  Before this, society had very little concern for protecting, or sustaining the env 
 
  However, w/ the rise of env ed, ecotourism became a more popular alternative 
 
  While ecotourism was introduced in the 1980s & 1990s,  it has been the ed & the env mvmt efforts of the 21st C that have allowed ecotourism to gain its current popularity 
 
  Ecotourism really has its roots in African safari trips, & legal poaching 
 
  Once it was discovered that this tourism based poaching was destroying the animal populations, it was mostly stopped; which was a great victory for the env mvmt w/ such notable exceptions as rhino, tiger, & elephant hunting 
 
  Though the 'green mvmt' has several pieces all collecting to create one big envl picture, ecotourism & 'green' tourism have become some of the more popular forms of commercial envlism 
 
  Throughout the 21st C, ecotourism has gained significant popularity as the env mvmt picks up support in political & social circles   
  More & more, people are demanding ecotourism opportunities, & expect a green, or sustainable places for them to stay while engaging in their tourism   
  THE STRENGTHS OF ECO TOURISM INCLUDE: 
A.  SUPPORT FOR JOBS & DEV IN THE LOCAL COMMUNITY 
B.  AWARENESS OF LOCAL ISSUES 
C.  ECO FRIENDLY POLICIES WHICH 'GREEN TOURISTS' DEMAND 
D.  A SMALLER ECO 'FOOTPRINT' 		  
  Ecotourism is building popularity & support; however, there are both strengths & weaknesses in environmental tourism  
  Strengths
 
  Tourism has several strengths on its own   
  A.  Like tourism, ecotourism can support the local econ by providing jobs in the industry   
  Tourism jobs can include positions in hotels, travel agencies, recreational businesses, even small businesses that cater to tourists primarily, such as souvenir shops   
  There are even areas that are sustained almost completely by the money that tourism funnels into their econ, such as exotic islands in the Bahamas or Dollywood in TN   
  B/c of the increase in funds fueling the local econ, areas with high tourism also tend to develop faster   
  B.  Tourism in an area, also means more people, mostly those w/ disposable income becoming more aware of issues in those areas   
  As more people are exposed to an econ depressed area, there is a higher likelihood that there will be donated support to the area   
  Green tourism has its own advantages, beyond just those of tourism   
  C.  Tourists involved in ecotourism provide pressure for the local govts in those destination areas to promote more eco friendly policies   
  In promoting eco friendly policies, these areas may be pushed toward a cleaner env, even if it is only in order to appease visitors   
  D.  Eco friendly policies help to lower the 'footprint' left by tourism overall   
  Tourism as a whole leaves a large 'footprint' where it is popular unless policies are developed to limit that impact   
  THE WEAKNESSES OF ECO TOURISM INCLUDE: 
A.  DIFFICULT ADJUSTMENTS FOR NATIVE / LOCAL PEOPLE 
B.  'GREEN WASHED' OR FAKE ECO FRIENDLY ENTERPRISES 
C.  ELUSIVE PROFITABILITY RESULTING IN DETRIMENTAL PRACTICES FOR ENV & PEOPLE 
D.  COMPETITIVE PRESSURE FROM OTHER TYPES OF TOURISM:  'ADVENTURE TOURISM' & TRADITIONAL LUXURIOUS TOURISM 
E.  ECO TOURISM DESTINATIONS ARE NOT NATURALLY AVAILABLE IN ALL REGIONS 		  
  Any time there is significant development in order to accommodate a large amt of visitors to an area, one can expect to see a significant negative impact to the surrounding area   
  A.  Even if development is done with an env friendly goal in mind, it is often difficult to adjust for the larger amt of non native peoples visiting & engaging the local env  
  Sometimes due to mismgt of the local env in order to appeal to all tourists, what may seem like an env friendly area, may actually be a sorely depleted area w/ regards to natural resources & health  
  B.  A lack of regulation contributes to many businesses, tours, & tourism establishments labeling themselves as 'eco friendly'   
  These businesses are taking advantage of the growing popularity of ecotourism by attempting to imitate what the travelers are looking for   
  Profitability is one of the main aims of the tourism industry   
  C.  Despite the rising popularity of ecotourism; it is difficult for many ecotourism to maintain profitability  
  There are three major types of barriers to successful ecotourism:  attitudinal, operational, & financial   
  In order for ecotourism to be successful, attitudes must be in order   
  D.  Adventure tourism & 'traditional tourism' w/ its focus on high levels of comfor & consumption but competitive pressure on eco tourism   
  It is mostly those who are seeking adventure who end up participating in ecotourism   
  Not all tourists seek adventure   
  Besides adventure, it is often those with high levels of disposable income & significant feelings of obligation to the environment that seek ecotourism   
  Even with the rising popularity of ecotourism, it pales in comparison to the popularity of traditional tourism which is motivated by those seeking a simple get away in a new env   
  Many tourists feel that their comfort is more important than protecting the env that they are visiting   
 
 E.  Eco tourism opportunities in the env are not available in all locals, or if they are present, they make need significant development to become attractive to eco tourists 
 
  In SW Va, the eco attractiveness of the mtns, valleys, streams, & local flora & fauna are not widely recognized across the nation & therefore the VA Tourism Board is expanding advertsing on the local eco treasures   
  There are operational barriers to tourism & ecotourism   
  A lack of easily accessible 'green' alternative suppliers, products, & info designed specifically for those in the tourism industry make 'going green' more difficult than it needs to be   
  Financial barriers include, not just sustaining an env friendly tourism business, but also switching to more env friendly policies can be fiscally challenging   
  ADVERTSING & THE DEV OF ECO TOURISM DESTINATIONS WILL HELP ADVANCE THE POPULARITY & ECO EFFECTIVENESS OF ECO TOURISM  
  Advertisement done by tourism companies needs to focus on attracting those travelers who are already env friendly   
  These visitors will treat their env w/ greater respect, thus automatically lowering the footprint involved w/ tourism   
  Rather than spending the money attempting to attract all tourists, this more targeted form of advertisement will help to lower the cost of ecotourism, while increasing the profitability & ease of transition into an env friendly outlook on tourism   
  The appeal of ecotourism needs to be developed in the tourism industry as a whole   
  Making ecotourism seem fun, exciting, or wild will attract more of the adventure grp of tourists   
  If ecotourism is advertised as sleek, or minimalist, it will attract more of the trend followers   
  There needs to be significantly greater regulation regarding what may be labeled eco friendly   
  Regs related to false advertising will stop the abuse of the label by local businesses, ie green washing, cheating their way through the green tourism trend   
  TOURISM & ECO TOURISM ARE GROWING INDUSTRIES & BOTH CAN BE DEVELOPED IN ECO FRIENDLY MANNERS   
  If current trends continue; the popularity of ecotourism will continue to rise   
  W/o reg, however, the meaning of 'ecotourism,' the true level to which it is 'green' will begin to decline in positive correlation to the rise in popularity   
  However, if regulation is implemented successfully, ecotourism can stand as a viable, if not fruitful alternative to modern tourism   
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 Outline on the  Costa Rica:  Alternative Tourism / Off Shore Banking
External
Links
  ALTERNATIVE TOURISM IS AN IMPORTANT & RAPIDLY GROWING INDUSTRY 
 
  Alternative tourism is one of the major industries in Costa Rica 
 
  One quarter of the land is in biosphere protection & wildlife preserves 
 
  The large amounts of protected biosphere attracts tourists 
 
  The 800,000 annual tourists' generated income exceeds the income from banana exports 
 
  THERE ARE MANY 'OFFSHORE BENEFITS' AVAILABLE TO AMERICANS 
 
  Retirees from No America flock to Costa Rica because of the climate, alternative tourism, strong health system, low taxes, & inexpensive living conditions 
 
  Costa Rica is developing a public health system 
 
  There are no taxes on pensions, dividends or trust funds 
 
  50,000 Canadians & 120,000 US citizens partake in some form of offshore benefits 
 
 
 
Internal
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 Outline on  Ecuador:  Alternative Tourism
External
Links
  ECUADORIAN ALTERNATIVE TOURISM IS STRONG DUE TO NATURAL LANDSCAPES & A DIVERSITY OF LIFE WHICH ENTHRALLED DARWIN 
 
  While being relatively small, Ecuador has 6 natl parks, 7 nat reserves, & 20 private protected areas 
 
  Ecuador has some of the oldest rain forest in the world 
 
  Ecuador has many active volcanos 
 
  Native Amazonian tribes still survive in the rain forest 
 
  The plant & animal wildlife in the Galapagos Islands is world renowned & attracted Darwin & many other naturalists to the area 
 
  The native Andean culture continues to thrive 
 
  Ecuador has taken many steps to preserve the legacy of Spanish colonialism 
 
  Two thirds of tourism is run by the private sector while the govt & ensures sustainable dev thru env awareness 
 
 
 
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 Outline on  Global Warming Conferences
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  THE KYOTO PROTOCOL COMMITTED NATIONS TO VOLUNTARY 1990 LEVELS OF CO2 PRODUCTION 
 
  Delegates from more than 160 countries met in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan to draft an agreement to limit global warming 
 
  The meeting, called the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, took place in Kyoto, Japan, hence the name the 'Kyoto Protocol' 
 
  The resulting agreement, known as the Kyoto Protocol, calls for decreases in the emission of greenhouse gases 
 
  38 industrialized nations would have to cut their emissions of carbon dioxide & five other gases 
 
  The cuts would occur during the years from 2008 through 2012 
 
  The cuts would average from 6 % to 8 % of the 38 nations' 1990 emissions levels 
 
  Developing countries would limit emissions voluntarily or by cooperating w/ nations that would be subject to limitations 
 
  THE KYOTO PROTOCOL PERMITTED POLLUTION TRADING 
 
  In addition, the Kyoto Protocol would allow industrialized nations to buy or sell emissions permits 
 
  If a nation cut its emissions more than required by the agreement, that country could sell other industrialized nations permits allowing those nations to emit the remaining amounts 
 
  THE KYOTO PROTOCOL ENCOURAGED DEVL & ENVL AID FROM THE CORE TO PERIPHERAL NATIONS 
 
  An industrialized nation could also earn credit toward meeting its requirement by helping a developing country reduce emissions 
 
  For example, the industrialized nation might help the developing country replace fossil fuels in some applications 
 
 
 One replacement might be solar energy devices that generate electric power 
 
 
 The protocol would took effect when 55 countries approved it & the approving countries' emissions were equal to or greater than 55 % of the 1990 emissions of the 38 industrialized nations 
 
  The developed nations finally hammered out a voluntary agreement to reduce emissions, & the semi peripheral & peripheral nations demanded exemptions to these reductions   
  The US Congress refused to sign the Kyoto agreement until the semi peripheral & peripheral nations complies w/ some level of non voluntary reduction   
  Many nations, but not the US, which is the largest producer of greenhouse gases, have begun to operate under the Kyoto protocols & are moving toward meeting their goals   
  Because the US dithered under the leadership of Bush, Jr, there was no progress made in the US on reducing greenhouse gas production, now making it much more difficult to achieve 1990 levels than it would have been had we worked toward that goal beginning during the Clinton admin   
  AFTER KYOTO, LITTLE PROGRESS HAS BEEN MADE THROUGH GLOBAL AGREEMENTS,
BUT PROGRESS IS STILL BEING MADE BY GRPS OF NATIONS 		  
  Despite more global conferences aimed at reaching an agreement to limit greenhouse gas production, no significant advances have been agreed to   
  The US still refuses to sign, but has made weak overtures toward the reduction of greenhouse gases   
  Other dev nations, esp Euro & Japan, have moved toward significant reductions of greenhouse gases   
  In 2008, China surpassed the US in total greenhouse emissions, but both China & India have now agreed to greenhouse emission limitations   
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 Outline on  Global Development Orgs & the Environment 
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  THE SUCCESS OF GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT ORGS IN ECON DEV OR ADDRESSING GLOBAL WARMING IS CHECKERED 
 
  The internationalization of envlism is grafted on to a set of pre existing geopolitical instits including the existing nation states, as well as global instits such as  the World Bank, IMF, GATT 
 
  The env mvmt has worked w/ World Bank, the IMF, & other global instits on envlly correct development projects & other issues 
 
  THE 3RD WORLD DEBT CRISIS IS A THREAT IN THAT STRESSED NATIONS CARE LESS FOR THE ENV,
& AN OPPORTUNITY IN THAT DEBT DEALS CAN BE  USED TO LEVERAGE ENV FRIENDLY PROJECTS 		  
  But in general the envl mvmt has not taken on the world debt crisis as being a fundamental contributor to envl degradation 
 
  The World Bank's control of 3rd world debt is one of the primary determinants of 3rd world development 
 
  Social justice oriented opposition, which became much stronger at the end of Cold War, is still important, but adding the envl agenda to debt deals has only complicated  3rd world development making it appear that the social justice mvmts & the envl mvmt are resistant to econ dev 
 
  Because of the perception of opposition to 3rd world dev, the social justice & envl mvmts must clearly state that they are for econ dev, & that envlly correct econ dev is superior to tradl dev 
 
  Indebted countries are subject to having envl agendas attached to debt deals & unless envl agendas provide additional advantages, nations will avoid them 
 
  POOR NATIONS RESIST BEING FORCED INTO ENVLY COSTLY PROGRAMS UNLESS THERE IS ALSO A NET BENEFIT   
  Because they perceive that envlism limits their options, the 3rd world reacts against they see as 'envl colonialism' 
 
  In the debate over greenhouse gas emission, the 3rd world produces only a small proportion of the overall amt 
 
  The 3rd world wants the right to produce more greenhouse gases, which will still only be a small proportion as compared to the lions share produced by the core nations 
 
  Greenhouse gases produced by developing nations are called 'survival emissions' because these nations need this level just for their people to survive & grow 
 
  Greenhouse gases produced by developed nations are called 'luxury emissions' because these nations do not need them in the sense of basic necessities as do the developing nations, & indeed many are produced by luxuries unknown to developing nations' peoples such as SUVs, air conditioning, lawn care, etc. 
 
  The 3rd world is demanding parity btwn 'survival emissions' of the semi peripheral & peripheral nations & the 'luxury emissions' of the core 
 
  REFORM CONTINUES ON 3 FRONTS:  ON 3RD WORLD DEV, ON THE DEV ORGS & BANKS, & ON ENVL DEV   
  The World Bank, GATT, state sovereignty, & end of Cold War have had adverse consequences for the env because today the globalized system degrades the env by forcing competition among countries over the exploitation / destruction of the env, i.e. it has exasperated the commons problem   
  The end of the Cold War provides little geopolitical reason to restore foreign aid to 70s level   
  Efforts to reform the World Bank & other world development orgs continue 
 
  Reformists of world development orgs want econ dev to be less on the western model & more customized to the needs of each nation 
 
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 Outline on  Saving the Rain Forest
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 SAVING THE RAIN FOREST WILL REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING BECAUSE IT STORES CO2 & COOLS THE EARTH 
 
  Rain forests have a significant amt of biomass, more than any other single entity except the ocean   
  In the rain forests' biomass is a significant amt of carbon   
  The rain forests also keep the equator region cooler by absorbing the sun's rays   
  MANY GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE WORKING TO SAVE THE RAIN FOREST   
 
 Many conservation orgs, including the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation Intl, & the Nature Conservancy, are working w/ govts to conserve rain forests 
 
 
 Efforts to save the rain forest include: 
a.  establishing protected areas 
b.  promoting intelligent management of rain forests 
c.  increasing public awareness about the importance of the forests 
 
  In the 1980s & 1990s, hundreds of protected areas were established in tropical forests 
 
  These areas included nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, & national parks 
 
  However, such efforts affected only a small percentage of the total area of rain forest 
 
  Moreover, many conservation areas remain only "paper parks," w/ little protection or enforcement on the ground 
 
  GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE DEVELOPING BEST MGT STANDARDS FOR 
RAIN FORESTS TO EDUCATE & REGULATE RAIN FOREST USERS 
 
  Govts & conservation orgs also promote sound mgt of tropical forests by the people who use them 
 
  For example, certain orgs certify timber from loggers that harvest rain forest wood in a sustainable fashion 
 
  Lowes & Home Depot now carry certified lumber in their stores, which is lumber that has been grown & harvested under more envlly sound practices   
  Certified timbers may bring a higher price on the intl mkt 
 
  Areas of some rain forests have been set aside as extractive reserves 
 
  Local populations manage these reserves & practice sustainable harvesting of many forest products 
 
  THE RAIN FOREST AFFECTS EVERYONE IN A GLOBAL ECON 
 
  In the core nations, we all use products that come from the rain forest, most notably, fast food   
  Thus saving the rain forest saves people & their lifestyle in the core nations & what people in the core nations do impacts what happens in the rain forest   
  Increasing public awareness about the plight of rain forests may also aid the struggle to conserve them   
  Awareness has grown due to greater exposure of rain forest issues in the media, & to an increasing number of tourists who travel to rain forests   
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 Outline on   Solutions to the Population Explosion
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  -  Project:  Causes, Effects & Solutions of the Population Explosion 
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 POPULATION CAN BE REGULATED BY PERSONAL CHOICES 
 
 
 Pop can be voluntarily regulated on the personal level in by controlling fertility, consumption & raising awareness 
 
  There are, however, too many cases of forced pop control   
  In general, if the birth rate were reduced to the replacement level, an average of about 2.1 children per woman, then only enough people are born to replace those who die   
  To control ones own fertility a couple would either have 1 or 2 children, or be child free   
  The resulting condition of replacement level fertility is called zero population growth or ZPG   
  In the US & much of Euro, fertility is below replacement level & therefore their pops only increase through immigration, or they decline   
  But in many of the world's poorer countries, women have an average of as many as 7 or 8 children   
  In many other countries, birth rates have declined more slowly & are still far above replacement level   
 
 To lower the impact of pop growth, one must lower their own consumption, which would also reduce envl impact & other neg pop impacts 
 
 
 THE MOST EFFECTIVE POP CONTROL IS WHEN IT IS REGULATED BY SOCIETAL CHOICES, CONSISTENT W/ WESTERN VALUES, WHERE WOMEN HAVE A VOICE IN FAMILY PLANNING, & BOTH MEN & WOMEN PREFER SMALLER FAMILIES 
 
  The decisions that women & men make about having children are influenced by many other factors besides govt policies   
  These factors include their soc & econ circumstances, their ed, their need to have someone care for them in their old age, their feelings about the future, & their access to info & medical care   
 
 Population can be voluntarily regulated on the societal level in ways that are largely consistent w/ Western values, including: 
1.  tax incentives for fewer children 
2.  raise awareness: ed on pop growth 
3.  universal access to reproductive healthcare 
4.  invest in community healthcare 
5.  educate & empower women 
6.  raising women's status 
7.  authorizing the age of marriage		 8.  universal access to education 
9.  protection & enhancement of human rights 
10.  antipoverty efforts 
11.  envl protection & restoration efforts 
12.  economic development 
13.  increase factors leading to demographic trans 
14.  streamline adoption procedures 
 
 
  Help raise awareness by telling people your beliefs   
  As a result, future soc & econ changes will have important effects on birth rates & pop growth   
 
 POPULATION CAN BE REGULATED BY SOCIETAL CHOICES, INCONSISTENT W/ WESTERN VALUES 
 
 
 Population can be  regulated on the societal level in ways that are largely inconsistent w/ Western values including: 
1.  mandatory limits on family size 
2.  mandatory birth control 
3.  tax penalties for children 		 4.  forced abortions 
5.  infanticide 
6.  forced sterilization 
 
  THE MOST EFFECTIVE PROCESS / METHOD OF POP CONTROL IS FOR PEOPLE TO VOLUNTARILY CHOOSE SMALLER FAMILIES, WHICH IS USUALLY DUE TO THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECON DEV, & WESTERN VALUES  
  The demographic transition (DT) occurs when the birth rate falls below, or near, the death rate so that there is (nearly) zero pop growth (ZPG)   
  The DT occurs because people in societies where they see econ dev, & where women have a voice in family size, people see no advantage is a large family, & see advantages in small families   
  Econ dev provides jobs & lifestyles, as opposed to tradl ag jobs & lifestyles, that do not require large families   
  Under tradl ag practices large families were an advantage as a wkforce, but in mod societies, because the children do not work, children are a financial liability   
  Under tradl ag practice large families were an advantage because when the parents became old, the grown children would care for them   
  In mod societies, the parents are expected to care for themselves & not be burden for the grown children, though this often does not happen   
  Under tradl ag practices, the male parent has nearly absolute authority in the family, & so only he makes the family planning decisions & large families give both him & his wife a higher status   
  In mod societies, men & women decide together on the family size, & there is no status attributed to large families   
  The tradl values of large families as a wkforce, as a hedge against old age, as a patriarchal status symbol are replaced by Western values of small families where the children do not work, where parents provide for themselves in old age, & where men & women co decide on family size, & small, successful families are a  status symbol   
  Western nations such as the US, Canada, the UK & more have either ZPG, or pop growth due only to immigration   
  Developing nations such as Somalia, Mexico, Thailand, & more still have pop explosions   
  Pop planners see the primary hope for planetary ZPG, a sustainable world pop, as the development of the DT, econ dev, & Western values related to family size throughout the world   
  While the DT & econ dev has occurred as a natural or unguided process in many nations, as of yet govts, non govt orgs (NGOs), interest grps, dev agencies, etc. have not been all that successful in implementing the DT, econ dev, & Western values   
  Thus the race to control pop depends on both the natural, unguided dev of the DT, econ dev, & Western values, as well as the dev / implementation of these factors in peripheral & semi peripheral nations by govt, aid agencies, NGOs, interest grps & others   
  THE MOST DIRECT METHOD TO LIMIT POPULATION GROWTH IS BIRTH CONTROL  
  Many people object to birth control on moral grounds, claiming that abstinence is the only moral birth control practice   
  Critics of the abstinence only approach claim that it is not at all effective   
  The govts of many countries have promoted birth control programs in efforts to reduce the birth rate   
  China, for example, has persuaded millions of couples to have only one child   
  In China & some other nations, there are cases of forced birth control, sterilization, abortion, the taking of children of families who have had too many, & other authoritarian birth control practices   
  The US has refused to fund voluntary birth control practices either in the US or anywhere around the world   
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 Outline on   Water Shortages Solutions
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  TWO SOLUTIONS TO THE WATER SCARCITY AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEM: INVOLVE CONSERVATION & TECHNOLOGY
 
  The most efficient method to address the water scarcity problem is to use less water 
 
  There are many ways we can all cut back on water use from using low water toilets to recycling gray water 
 
  There are big saving available in reducing seepage from agricultural irrigation by switch from ditches to pipes, & using drip irrigation 
 
  Water conservation has only slowly & marginally been utilized in the US   
  Technological solution involve desalination of ocean water; however, at this time desalination is still prohibitively expensive for most regions 
 
  The left over salt is a problem too 
 
  While cloud seeding: can yield a  5 to 15 % increase in rain, there are law suits over it b/c if you seed, you may be taking someone else's rain 
 
  Some nations are developing mega water projects to address water scarcity 
 
  Turkey is using pipelines to move water from streams to the regions that need it   downstream countries... Iran? 
 
  China has developed a  major diversion of the Yangtze River 
 
  China's project also focuses on restoring degraded land & soil stabilization which aids in sustaining a healthy & effective watershed
 
  China's project has downsides including the displacement of people & towns, problems inherent in reservoirs such as siltation & the growth of insect populations, & more 
 
  Other technological solutions which are more remote include the towing of icebergs   

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