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Review Notes on   Climate Change 
External
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 Supplements:  UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN IPCC) (2007). 
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  Supplements:  UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN IPCC) (2013). 
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  Supplements:  UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (UN IPCC) (2014). 
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 Introduction to Global Warming   
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        The Commons   
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        Causes of Climate Change   
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 Factors Contributing to Global Warming   
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        The Greenhouse Effect   
         The Greenhouse Effect Images 
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        Carbon Footprint   
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        Fossil Fuels & Global Warming  
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        Forests  
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        The Rain Forest  
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        The Amazon Rain Forest  
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        Deforestation  
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        Urbanization & the Env   
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        Global Pollution   
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 Changes in the Environment   
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         The Effects of Global Warming   
  Solutions   
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        Global Warming Conferences   
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        Global Development Orgs & the Environment  
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        Saving the Rain Forest   

 
Internal
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 Outline on an  Introduction to Global Warming
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  UNIPCC
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  -  Supplement:  EPA on Global Warming
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  -  Supplement:  Frontline:  Timeline of the Science & Politics of Global Warming
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  GLOBAL WARMING IS AN INCREASE IN THE AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE   
  The term global warming, as used in most contexts today, refers to human caused planetary warming, but in fact global warming & cooling has occurred throughout history 
 
  Since the late 1800s, the average temperature has increased about 0.9 to 1.6 Fahrenheit degrees (0.5 to 0.9 Celsius degree).  . 
 
  Many experts estimate that the average temperature will rise btwn 3 & 8 additional Fahrenheit degrees (1.5 & 4.5 Celsius degrees) by 2100
 
  The current rate of increase of temp is several times faster than global rates that typically occurred over long periods in the past
 
  THE CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING ARE NATURAL & HUMAN & 
NOT TOTALLY UNDERSTOOD, WHICH CREATES POLITICAL BICKERING 
 
 
 Scientists disagree about the importance of various causes & potential impacts of the warming trend
 
Link
 See Also:  The Factors Contributing to Global Warming   
 
 In general, it is believed that the greenhouse effect is responsible for global warming & human's burning fossil fuels is on the the major contributors to increasing the greenhouse effect
 
  The atmosphere acts like a layer of blankets around the earth, trapping solar radiation, which keeps the planet warm   
 
 The Earth would be as cold as the moon w/o the greenhouse effect 
 
  CO2 is one of those blankets, traps heat  
  The primary greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide ( CO2 ), methane ( CH4 ), nitrous oxide ( NO ), & others   
  Human activity adds to all of these gases in the atmosphere   
  But if we release too much CO2 the blanket is too thick & we get hot  
  Human activity, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, releases carbon, & creates CO2   
 Link
 See Also:  The Greenhouse Effect   
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF GLOBAL WARMING IS THE MOST COMPLEX SCIENCE QUESTION OF ALL TIME 
SET IN A TUMULTUOUS GEOPOLITICAL CONTEXT 
 
 
 To understand the any env problem, but esp the global warming, one needs to understand social construction of science
 
 
 Because global warming is a truly global problem, & because there are both natural & social / human causes, the science, physical & social, of the issue is perhaps one of the most complicated issues facing humankind
 
 
 The social / poltical construction of science masks the real dilemmas found in any attempt to develop policy from science 
 
  The envl / global warming debate swings from alarmism to pacifism because envl science, like any issue, can become politicized when uncertainties are emphasized, overlooked, focused on one pt of view, etc.   
 
 Global warming & any global issues exist in the socio hist context that is a combination of post cold war relations, post 9-11 relations & the war on terrorism, post indlism, & the growing econ dev of semi peripheral & peripheral nations such as China, India, Brazil, & the Democratic Republic of Congo, & Bolivia, respectively 
 
 
 THE SOLUTIONS TO GLOBAL WARMING OCCUR ON THE PERSONAL LEVEL & THE SOCIAL / POLITICAL LEVEL 
 
 
 People can make choices that make a real difference such as switching to energy efficient light bulbs, recycling, using reusable shopping bags, etc. 
 
  Govt & world instits are considering policies that encouraging instit such as businesses to reduce energy use, limit CO2 production, save forests, etc.   
  Two major lines of action are currently being pursued to limit global warming & improve the env:  global warming conferences & the modification of the ops of global development instit   
Link
 See Also:  Global Warming Conferences  
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 See Also:  Global Development Orgs & the Env   
  The debate on global warming & the env in general often reflects rich nations' interests, & ignores the semi peripheral & peripheral nations' interests  
  In the media & the public consciousness, the debate on global warming goes back & fourth btwn alarmism to pacifism, & what is needed is reasonable debate & action   

 
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 Outline on the  Commons
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  THE COMMONS IS PROPERTY THAT IS HELD BY THE PUBLIC   
  The commons is any resources held in common by the people   
  Today we often, but not always, call the commons public property   
 
 The commons is the opposite of private property or land which has a designated national sovereign 
 
  The commons includes resources that are not private property or public property, in that the commons includes resources for which no person, nation, etc. has ownership, & yet it has not been designated as public property   
  THE NATURE OF PUBLIC PROPERTY HAS CHANGED DRAMATICALLY OVER TIME   
 
 Our notion of private property is greatly expanded as compared to that of the middle ages 
 
  In the Mid Ages, peasants, i.e. the commoners had private property in the sense of their homes & personal possessions, but in another sense their sovereign, King, actually owned that property   
  All material property, & the people belonged to the sovereign, but in another sense it belonged to the Kingdom in that the ruler only had limited rights of bequeathal in that in most cases he could only bequeath to the eldest son   
  The term commons originally referred to the common people as distinguished from their rulers or a ruling class   
  The commons indicated the body of people not ennobled, as represented in England by the lower house of Parliament House of Commons   
  Later the term commons came to denote the food provided at a common table   
  The commons as the food provided by ruler represented the expanded obligation of the ruler to the people, & the right of the people to require the ruler to provide particular goods & services to them   
  The obligation of the ruler / right of the people finally expanded to include access to land held in common, i.e. the commons   
  THE 'TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS' IS THAT EVERYONE TRIES TO EXPLOIT IT AS MUCH AS THEY CAN   
 
 The dilemma of the commons is that if I exploit the env, I benefit but everyone else loses; if I don't exploit, I lose & everyone else wins 
 
  Today the public property has relatively clearly defined protections that generally prevent individualistic exploitation   
  However, there is still large amts of resources that are not private or public property & therefore are 'the commons of modernity'   
  Examples of the commons of modernity include the public property, & the oceans, Antarctica, the Arctic, space, moon, the EM - spectrum, & parts of the env which cannot be made into private property such as the air, some bodies of water, many wild species of flora & fauna, etc.   
  The tragedy of the commons is seen in that commons areas are often 1st area threatened by misuse   
  Everyone can use the commons, but no one is responsible for it   
  It is to an individual's advantage to use the commons as much as possible since it is free   
  Others may use the commons up if I don't get it first   
  Grazing on public land encourages individuals, including corps, to graze as many cattle as possible w/o concern for the land   
  Wood cutting on public land encourages individuals, including corps, to log as much as possible w/o concern for the land   
  Agriculture industry grows as much as possible to max profits in the short term, w/o a long term concern for the land   
  Note that these relationships do not necessarily change even w/ private property because capitalism has created an ethic of max profits today, w/o concern for the next gen, even if they are your own family   
  W/ private land there is a greater chance for responsible use because a limited number of people may use the resource, & one person / grp is responsible  
 
 THE COMMONS IS AN 'INDICATOR SPECIES' IN THAT IT'S HEALTH IS REPRESENTATIVE OF ENVL HEALTH IN GENERAL 
 
 
 Healthy societies have had healthy commons policies 
 
  This develops a sense of cooperation & common responsibility   
  Commons areas are often the first to be threatened by misuse   
 
 NATIONS ARE GAINING SOVEREIGNTY OVER SOME COMMON AREAS & DESIGNATING OTHER AREAS AS 'COMMONS' 
 
  Intl bodies such as UN & EC see envl issues as a way to build their orgs:  this is their legit territory  
  It is hard for nations to argue against the commons w/o appearing to be self interested   
 
 The envl mvmt is a creator of the modern commons 
 
  The envl mvmt has a greater vision for alt society than other soc mvmts as seen in it's critique of capitalism, alt value sys, alt soc, common property, etc.   
 
 LANDLORD - TENANT PROBLEM IS SIMILAR TO TRAGEDY OF COMMONS IN THAT USERS HAVE INCENTIVES TO EXPLOIT 
 
 
 Landlords pay capital investment costs 
 
 
 Tenants pay operating costs 
 
 
 Both tenants & landlords will tend to forego these costs, i.e. investments & operating costs, unless they have long term reasons not to 
 
  Landlords often have the long term interest of the value of bldg is going up   
  The tenant may have the long term interest of intending to stay as tenant for a long term   
  With the long term nature of the env, landlords do not see the value of, e.g., forest land as increasing after it is logged   
  Natural resource harvesters operate as tenants who are not going to stay   
 
 Landlords will not pay for good insulation unless property is increasing in value, & it benefits tenants so they can raise rents 
 
  SOLUTIONS TO THE COMMONS, LANDLORD - TENANT PROBLEMS INCLUDE PRIVATIZATION & REGULATION   
  The classic economists' solution to the commons landlord - tenant problem is to privatize everything   
  Modern economists advocate privatizing all resources, even those that are indivisible such as air, water, etc., via a stock mkt, share system   
  The classic liberals' solution to the commons landlord - tenant problem is public stewardship, i.e. govt ownership, mgt, & regulation of public property   
  Modern liberals advocate quasi public ownership by, for example, the Nature Conservancy, the people & the town of Boulder, CO, etc.   

 
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 Outline on the  Causes of Climate Change
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  INTRO:  CLIMATE MAY BE THOUGHT OF AS 'MACRO LEVEL WEATHER' 
 
  Climate is the weather of a place averaged over a length of time 
 
  The earth's climate varies from place to place, creating a variety of environments 
 
  Thus, in various parts of the earth, we find deserts; tropical rain forests; tundras (frozen, treeless plains); conifer forests, which consist of cone bearing trees & bushes; prairies; & coverings of glacial ice 
 
  THE EARTH HAS EXPERIENCED MANY TYPES OF CLIMATES IN IT'S 6 BILLION YR EXISTENCE 
 
  Climate also changes w/ time 
 
  For example, a thousand yrs ago, northern latitudes were milder than they are today 
 
  The warmer climate enabled Vikings from Iceland to settle on the southern coast of Greenland 
 
  But the colder climate that developed over the following centuries wiped out the settlements 
 
  GLOBAL WARMING IS ONE TYPE OF CLIMATE CHANGE 
 
  One major envl concern is that human activity may be changing the global climate 
 
  The burning of fossil fuels, coal, oil, & natural gas, to power motor vehicles, heat bldgs, generate electric energy, & perform various industrial tasks is increasing the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) gas released into the atmosphere 
 
  Fossil fuels contain carbon, & burning them produces CO2
 
  This gas slows the escape of heat released by the Earth into space 
 
  Thus, an increase in atmospheric CO2 may cause global warming, a rise in the temperature of the air next to the earth's surface   
  Global warming could change rainfall patterns, leading to shifts in plant & animal populations   
  It could also melt enough polar ice to raise the sea level, & it could increase the frequency & severity of tropical storms   
Link
 See Also:  The Effects of Global Warming   
 
 THROUGHOUT HISTORY, EARTH'S CLIMATE HAS BEEN RELATIVELY MILD & STABLE 
 
  While the climate changes over time, since the last ice age, Earth's climate has been relatively mild & stable   
  Within the past 1200 yrs, the period btwn about AD 950 & 1250 was mild   
  The yrs from about 1400 to 1850 were cool   
  Since then, global average temperatures generally have risen   
  About 18,000 yrs ago, a sheet of glacial ice up to 10,000 ft thick covered much of what is now Greenland, Canada, & the northern US  
  A warming trend gradually melted almost all the glaciers, except in Greenland  
  In Canada & the US, the last large fields of ice had disappeared by about 11,500 yrs ago  
  The warming trend ended after a mild period from 7,000 to 5,000 yrs ago, when the global average temperature was higher than it is today  
  Within the past 1,200 yrs, the period btwn about A.D. 950 & 1250 was mild  
  The yrs from about 1400 to 1850 were cool & since then, global average temperatures generally have risen  
  Past climate changes have been more dramatic, resulting in many much hotter eras than today, as well as many ice ages   
Link
 See Also:  Past Climate Changes   
  THE CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE ARE NATURAL & HUMAN   
  NATURAL IMPACTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE CONTINUE TODAY   
  Many natural processes influence a region's climate  
  Some of these processes, such as volcanic eruptions, are short lived & cause short term changes  
  Other processes, such as mountain building, occur over long periods & cause long term changes in climate  
  Human activity also may affect climate  
  Volcanic eruptions can cause short term cooling over large portions of the planet, especially if the eruptions throw large amounts of sulfur gases high into the atmosphere  
  The sulfur gases combine w/ moisture to produce droplets of sulfuric acid & tiny sulfate particles  
  The sulfur droplets & particles created by major volcanic eruptions absorb some solar radiation & reflect some back to space  
  As a result, less solar radiation reaches the earth's surface, & so air temperatures fall  
  Because the droplets & particles are so small, they can remain suspended in the atmosphere for months or yrs  
  Meanwhile, winds carry them around the globe  
  Scientists believe that volcanic eruptions can cause a maximum global cooling of about 2 Fahrenheit degrees (1 Celsius degree)  
  In 1991, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines threw large amounts of sulfur gases high into the atmosphere  
  This eruption likely caused a drop of 1.1 Fahrenheit degree in the global average temperature during the following few yrs  
  Changes in ocean circulation can alter the climate  
  For example, changes in ocean currents that occur during El Nino can affect the climate for a yr or two  
  El Nino is a large scale interaction btwn the tropical atmosphere & tropical oceans that happens about every two to seven yrs  
  Changes in the air pressure over the tropical Pacific Ocean cause the trade winds there to weaken or even reverse direction  
  This change enables the warm waters of the ocean surface to drift from the western tropical Pacific to the eastern tropical Pacific  
  This flow makes sea surface temperatures lower than usual over the western tropical Pacific & higher than usual over the eastern tropical Pacific  
  The sea surface temperature changes, in turn, alter the circulation of the atmosphere in tropical & middle latitudes  
  These alterations cause weather extremes in various parts of the world  
  Heavy rains drench the normally arid coastal plain of western So America, drought is more likely in Hawaii & eastern Australia, & winters are wetter than normal along the Gulf of Mexico coast  
 Link
 Activity on the sun's surface may affect the earth's climate for short periods  
  Changes in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere may cause short term & long term variations in the climate  
  Atmospheric CO2 slows the flow of heat from the earth to space  
  This gas absorbs heat that radiates from the earth's surface & radiates heat back to the surface  
  Human activity is currently increasing the level of atmospheric CO2, but this level has varied significantly throughout the history of the earth  
  With past variations in atmospheric CO2, the global climate has warmed or cooled  
  For example, about 100 mm yrs ago, volcanic activity on the floor of the Pacific Ocean released enough CO2 to cause global warming of perhaps 18 Fahrenheit degrees   
Link
 See Also:  The Greenhouse Effect  
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 Changes in the Earth's orbit about the sun may cause climate changes over tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of yrs  
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 Continental drift is an extremely slow process that influences the climate over periods of tens of millions of yrs  
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 Mountain building, another extremely slow process, likely helped set the stage for the ice ages during the Pleistocene Epoch.   
 
 HUMAN IMPACTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE ARE INCREASING & CONTINUE TODAY   
 
 Human activity also affects the climate
 
 
 The building of cities, the clearing of forests, & the burning of oil, coal, & natural gas can all cause climatic changes
 
 
 Climatologists disagree, however, about the impact that human activity has had on climate, particularly on the recent global warming trend
 
  The burning of fossil fuels has contributed to recent increases in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere  
  See Also:  Fossil Fuels & Global Warming   
  Economic development & urbanization have been shown to have a direct impact on the climate, creating 'heat sinks' in the env  
Link
 See Also:  Urbanization & the Env  
 
 Deforestation & other forestry practices have been shown to have a direct impact on the climate because deforested areas result in hotter, dryer ecozones, deforestation releases CO2, etc. 
 
Link
 See Also:  Deforestation   
  One of the best ways to gain understanding of climate is by exploring climate change throughout the Earth's history   
Link
 See Also:  Past Climate Change  

 
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Solar changing conditions affect the Earth's climate 

Sunspots are dark, relatively cool blotches that appear on the surface of the sun 
Faculae are relatively bright, hot areas on the solar surface 
The number of sunspots & faculae increases & decreases over a cycle of about 11 yrs 
The ave amt of energy given off by the sun is slightly higher during a sunspot maximum, when the # of sunspots & faculae is hi 
The average amount is slightly lower during a sunspot minimum, when the number is lo 
Climatologists are not sure about the relationship btwn changes on the sun's surface & variations in the Earth's climate 
During the period from 1645 to 1715, the number of sunspots was unusually low. 
This episode corresponds to a portion of the Little Ice Age, a time of relatively cool conditions. 
Climatologists have not proved, however, that the reductions in the number of sunspots caused the cooling


 
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Earth's changing orbit affects the Earth's climate 

Milutin Milankovitch, a Serbian mathematician, proposed in the 1940's that three orbital variations change how sunlight is distributed seasonally & geographically over the planet: 
(1) a precession (wobble) of the earth's axis, 
(2) a variation in the tilt of the axis, & 
(3) a variation in the path of the orbit. 
The precession of the axis varies over a period of 23,000 yrs 
This cycle alters the times of the yr when Earth is closest to the sun & farthest from the sun 
The tilt of the axis changes from 22.1° to 24.5° over a period of 41,000 yrs 
This cycle affects the contrast btwn winter & summer temperatures 
The path of the orbit varies over a period of 100,000 yrs 
The orbit is always elliptical, that is, shaped like a flattened circle 
But during the 100,000 yr cycle, the amount of flatness changes from a max to a min, then back to the max 
This variation changes the distance btwn the earth & sun over the course of a yr 
These three orbital cycles probably have altered global temperatures at regular intervals throughout the Earth's history 
Climatologists believe that the cycles may have governed the major fluctuations in Earth's glacial ice cover during the Pleistocene Epoch, the period from about 2 mm yrs ago to 11,500 yrs ago 
The three cycles probably produced temperature changes that caused the ice cover to expand & contract at regular intervals 


 
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Continental drift affects the Earth's climate 

Earth's solid outer shell, which is typically 60 mi thick, is divided into about 30 large plates that move slowly over the surface of the globe 
The continents are embedded in these plates & slowly drift w/ them, a process known as continental drift 
About 200 million yrs ago, there was just one huge continent, called Pangaea 
Pangaea split into fragments that drifted apart & eventually reached their present locations as the continents we know today 
Continental drift helps explain the presence of coral reef fossils in Wisconsin & of tropical plant fossils in areas north of the Arctic Circle 
When the coral & plants were alive, Wisconsin & the arctic regions were at much lower latitudes than they are today


 
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Mountain building affects the Earth's climate 

Mountain building, another extremely slow process, likely helped set the stage for the ice ages during the Pleistocene Epoch 
About 30 mm to 40 mm yrs ago, the Himalaya & the adjacent Tibetan plateau began to rise in southern Asia 
At about the same time, mountain building began in the western part of the US
Half the total uplift of the Himalaya & the Colorado Plateau may have occurred w/in the past 10 mm yrs 
The rise of these massive landforms likely altered the wind belts that encircle the planet 
As a result, the earth's climate became more diverse, wetter, & colder 


 
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 Outline on the  Factors Contributing to Global Warming
External
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  -  Project:  Factors Contributing to Global Warming 
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 THE CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING ARE NATURAL & HUMAN, & PRIMARILY RELATED TO CO2
 
 
 The factors contributing global warming / climate change are both natural & human
 
  The fact that climate change occurs over a very long time, hundreds, even thousands of yrs, & the fact that there are natural & human factors impacting it, makes determining the causes of global warming very difficult   
 
 Most climatologists (scientists who study climate) believe that human activities have contributed to the trend by enhancing the earth's natural greenhouse effect
 
 
 The greenhouse effect warms the surface of the earth through a complex process involving sunlight, gases, & particles in the atmosphere
 
  GREENHOUSE GASES CAUSE GLOBAL WARMING  
  The leading cause of global warming is thought to be an increase in greenhouse gases   
  Since the mid 1800s, human activities, chiefly the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, & natural gas) & the clearing of land, have increased the amounts of heat trapping atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases  
  The burning of fossil fuels produces the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide  
  Most of this burning occurs in buildings, automobiles, electric power plants, & industrial facilities  
 
 Although researchers have not yet fully proved that the increase in greenhouse gases has raised the surface temperature, many climatologists consider such a relationship likely
 
 
 A much smaller number of scientists argue that the increase in greenhouse gases has not made a measurable difference in the climate
 
Link
 See Also:  The Greenhouse Effect   
  GLOBAL WARMING DENIERS CLAIM THAT NATURAL CLIMATE CHANGE CAUSES GLOBAL WARMING   
  Global warming deniers embrace a number of alternative theories to explain global warming  
 
 Global warming deniers say that the warming trend is a normal change in the climate system
 
 
 They argue that natural processes, such as increases in the energy emitted (given off) by the sun, could have caused global warming  
 
 But the greater weight of evidence suggests that an unusual climate change is occurring & that human activities are at least partly responsible for it  
 
 THERE ARE MANY FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO GREENHOUSE GASES
 
  The burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases   
  The clearing of land reduces the amount of carbon dioxide that trees & other plants remove from the atmosphere in a process called photosynthesis  
Link
 See Also:  Fossil Fuels & Global Warming   
  The burning of wood releases greenhouse gases   
 Link
  See Also:  Deforestation 
 
  Various other manufacturing practices & product uses release greenhouse gases such as CFCs  
 
 SOME FACTORS HEAT THE GLOBE DIRECTLY 
 
  Deforestation, desertification creates hot, dry eco regions   
 
 Urbanization creates hot, dry eco regions 
 
 Link
 See Also:  Urbanization   

 
Internal
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Top
 Outline on the Greenhouse Effect
External
Links
   -  Project:  The Greenhouse Effect & Your Carbon Footprint 
Link
 
 THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT OCCURS BECAUSE THE ATMOSPHERE TRAPS HEAT 
 
 
 Greenhouse effect is a warming of the lower atmosphere & surface of a planet by a complex process involving sunlight, gases, & particles in the atmosphere
 
 
 On the earth, the greenhouse effect began long before human beings existed 
 
 
 However, recent human activity may have added to the effect
 
 
 The amounts of heat trapping atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases, have greatly increased since the mid 1800s, when modern industry became widespread
 
 
 Since the late 1800s, the temperature of the earth's surface has also risen
 
 
 The greenhouse effect is so named because the atmosphere acts much like the glass roof & walls of a greenhouse, trapping heat from the sun
 
  The greenhouse effect is like a car w/ the windows rolled up; it get much hotter than the surrounding air   
  Short wave length light enters the car & when it is reflected off the interior, it becomes longer wave length… short wave length high energy  
  The long wavelength. longer waves cannot escape through the glass  
 
 THE NATURAL GREENHOUSE EFFECT MODERATES THE EARTH'S CLIMATE 
 
 
 The atmosphere reflects toward space about 30 % of the energy in incoming sunlight
 
 
 The atmosphere absorbs about another 30 %, & the remaining 40 % or so reaches the earth's surface
 
 
 The earth's surface reflects about 15 % of the solar energy that reaches it back toward space
 
 
 The remaining 25 % of energy from the sun heats the lands & seas
 
 
 The Images of the Greenhouse Effect shows that, in a delicate balance, some of the Sun's energy is kept on Earth, & that some is reflected back into space, & that any changes in this process can heat or cool the Earth 
Link
 
 The warmed lands & seas then send most of the heat back into the atmosphere, chiefly as infrared rays & in evaporated water
 
 
 Infrared rays are much like light waves but are invisible to the human eye 
 
 
 When the rays from the lands & seas strike certain substances in the atmosphere, such as greenhouse gases % particles, those substances absorb the rays
 
 
 As a result of being exposed to the reflected infrared light, the gases & particles are heated
 
 
 They then are cooled by sending out infrared rays of their own
 
 
 Some of the rays go into space
 
 
 The remainder radiate back toward the earth's surface, adding to the warming of the surface layer of air
 
  Without the natural greenhouse effect, the average temperature of the earth's surface would be about 59 Fahrenheit degrees (33 Celsius degrees) colder than it is now  
  The chief greenhouse gases are made up of atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), & oxygen (O)  
  The chief greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, & ozone  
  The greenhouse particles include cloud droplets, soot, & dust   
  INCREASES IN GREENHOUSE GASES HAVE OCCURRED BECAUSE OF HUMAN ACTIVITY   
  Human activity has caused small but important changes in the composition of the air  
  The amounts of many gases in the air, such as carbon dioxide, are increasing at significant rates  
  Since the early to mid 1800s, the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased by about 25 % & the methane concentration has risen by about 150 %  
  Levels of methane & nitrous oxide have more than doubled, & there were no chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the atmosphere before 1930  
  CFCs are synthetic substances that were formerly used widely as refrigerants in air conditioners & refrigerators & as propellants in aerosol spray products  
  Most of the increase has been due to human activities, chiefly the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, & natural gas & the clearing of land   
  Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere whenever coal, oil, or other fuels containing carbon are burned  
  Fossil fuels contain carbon, & burning them creates carbon dioxide  
  Trees & other plants absorb the gas through the process of photosynthesis  
  As land is cleared & forests are cut down, carbon dioxide levels rise  
  The average temp of the earth's surface has increased by about 0.9 to 1.6 Fahrenheit degrees (0.5 to 0.9 Celsius degree) since the late 1800s  
  Scientists have not yet proved that an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has raised the surface temperature  
  But in the likely event that the relationship btwn CO2 & temp does exist, the eventual results could be severe  
  Many scientists estimate that by about 2050, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will have doubled from the pre industrial level  
  If this increase were to add to the natural greenhouse effect, the earth's surface temperature might rise btwn 3 & 8 Fahrenheit degrees (1.5 & 4.5 Celsius degrees) by 2100   
  Many scientists believe that the increases in the gases & the introduction of CFCs has strengthened the greenhouse effect  
  A strengthening of the greenhouse effect would produce global warming, an increase in the average temperature of the earth's surface  
  CFCs ARE HUMAN MADE CHEMICALS WHICH BOTH CONTRIBUTE TO THE GREENHOUSE 
EFFECT & DESTROY ATMOSPHERIC OZONE WHICH PROTECTS US FROM UV RAYS		  
  CFCs are also involved in the weakening of the protective layer of ozone in the stratosphere & troposphere  
  CFCs are harmless near the ground, but cause damage when they drift up into the stratosphere & troposphere  
  There, CFCs break apart & release chlorine atoms  
  The chlorine reacts w/ the ozone, converting it into ordinary oxygen molecules  
  This conversion enables an increased amount of harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth's surface  
  In 1990, the US & most other industrialized countries agreed to stop production of most CFCs  
  But the core nations continue to produce CFCs in semi peripheral & peripheral nations & sell them there   
  STUDYING THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT SHOWS A HIGH LIKELIHOOD THAT 
HUMANS HAVE INCREASED IT & THAT IT LEADS TO GLOBAL WARMING		  
  Researchers use high speed computers to study how carbon dioxide concentration may affect surface temperature  
  The computers manipulate mathematical models, sets of equations that describe relationships btwn changeable factors  
  Scientists do not have enough data to prove that variations in carbon dioxide & other human caused changes to atmospheric composition cause shifts in surface temperature  
  They may need until the 2010s to gather enough data, but certain models suggest that the 2010's may be too late to avoid some damage from global warming  
  Scientists have also examined evidence from the distant past to determine whether changes in carbon dioxide concentration cause temperature changes  
  Cores of ice drilled from great depths in Greenland & Antarctica provide a record for the past 160,000 years  
  During the past 160,000 years, the climate warmed & cooled several times  
  Researchers analyzed the gases & other substances that were trapped in the ice when it formed  
  During the cooler periods, the atm contained about 30 % less carbon & 50 % less methane than during the warmer periods   

 
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 Outline on the  Carbon Footprint
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  -  Project:  The Greenhouse Effect & Your Carbon Footprint 
Link
 
 A CARBON FOOTPRINT IS THE REPRESENTATION OF THE NET AMOUNT OF CARBON BASED GREENHOUSE GASES THAT ONE RELEASES INTO THE ENV 
 
 
 A carbon footprint is the amount of C02 & other carbon compounds emitted due to the consumption of fossil fuels by a particular person, group, etc. either directly or indirectly 
 
  A carbon footprint includes the direct consumption of a fuel such as gasoline which releases C02, or indirectly through the consumption of a product such as a pair of shoes which used energy to make & therefore consumed some fuel & released some C02   
  When talking about climate change, a carbon footprint is a metaphor for the total impact that something has on the climate   
  A carbon footprint would include everything one does to create greenhouse gases as well as what one does to eliminate greenhouse gases   
  One creates greenhouse gases when one burns gasoline & one reduces greenhouse gases when one plants a tree   
Carbon footprint is a shorthand for sum total of all the different greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming that one is responsible for creating in the env   
  The total carbon footprint is difficult to calculate b/c of the large amt of data required & the fact that carbon dioxide can be produced by natural occurrences 
 
  Wright, Kemp, & Williams, writing in the journal Carbon Mgt, suggest a  narrower definition where carbon footprint is measure of the total amt of CO2 & methane (CH4) emissions of a defined population, system or activity, considering all relevant sources, sinks & storage w/in the spatial & temporal boundary of the population, system or activity of interest 
 
  The term carbon footprint is a shorthand to describe the best est that we can get of the full climate change impact of something including an activity, an item, a lifestyle, a company, a country or even the whole world 
 
  Carbon footprint is the result of direct & indirect emissions & absorption of C02 & methane, which are the two most common greenhouse gases 
 
  The true carbon footprint of a plastic toy, for example, includes not only direct emissions resulting from the manufacturing process & the transportation of the toy to the shop: it also includes a whole host of indirect emissions, such as those caused by the extraction & processing of the oil used to make the plastic in the first place.
 
  The true carbon footprint of driving a car includes not only the emissions that come out of the exhaust pipe, but also all the emissions that take place when oil is extracted, shipped, refined into fuel & transported to the gas station, not to mention the substantial emissions caused by producing & maintaining the car 
 
  Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average US household come from 'indirect' sources, ie fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer 
 
  THE CONCEPT OF THE CARBON FOOTPRINT GREW OUT OF THE ECOLOGY PT OF VIEW THAT EMPHASIZES THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS OF ALL LIFE PROCESSES, FOCUSING ON HOW HUMAN PROCESSES INTERACT W/ ALL PHYSICAL & BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES 
 
  The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint, discussion, which was developed by Rees & Wackernagel in the 1990s which est the number of 'earths' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint 
 
  Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere 
 
  A carbon footprint has historically been defined by Championne as 'the total sets of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person'   
  THERE ARE MANY CARBON CALCULATORS AVAILABLE, VARYING IN THEIR DETAIL & COMPLEXITY 
 
  One of the most well researched & accept carbon footprint calculators is done by the University of CA Berkeley Cool Climate Network Research Consortium   
  http://coolclimate.berkeley.edu/about
 Link
  THE MOST COMMON WAY TO REDUCE A CARBON FOOTPRINT IS TO REDUCE, REUSE, & RECYCLE   
  Reduction in the amount of energy, products, food, land, etc that one consumes reduces ones carbon footprint   
  Reduction in the amount of garbage, pollution, haz mat, water, etc that one discards reduces ones carbon footprint   
  Using reusable items such as thermoses for daily coffee or plastic containers for water & other cold beverages rather than disposable ones   
  If a reusable option is not available, it is best to use items that can be properly recycled after the disposable items is used   
  When one household recycles at least half of their household waste, they can save 1.2 tons of carbon dioxide annually  
  An easy option based on reduction is to drive less; by walking or biking to the destination rather than driving, not only is a person going to save money on gas, but they will be burning less fuel & releasing fewer emissions into the atmosphere   
  If walking is not an option, one can look into simply catching a ride w/ a friend, carpooling, or mass transportation   
  Reducing the carbon footprint can be done by using less air conditioning & heating in the home & mostly importantly, at work   
  Insulation to the walls & attic of one's home, & installing weather stripping or caulking around doors & windows one can lower their heating costs more than 25 %   
  Very inexpensively upgrading the clothing or 'insulation' worn by residents of the home or wkplace can allows a person to remain warm w/ the thermostat lowered by about 10° F, which reduces carbon emissions by almost 10 %   
  Choice of diet is a major influence on a person's carbon footprint b/c some foods have a much higher carbon footprint in production than do others   
  The consumption of meat has a large carbon footprint that eating fish or a vegetarian diet b/c it takes a large amt of animal feed to produce a relatively small amt of meat   
  In the developed nations, modern industrial agricultural methods have a larger carbon footprint than do traditional ag methods   
  While modern industrial agricultural methods are more efficient by Western standards, when judged by ecological standards, they are less efficient & unsustainable in the long run   
  modern industrial agricultural farmers & ag engineers are seeking methods which have smaller carbon footprints & are sustainable in the long run   
  Rice has a large carbon footprint b/c it is typically produced in high methane emitting paddies   
  Foods that is transported long distance &/or via fuel inefficient transport, such as highly perishable produce flown long distance has a large carbon footprint   
  Heavily processed & packaged foods typically have a large carbon footprint both b/c they are produced through mechanized erg techniques which have a large carbon footprint & b/c highly processing & packaging food for convenience is also a carbon intensive process   

 
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 Outline on  Fossil Fuels & Global Warming
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  BURNING FOSSIL FUELS IS ONE OF THE MAJOR PRODUCERS OF CO2
 
  The burning of fossil fuels has contributed to recent increases in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere 
 
  Since the mid 1800s, the level of atmospheric CO2 has risen about 25 %, mainly because of an increased use of fossil fuels for transportation, space heating, & generation of electric energy 
 
  The primary fossil fuels are coal, oil, & natural gas   
  Fossil fuels, ground water, & topsoil take 1000s to millions of years to form  
  Each of Earth's resources contain part of the carbon found on the planet: 
oceans
fossil fuels
organisms
forests
atmosphere		 71 %
22 %
  3 %
  3 %
  1 %
 
  GLOBAL TEMP & CO2 INCREASES CORRELATE 
 
  Climatologists disagree about the impact that the burning of fossil fuels & the clearing of forests have had on climate 
 
  Global temperature records indicate that a warming trend began in the late 1800s 
 
  It was interrupted by an episode of cooling from about 1940 to the late 1970s 
 
  The cooling effect of the Mount Pinatubo eruption also interrupted the trend in the early 1990s 
 
  Some scientists argue that the buildup of atmospheric CO2 due to human activities has caused the warming trend 
 
  Others argue that recent warming is merely a natural fluctuation of the climate 
 
  The burning of fossil fuels may contribute to global warming by adding carbon dioxide gas to the Earth's atmosphere 
 
  Fossil fuels produce this gas when they burn 
 
  The added carbon dioxide would contribute to global warming by enhancing the greenhouse effect   
  The greenhouse effect warms the Earth's lower atmosphere & surface through a complex process involving sunlight & atmospheric gases & particles   
 
 EXPERTS EXPECT AN INCREASE IN FOSSIL FUEL UTILIZATION 
 
 
 Most experts predict that the worldwide demand for petroleum will continue to increase in the yrs ahead 
 
 
 They also predict that the world's dependence on oil from the Middle East will increase   
  In addition, most experts believe that oil will become scarce sometime in the mid 2000's unless large new deposits are found or alternate energy sources are discovered   
  ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY ARE BEING DEVELOPED TO REPLACE FOSSIL FUELS   
  The only long range solution to the energy problem is the introduction of alternative sources of energy   
  Scientists have developed techniques to convert coal into oil & gas, & to produce oil from bituminous sands & oil shale   
  However, these processes are expensive, & many of them have envl problems of their own   
  But if oil prices continue to increase, alternative sources eventually may be able to compete in cost w/ petroleum   
  It will probably be many yrs before alternative fuel sources make a major contribution to the world's energy supply   
  Until then, oil companies & oil consumers will need to conserve existing reserves by using energy as efficiently & sparingly as possible   
  THE CONSUMPTION OF FOSSIL FUELS CREATES 80 % OF CO2 EMISSIONS   
 Link
 The Map of the Contributions to Global Warming redefines the relative area of countries & regions of the world using histl CO2 emissions from fossil fuel consumption demonstrating that the core nations produce the most greenhouse gases in absolute numbers as well as on a per capita basis   
  In this map countries & regions were drawn at a scale proportional to their percent contribution to the world's supply of carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels  
  CO2 emissions shown are from 1900 to 1999, to reflect CO2s approximate atmospheric residence time.  
  Of the industrialized countries & regions, the US & Europe contributed the most to the world's carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels during this time period, 30 % & 28 %, respectively   
  Of the developing countries & regions, China, India & developing Asia contributed the most (12.2%)   
  The time period of 1977-1999 accounts for half of these figures as fossil fuel usage increased over the last 50 years  
  Emissions from the burning of fossil fuels are responsible for roughly 80 % of yearly CO2 emissions worldwide  
  According to the United States Department of Energy, carbon dioxide is one of the most significant of the "greenhouse gases" contributing to the greenhouse effect   
  The greenhouse effect is caused by an increase in the Earth's temperature as heat energy from sunlight is trapped by the gaseous atmosphere  

 
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Map of the Contributions to Global Warming: 
Historic Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Fossil Fuel Combustion, 1900-1999

The Map of the Contributions to Global Warming redefines the relative area of countries & regions of the world using histl CO2 emissions from fossil fuel consumption demonstrating that the core nations produce the most greenhouse gases in absolute numbers as well as on a per capita basis 


 
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 Outline on  Forests
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  A FOREST IS TREES & MUCH, MUCH MORE & THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF THE PARTS   
  Forest is a large area of land covered w/ trees, but a forest is much more than just trees   
  It also includes smaller plants, such as mosses, shrubs, & wild flowers   
  In addition, many kinds of birds, insects, & other animals make their home in the forest   
  Millions upon millions of living things that can only be seen under a microscope also live in the forest   
  Climate, soil, & water determine the kinds of plants & animals that can live in a forest   
  ECOSYSTEMS ARE CYCLES OF LIFE & OTHER NATURAL PROCESSES   
  The living things & their env together make up the forest ecosystem   
  An ecosystem consists of all the living & nonliving things in a particular area & the relationships among them  
  The forest ecosystem is highly complicated   
  The trees & other green plants use sunlight to make their own food from the air & from water & minerals in the soil  
  The plants themselves serve as food for certain animals.  These animals, in turn, are eaten by other animals  
  After plants & animals die, their remains are broken down by bacteria & other organisms, such as protozoans & fungi  
  This process returns minerals to the soil, where they can again be used by plants to make food  
  Although individual members of the ecosystem die, the forest itself lives on  
  If the forest is wisely managed, it provides us w/ a continuous source of wood & many other products  
  THE CARBON CYCLE IS ONE OF THE NATURAL CYCLES IN THE FORESTS & ALL ECOSYSTEMS   
  The balance carbon cycle in the forest is critical to the balance of the carbon cycle on the Earth  
  One step in the arboreal carbon cycle occurs when trees & other plants take carbon from the air by breathing in CO2  
  The carbon is contained, or sequestered in the living plants, such as the wood of the trees themselves   
  As the plants die, some of the carbon is released back into the atm by burning, or natural decomposition   
  Some carbon becomes part of the soil & is available as soil for other plants to use, or simply remains sequestered in the soil   
  THERE IS HALF THE AMT FORESTED LAND TODAY AS COMPARED TO 12 K YRS AGO   
  Before people began to clear the forests for farms & cities, great stretches of forest land covered about 60 % of the earth's land area  
  Today, forests occupy about 30 % of the land  
  The forests differ greatly from one part of the world to another  
  For example, the steamy, vine choked rain forests of central Africa are far different from the cool, towering spruce & fir forests of northern Canada  
 
 FORESTS ARE A KEY FEATURE IN THE CYCLICAL FLOW OF GLOBAL ECOSYSTEMS 
 
 
 Forests help conserve & enrich the env in several ways
 
  WATER   
  For example, forest soil soaks up large amounts of rainfall
 
  It thus prevents the rapid runoff of water that can cause erosion & flooding
 
  In addition, rain is filtered as it passes through the soil & becomes ground water
 
  This ground water flows through the ground & provides a clean, fresh source of water for streams, lakes, & wells
 
  AIR   
  Forest plants, like all green plants, help renew the atmosphere
 
  As the trees & other green plants make food, they give off oxygen
 
  They also remove carbon dioxide from the air
 
  People & nearly all other living things require oxygen 
 
  If green plants did not continuously renew the oxygen supply, almost all life would soon stop
 
  CARBON   
  If carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, it could severely alter the earth's climate
 
  Forests are a carbon sink or reservoir in that it stores very large amts of carbon 
 
  Besides the direct heating that affects the climate from deforested areas, deforestation removes stored carbon from the forest & transfers it to the atm in the form of CO2
 
Link
 See Also:  Deforestation   
 
 FORESTS ARE OUR SOURCES & RESERVES OF TYPICAL & RARE FLORA & FAUNA 
 
 
 Forests also provide a home for many plants & animals that can live nowhere else
 
 
 Without the forest, many kinds of wildlife could not exist
 
 
 FORESTS HAVE AN AESTHETIC VALUE WHICH ONLY NATURE CAN PROVIDE 
 
 
 The natural beauty & peace of the forest offer a special source of enjoyment
 
  In the US, Canada, & many other countries, huge forest lands have been set aside for people's enjoyment  
  Many people use these forests for such activities as camping, hiking, & hunting  
  Others visit them simply to enjoy the scenery & relax in the quiet beauty  

 
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 Outline on the  Rain Forest
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  RAIN FOREST IS A WOODLAND GENERALLY FOUND IN WET, TROPICAL AREAS 
 
Link
 The Map of the Earth's Rain Forests shows that the largest rain forests occur in tropical parts of the Americas, Asia, & Africa   
  Smaller areas of rain forest exist on many Pacific Islands & in parts of Australia's northeastern coast   
  Rain forests lie chiefly near the equator, in regions that receive some of the world's heaviest rainfall  
  A rain forest is a woodland of tall trees growing in a region of year round warmth & abundant rainfall 
 
  Almost all rain forests lie at or near the equator 
 
  No Am has temperate rain forests on the coast of southern AK, British Columbia, Washington state, & Oregon   
  The tropical rain forests on the equator forms an evergreen belt of lush vegetation that encircles the planet 
 
  German botanist Andreas FW Schimper first coined the term rain forest, in German, Regenwald, in 1898 
 
  Tropical rain forests occupy only 6 to 7 % of the Earth's surface 
 
  However, they support more than half of the world's plant & animal species 
 
  More kinds of frogs & other amphibians, birds, insects, mammals, & reptiles live in rain forests than in any other area 
 
  Scientists believe millions more rain forest species remain undiscovered 
 
  In spite of the benefits of rain forests, people cut down thousands of sq miles of rain forest each yr
 
  This destruction eliminates thousands of species of animals 
 
  A number of govts & conservation orgs are working to preserve the rain forests 
 
  RAIN FORESTS HAVE ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE IN ADDITION TO THEIR ECON VALUE 
 
  RAIN FORESTS REGULATE RAIN FALL & FLOODING   
 
 Tropical rain forests help regulate the Earth's env in several ways
 
 
 For example, tropical trees help control the amt of rain water that reaches the ground
 
 
 These trees absorb an enormous quantity of rain
 
 
 In a process called transpiration, much of this water evaporates from the trees' leaf pores & reenters the atm as vapor
 
  Eventually, the vapor condenses into water & falls to the Earth again as rain  
  Transpiration may account for as much as half of the rainfall in some rain forests   
  By regulating rainfall, rain forest trees keep floods & droughts from becoming too severe  
  The dense rain forest vegetation also reduces soil erosion  
  RAIN FORESTS REGULATE TEMPERATURES   
  Rain forests help control temperatures in their own regions & in other parts of the world  
  Rain forest trees absorb light & heat  
  This absorption keeps tropical climates from becoming too hot or too cold  
  The forests also take in & store massive amounts of CO2, preventing the build up of this gas in the atm  
  Scientists believe the accumulation of CO2 & other gases in the atm increases temperatures around the world  
  By absorbing CO2, tropical rain forests may help keep worldwide temperatures from becoming too warm   
  RAIN FORESTS SEQUESTER CARBON   
  Like all forests, rain forests store carbon in their plant matter, & in the decomposed plant matter in the soil   
  Like all forests, rain forests remove CO2 from the atm, store it in their woody matter as carbon, & release the oxygen back into the atm   
  HUMANS ARE CONSUMING THE RAIN FOREST   
  People are rapidly destroying the world's rain forests  
  In 1950, rain forests covered about 8,700,000 sq mi of the Earth  
  This area would cover about three fourths of Africa  
  Today, less than half the original extent of the Earth's rain forest remains  
  Few rain forest species can adjust to severe disturbance of their habitat  
  Most perish when people clear large areas of forest  
  In such regions as Madagascar, Sumatra, & the Atlantic coast of Brazil, only small patches still stand   
  Scientists estimate that tropical deforestation wipes out about 7,500 species per year  
Link
 See Also:  Deforestation   

 
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Map of the Earth's Rain Forests 
The Map of the Earth's Rain Forests shows that the largest rain forests occur in tropical parts of the Americas, Asia, & Africa 

 
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 Outline on the  Amazon Rain Forest
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  THE AMAZON RAIN FOREST IS THE WORLD'S LARGEST TROPICAL RAIN FOREST 
 
  It covers approximately 2 mm sq miles in the Amazon River Basin of So Am 
 
  About two thirds of the rain forest lies in Brazil & also occupies parts of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, & Venezuela
 
  The Amazon rain forest receives an average annual rainfall of 50 to 175 inches & temperatures average about 80 °F
 
 Link
 The Map on the Amazon Rain Forest shows that it covers much of northern So Am w/ about two thirds of the rain forest lying in Brazil & the rest occupying parts of several other lands 
 
  THE AMAZON HAS A DISTINCT STRUCTURE
 
  Trees in most of the Amazon rain forest grow in several distinct layers
 
  Some trees, called emergents, tower above the rest of the forest & may reach heights of over 165 ft
 
  The upper canopy generally grows 65 to 165 ft
 
  Plants called epiphytes, or air plants, thrive in this layer & include aroids, bromeliads, ferns, liverworts, mosses, & orchids
 
  One or two lower canopies consist of saplings of the trees found in the upper canopy, in addition to smaller trees & shrubs
 
  Lianas (woody vines) wind around tree trunks & branches, extending from the ground to the upper canopy
 
  The canopies get sunlight, but they prevent much light from reaching the forest floor  
  Most of the Amazon rain forest has infertile soil  
 
 THE FLORA IN THE AMAZON IS EXCEPTIONALLY DIVERSE 
 
 
 The Amazon rain forest contains a wider variety of plant & animal life than any other place in the world
 
 
 Tens of thousands of different plant species live there
 
  A 21/2-acre area of the rain forest may contain up to 280 or more species of trees  
  Many economically important plants live in the rain forest  
  They yield such products as Brazil nuts, cocoa, curare (an important drug), pineapples, & rubber  
  More than 1,500 species of birds make their homes in the rain forest  
  The region's rivers contain up to 3,000 species of fish  
  In addition, scientists believe that as many as 30 mm different insect species may live in the forest  
  THE AMAZON IS LOGGED FOR TIMBER & TO CREATE PASTURES   
  The world's rapid population growth & increasing demands for natural resources have seriously threatened the Amazon rain forest  
  Loggers cut down trees, which the lumber industry uses to make wood products  
  Ranchers & farmers clear land to use for grazing beef cattle & growing crops  
  The cycle of destruction takes many steps, including:  
  -  logging the 'commercial' timber  
  -  burning the slash which remains after logging  
  -  bull dozing the burnt slash, to clear the land for raising crops   
  -  raising crops, which depletes the weak soils after 5 or 10 yrs  
  -  converting depleted crop land to grazing   
  -  in some cases, the desertification of the pasture   
  The cycle of destruction is financed by the core nations who use the timber, crops, & animal products from the rain forests   
  One of main linkages btwn the econs of the core nations & the exploitation of the rain forest is the fast food ind which gets much of it's beef from deforested rain forests   
  REFORESTED RAIN FOREST DOES NOT REGAIN IT'S VIBRANCY   
  Areas of the rain forest that have been cleared can regenerate  
  However, regenerated areas are much less diverse than the original forest  
  About 10 % of the Amazon rain forest has been destroyed as of the yr 2000  
  Development, deforestation, & gold mining also threaten the culture of the few remaining native peoples of the Amazon rain forest  
  Many of these people depend on the forest to support themselves  

 
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Map on the Amazon Rain Forest 

The Map on the Amazon Rain Forest shows that it covers much of northern So Am w/ about two thirds of the rain forest lying in Brazil & the rest occupying parts of several other lands 


 
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 Outline on  Deforestation
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  DEFORESTATION BEGAN WHEN CIVILIZATION BEGAN, ABOUT 11,000 YRS AGO   
 
 Human activities have had tremendous impact on modern forests 
 
 
 Since ag began about 11,000 yrs ago, large forest areas have been cleared for farms & cities 
 
 
 Beginning in the 1800s, great expanses of forest have also been eliminated because of logging & indl pollution 
 
 
 The destruction & degrading of forests is called deforestation 
 
 
 DEFORESTATION HAS AFFECTED MOST OF THE EARTH'S FORESTS 
 
 
 Severe deforestation now occurs around the world, even in the most remote rain forests & boreal forests 
 
 
 Until the late 1940s, rain forests covered about 8.7 million sq mi of the Earth's land 
 
 
 Today, they cover less than half that area 
 
 
 Millions of acres or hectares of rain forests are destroyed each year 
 
 
 Since 1800, huge areas of temperate forests have also been cleared 
 
 
 Many parts of eastern North America, for example, have less than 2 % of even degraded forests remaining 
 
  LOGGING FOR TIMBER & TO CLEAR LAND FOR AG HAS DEFORESTED MANY AREAS   
  Commercial logging & the expansion of agriculture have damaged or wiped out extensive areas of rain forest   
  Huge mining projects, the construction of hydroelectric dams, & govt resettlement programs have also taken their toll   
  In the last 50 years half of tropical rain forest have been cut for timber or to make farmland   
  A complex mix of social, political, & econ factors has triggered these destructive activities   
  Rapid population growth & poverty often intensify the pressure to clear rain forest for short term econ benefits   
  Brazil, Indonesia, & other nations have cut down huge expanses of rain forest to create new settlements that allow people to move out of overcrowded cities   
  Moreover, the govts of many tropical countries are deeply in debt   
  This debt provides a strong motivation to gather as much as possible from the rain forest as quickly as possible   
  After clearing the forest to harvest wood & other products, people then commonly use the land to grow crops   
  LOGGING OCCURS NOT ONLY IN RAIN FORESTS, BUT ALSO IN TEMPERATE FORESTS   
  The developed nations continue to log both their own forests, & fund the deforestation around the world   
  Many temperate forests have been cleared for farms & cities, & many others have been cut down for fuel & lumber   
  Many Canadian forests have been heavily logged   
  The scale of Canadian deforestation now compares to that in the US   
  Many people in British Columbia & other provinces are greatly concerned about the destruction of original forests & the common practice of clear cutting (removing all trees) over large areas   
  ACID RAIN ALSO DEFORESTS LARGE AREAS   
  Industrial pollution is a chief cause of deforestation   
  Factories often release poisonous gases into the air & dangerous wastes into lakes & rivers   
  Air pollutants may combine w/ rain or other precipitation & fall to earth as acid rain   
  Acid rain & polluted bodies of water can restrict plant growth or even kill most plants in a forest   
  LOGGING & SCAVENGING DEFORESTS LARGE AREAS AS PEOPLE GATHER WOOD FOR FUEL FOR COOKING & FOR HEAT   
  Most of  the population of the world cooks & heats w/ wood   
  Heating & cooking w/ wood is often done in very inefficient stoves which also create large amts of air pollution & CO2  
  Many of the areas of the cradles of civilization & of ancient society from England to Italy to Greece to Judea to China & more were deforested as early people logged & scavenged  for  wood for construction, heat, & cooking   
  Many of the ancient areas which experienced ancient deforestation have had their climate / weather changed to such an extent that they are still impacted & remain largely w/o forests, esp Israel, the Sahara, & even the UK & Italy   
  DEFORESTATION FRAGMENTS FORESTS INTO MERE ISLANDS OF TREES 
UNABLE TO SUSTAIN THEIR NATURAL FLORA & FAUNA 		  
  Massive deforestation has made many remaining forest tracts small, isolated islands   
  As forests become smaller, their ability to sustain the full variety of plant species decreases   
  Many forests are so seriously degraded by logging activities that they fail to regenerate replacement forests   
  The destruction of forest ecosystems also destroys the habitats of many living creatures   
  Countless species of animals & plants have been wiped out by deforestation, & more are killed each year at an increasing rate   
  This deforestation places woodland animals in danger   
  Extensive logging in the Pacific Northwest of the US, for example, has destroyed much of the habitat of the spotted owl, threatening the existence of that species   
  DEFORESTATION HARMS PEOPLE TOO   
  Deforestation usually displaces forest peoples   
  When denied access to the forest, these peoples often lose important knowledge about rain forest species & their uses   
  Loss of such knowledge further threatens the survival of the forests   
  DEFORESTATION CAUSES FLOODS & LESS O2 PRODUCTION   
  Loss of forests has helped create many ecological problems   
  For example, rain water normally absorbed by the forests is causing more floods around the world   
  In addition, as forest areas decrease or degrade, the production of oxygen from photosynthesis also decreases   
 
 Oxygen renewal is vital to the survival of oxygen breathing organisms 
 
 
 DEFORESTATION CREATES MORE GREENHOUSE GAS, ESP CO2
 
 
 At the same time, as less carbon dioxide is taken up by photosynthesis, the amounts of carbon dioxide released into the air increases 
 
  The clearing of forests also contributes to the buildup of atmospheric CO2 by reducing the rate at which the gas is removed from the air   
  Trees & other green plants remove CO2 from the air during photosynthesis the process they use to produce food   
  Thus more heat from the sun is trapped near the earth's surface instead of being reflected back into space   
  Many scientists believe that this greenhouse effect is causing a steady warming that could lead to threatening climatic conditions   
  Rain forest destruction accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas problems, which is small compared to the total amt of greenhouse gases produced by the developed world   
  PEOPLE ARE FIGHTING DEFORESTATION BUT IT IS UNCLEAR WHETHER THE PROBLEM IS DECREASING OR NOT   
  To combat these problems, people & govts have been seeking out & protecting old growth forests that remain undisturbed by humans   
  Such protection enables scientists to conduct long term research on how old growth forests sustain the variety of plants & animals that live there   
  It has been estimated that as much as 75% of the Haitian population is living in absolute poverty& wood has become the most valuable resource in Haiti where it is relied upon for heating, cooking, & construction   
  The result of this reliance on wood has lead to only 3% of Haiti’s forest being untouched & the subsequent deforestation has lead to the rich topsoil run off choking the reefs &  marine life   

 
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 Outline on  Urbanization & the Environment 
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  URBAN AREAS BOTH HEAT & DRY THE CLIMATE OF A REGION 
 
  The construction of cities creates areas that are warmer & drier than the surrounding countryside 
 
  Cities are drier because they have storm sewer systems that quickly carry off rainwater & snowmelt
 
  Cities are warmer for several reasons 
 
  The use of storm drainage systems means that less solar radiation is used to evaporate water & more is used to heat the city surfaces & air
 
  The brick, asphalt, & concrete surfaces readily radiate the heat they absorb & so raise urban air temperatures even more
 
  In addition, cities themselves generate heat from a number of sources, including motor vehicles & heating & air conditioning systems
 
  URBAN AREAS ALSO AFFECT THE CLIMATE IN THE SURROUNDING REGION 
 
  Large urban areas also affect the climate in the areas downwind of them
 
  Smokestacks & automobile tailpipes in cities emit water vapor & tiny particles that stimulate the formation of clouds
 
  Heat from a city also spurs the growth of clouds
 
  Thus, the climate downwind from many large urban areas is cloudier & wetter than the climate upwind from those same areas
 
  CITIES ARE PRIMARY SOURCES OF POLLUTION
 
  Many cities have a serious pollution problem
 
  Motor vehicles, factories, & other sources create so much air pollution that it may hang in the air like dirty fog  
  Air pollution threatens the health of the people who live in cities  
  City wastes cause water pollution when they are poured into waterways  
 
 These wastes kill fish & make some areas unfit for swimming
 
 
 In addition, many large cities have difficulty disposing of their refuse
 
 
 The amount of refuse grows each year, but places to put it are quickly filling up
 
  Motor vehicles, factories, & other sources pollute the air fumes that endanger the health of the people in cities  
  Urban wastes pollute waterways  
  City residents & industries produce extraordinary amounts of refuse  
  LOCAL GOVTS ARE MOVING AHEAD OF THE FED GOVT TO ADDRESS ENVL PROBLEMS   
  Many cities & counties have established the 'green city' designation to indicate cities that are reducing pollution, energy use, CO2 production, sprawl, etc.   
  A govt might want to end pollution by eliminating sources of contamination  
  Many people believe that the only option for the govt to control global warming is to close factories & prohibit almost all automobiles to do so, thus crippling the econ & inconveniencing the people, but this is mistaken  
  Instead, citizens, govts, industry, scientists, & business people must work together to gradually reduce pollution, energy consumption, heat producing urban sprawl, transportation gridlock, etc.   
  For example, most cities have introduced recycling programs, which cut down on refuse & the space needed to store it  
  Residents separate recyclable products from garbage, & city govts provide drop off sites or pick up the products from homes  
  Cambridge MA has estb an energy conservation building program which they believe will drastically reduce energy consumption & thus the production of greenhouse gases   

 
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 Outline on  Global Pollution
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  TODAY, ALL ENVL PROBLEMS HAVE BECOME GLOBAL PROBLEMS 
 
  ALL envl problems must be seen as global problems 
 
  People often view envl problems as someone else's problem
 
  Only a few envl probs are seen as global
 
  ENVL PROBLEMS WHICH OCCUR LOCALLY ARE SO COMMON THAT THEY ARE HAVING A GLOBAL IMPACT 
 
  Almost all pollution moves from area to area
 
  An example of the global effect of a locally used pollutant is DDT
 
  DDT is sprayed on fields to kill bugs; migratory birds ate the bugs; this killed birds over large areas   
  Today DDT is sprayed on Mex fruits & veggies so US citizens still ingest it & it is building up  
  While DDT is no longer produced or used in the US, western corps produce it & use it in semi peripheral & peripheral nations   
 
 AIR POLLUTION IS ONE OF THE MOST RAPIDLY MOVING GLOBAL POLLUTANTS   
 
 The US west coast now suffers the effects of air pollution from Asia
Canada & Euro suffer the effects of US air pollution 
Asia suffers the effects of Euro pollution
 
  Similar patterns of shifting air pollution are developing in the southern hemisphere   
  WATER POLLUTION IS A RELATIVELY FAST MOVING GLOBAL POLLUTANT   
 
 Water that is polluted by herbicide & fertilizer run off in So Dak travels down the Missouri River, down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico where there are large "dead zones" & algae blooms 
 
  The Rhine & Danube Rivers are intll rivers in that they border & flow through many Euro nations, & very polluted  
  Ocean dumping killing many fish; it is estimated that there are 40 k pieces of plastic, alone, per sq mi in the ocean, as well as chem pollution & more  
  GLOBAL WARMING IS THE FIRST WIDELY RECOGNIZED GLOBAL ENVL PROBLEM  
  While envlists have recognized the fact that many envl problems are global in nature, leaders & the people are less likely to 'connect the dots'  
 
 Burning fossil fuels, wherever it is done, causes global warming
 
Link
 See Also:  Global Warming   
 
 POLLUTION MOVES AT DIFFERENT RATES & THUS BECOMES GLOBAL AT DIFFERENT RATES 
 
 
 Air pollution moves very quickly
 
  Water pollution moves relatively quickly   
 
 Ground water pollution moves slowly over decades
 
 
 Hazardous wastes pollution moves over centuries
 
 
 Many people mistakenly view some types of pollution as stationary
 
 
 GOVTS & CORPS INTENTIONALLY & UNINTENTIONALLY SHIFT ENVL BURDENS TO OTHER NATIONS 
 
 
 As understood via concepts of envl racism / imperialism / classism, the strong often transfer envl & other burdens to the weak 
 
 
 Govts pass laws that shift the burden of pollution to econ & pol weak nations 
 
 
 And as seen in air pollution, pollution travels around the globe 
 
 
 Govts allow the export & import of haz waste 
 
  Govts allow the semi peripheral & peripheral nations to produce in hazardous & envlly unsound manners that they do not allow in core nations  

 
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 Outline on  Changes in the Environment 
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  PUBLIC LANDS GIVE 'EARLY WARNINGS' OF ENVL THREATS 
 
  One of the factors that makes understanding global warming & other human induced changes to the env so difficult is that changes to the env occur as a result of both human & natural forces 
 
  Public lands & land held in common, i.e. the commons, are in many senses, indicator species in that they react to / are sensitive to changes in the env
 
Link
 See Also:  The Commons  
  Public lands & the commons are the "canaries in the coal mine" that can give us early warning as to the effects of global warming & other envl changes 
 
  MANY US PARKS ARE THREATENED BY POLLUTION & SPRAWL 
 
  Today, many changes in the env endanger parks worldwide
 
  Various forms of pollution, esp air & water pollution, present major threats because they easily cross park boundaries
 
  For example, the scenic views of Grand Canyon National Park in the US are often reduced due to air pollution from LA, which lies about 300 mi away
 
  In addition, the park's env has suffered from the construction of dams upstream on the Colorado River, which flows through the Grand Canyon
 
  Changes in the flow of water have harmed water birds & other wildlife in the park
 
  The Smoky Mtn NP in TN is renowned for it's 'smoky' landscape which is the result of moisture in the air   
  The vistas in the Smoky Mtn NP have been reduced significantly by air borne pollution & the Park reports that they have almost no natural views left in that haze impacts the view every day   
  GLOBAL WARMING IS THREATENING THE SENSITIVE MICRO CLIMATES OF MANY PARKS WORLDWIDE
 
  Worldwide envl problems also threaten national parks 
 
  These problems include an increase in the so called greenhouse effect & the rapid reduction of tropical rain forests
 
  The greenhouse effect is a warming at the earth's surface that results when the earth's atmosphere traps the sun's heat.
 
  The heat is trapped when it is absorbed by carbon dioxide & other gases in the atmosphere.  
  The amt of CO2 in the atm has grown because of the increased burning of such fuels as coal, gas, & oil   
  Rain forests absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide  
  But the forests can handle less & less carbon dioxide because developers & farmers continue to cut down or burn the trees.  
  Some scientists are concerned about the effect of higher temperatures on the earth's surface
 
  They warn that global warming may produce mass extinction of plants & animals & other harmful effects  
  THE COMMONS IS PERHAPS EXPERIENCING THE MOST DEVASTATING EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE  
  Whether scientists believe in human caused global warming or not, all recognize that the arctic & antarctic & other climates in the higher latitudes such as Greenland & Siberia are experiencing drastic changes as a result of climate change   
  Permafrost is melting, which is decimating black spruce forests which were adapted to such an env  
  Polar bears, seals, & walrus are threatened because of a lack of ice in the summer   
  People are threatened as native villages are being lost to the encroaching ocean   

 
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 Outline on the  Effects of Global Warming
External
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  - Project:  Video:  An Inconvenient Truth 
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  THE CONTEMPORARY PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING ARE NOT DISPUTED  
  Scientists can easily agree w/ the facts that the Earth's temp is rising, glaciers are melting, the Arctic & Antarctic are melting, & the oceans are rising  
  Secondary physical changes are more difficult to judge in that it is uncertain whether hurricanes, wildfires, tornadoes, etc. are getting worse  
Link
 The Figure on Global Temperature shows a clear rise in temp of 1 degree C over the last 130 yrs  
Link
 The Figure on the Surface Temperature over the Last 1,100 Years shows a rise in temp from abut 1600 to the mid 1800s, w/ an acceleration of temp increase after that   
Link
 The Map of Temperature Changes in the US over the Last Century clearly shows a general increase in temp except in the South, including TX   
 
 GLOBAL WARMING IS IMPACTING EVERY ASPECT OF THE PHYSICAL ENV
 
  Global warming affects many aspects of the environment, including sea levels, coastlines, agriculture, forestry, & wildlife   
  Continued global warming could have a beneficial impact in some areas & a harmful impact in others   
  For example, people could begin to farm in regions where it is currently too cold to raise crops  
  At the same time, sea levels could rise, increasing the threat of flooding in low lying coastal regions  
  Rapid & large scale climate change could severely harm the earth's ecosystems which include the living organisms & physical env in particular areas  
  THE CAUSES & EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING INTERACT CREATING NOVEL CLIMATIC CHANGES  
  Is one considers the causes of global warming to be extraordinarily complex & uncertain, the effects of global warming are even less understood   
  One reason that the effects of global warming are difficult to understand is that the causes are not completely understood  
  One reason that the effects of global warming are difficult to understand is that both the causes & the effects interact w/ each other, magnifying some relations & dampening others   
  Some scientists predict that global warming will cause the ocean currents first to stop, & then estb new patterns   
  If the Atlantic current stops it is expected that Euro will experience colder weather   
  The melting of the ice caps in the arctic & antarctic will result in less light reflected off the snow & ice, & therefore the planet may heat even faster   
  Increased moisture levels in the atm & the ocean will have changes that are not clear at this time   
  The list of possible interactions of climate change is extensive   
 
 THE IMPACT OF A RISING GLOBAL TEMP IS NOT CLEAR 
& MAY CAUSE TEMPORARY COOLING IN SOME REGIONS
 
 
 The increase in surface temperature, which is called global warming, could alter the ecology of many parts of the earth
 
 
 Ocean currents & wind patterns could change, making some areas cooler than they are now
 
 
 One remote possibility is that a warming of northern regions will result in more winter snowfall, causing some ice sheets to advance
 
 
 Global warming could change rainfall patterns, melt enough polar ice to raise the sea level, increase the severity of tropical storms, & lead to shifts in plant & animal populations
 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING MAY MAGNIFY THE CAUSES 
 
 
 Deforestation & desertification cause global warming because they create warmer, dryer climates & because they release CO2 into the atm 
 
 
 However, an increase in temp may actually accelerate the loss of forests & grasslands, thereby amplifying the effects of global warming 
 
  GLOBAL WARMING WILL CAUSE WIDESPREAD SPECIES EXTINCTIONS UNSEEN SINCE SOME OF THE 'GREAT EXTINCTIONS' MILLENNIA AGO  
 
 Thus an effect of global warming is the loss of forests & grasslands as well as the species that inhabit them 
 
 
 Such change could make it difficult for many species to survive in the regions they now inhabit
 
 
 Furthermore, it would be difficult for species to migrate to more suitable places
 
 
 Human occupation has altered the natural landscape in ways that would make the new locations hard to reach
 
 
 It is estimated that 1 million species will go extinct by 2070 if current envl practices continue 
 
 
 While we have identified 1.6 mm species to date, there are many more than this
 
 
 The loss of species is problematic for ethical & pragmatic reasons 
 
  One of the pragmatic reasons to save species is for there medicinal value in that the Rosy Periwinkle on Madagascar & the Yew from the Pacific NW have both only recently been discovered to have a significant ability to cure cancer   
 
 GLOBAL WARMING WILL CAUSE WIDESPREAD PROBLEMS FOR HUMANITY 
 
 
 The Chart on the Effects of Pop Growth shows that pop growth & numerous other variables interact, i.e. are mutually reinforcing, to cause first envl problems such as global warming, which then leads conflict & other negative social effects
 
 
 Some scientists note that humans are at the top of the food chain & are themselves highly susceptible to extinction
 
 
 The most direct effects of global warming on humanity currently appear to be: 
a.  threats to the food supply
b.  severe weather 
c.  rising ocean levels
 

 
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Figure:  Global Temperature 

The Figure on Global Temperature shows a clear rise in temp of 1 degree C over the last 130 yrs 


 
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Figure:  Surface Temperatures over the Last 1,100 Years

The Figure on the Surface Temperature over the Last 1,100 Years shows a rise in temp from abut 1600 to the mid 1800s, w/ an acceleration of temp increase after that 


 
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Map:  Temperature Changes in the US over the Last Century

The Map of Temperature Changes in the US over the Last Century clearly shows a general increase in temp except in the South, including TX 


 
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Chart on the Effects of Population Growth
Ultimately the effects of population growth include:

The Chart on the Effects of Pop Growth shows that pop growth & numerous other variables interact, i.e. are mutually reinforcing, to cause first envl problems such as global warming, which then leads conflict & other negative social effects

 
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 Outline on  Global Warming Conferences
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  THE KYOTO PROTOCOL COMMITTED NATIONS TO VOLUNTARY 1990 LEVELS OF CO2 PRODUCTION
 
  Delegates from more than 160 countries met in December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan to draft an agreement to limit global warming
 
  The meeting, called the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, took place in Kyoto, Japan. 
 
  The resulting agreement, known as the Kyoto Protocol, calls for decreases in the emission of greenhouse gases.
 
  38 industrialized nations would have to cut their emissions of carbon dioxide & five other gases
 
  The cuts would occur during the years from 2008 through 2012
 
  The cuts would average from 6 % to 8 % of the 38 nations' 1990 emissions levels
 
  Developing countries would limit emissions voluntarily or by cooperating w/ nations that would be subject to limitations
 
  THE KYOTO PROTOCOL PERMITTED POLLUTION TRADING
 
  In addition, the Kyoto Protocol would allow industrialized nations to buy or sell emissions permits
 
  If a nation cut its emissions more than required by the agreement, that country could sell other industrialized nations permits allowing those nations to emit the remaining amounts
 
  THE KYOTO PROTOCOL ENCOURAGED DEVL & ENVL AID FROM THE CORE TO PERIPHERAL NATIONS
 
  An industrialized nation could also earn credit toward meeting its requirement by helping a developing country reduce emissions
 
  For example, the industrialized nation might help the developing country replace fossil fuels in some applications
 
 
 One replacement might be solar energy devices that generate electric power
 
 
 The protocol would took effect when 55 countries approved it & the approving countries' emissions were equal to or greater than 55 % of the 1990 emissions of the 38 industrialized nations 
 
  The developed nations finally hammered out a voluntary agreement to reduce emissions, & the semi peripheral & peripheral nations demanded exemptions to these reductions  
  The US Congress refused to sign the Kyoto agreement until the semi peripheral & peripheral nations complies w/ some level of non voluntary reduction  
  Many nations, but not the US, which is the largest producer of greenhouse gases, have begun to operate under the Kyoto protocols & are moving toward meeting their goals   
  Because the US dithered under the leadership of Bush, Jr, there was no progress made in the US on reducing greenhouse gas production, now making it much more difficult to achieve 1990 levels than it would have been had we worked toward that goal beginning during the Clinton admin   
  AFTER KYOTO, LITTLE PROGRESS HAS BEEN MADE THROUGH GLOBAL AGREEMENTS,
BUT PROGRESS IS STILL BEING MADE BY GRPS OF NATIONS 		  
  Despite more global conferences aimed at reaching an agreement to limit greenhouse gas production, no significant advances have been agreed to   
  The US still refuses to sign, but has made weak overtures toward the reduction of greenhouse gases   
  Other dev nations, esp Euro & Japan, have moved toward significant reductions of greenhouse gases   
  In 2008, China surpassed the US in total greenhouse emissions, but both China & India have now agreed to greenhouse emission limitations   

 
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 Outline on  Global Development Orgs & the Environment 
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  THE SUCCESS OF GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT ORGS IN ECON DEV OR ADDRESSING GLOBAL WARMING IS CHECKERED 
 
  The internationalization of envlism is grafted on to a set of pre existing geopolitical instits including the existing nation states, as well as global instits such as  the World Bank, IMF, GATT 
 
  The env mvmt has worked w/ World Bank, the IMF, & other global instits on envlly correct development projects & other issues 
 
  THE 3RD WORLD DEBT CRISIS IS A THREAT IN THAT STRESSED NATIONS CARE LESS FOR THE ENV,
& AN OPPORTUNITY IN THAT DEBT DEALS CAN BE  USED TO LEVERAGE ENV FRIENDLY PROJECTS 		  
  But in general the envl mvmt has not taken on the world debt crisis as being a fundamental contributor to envl degradation 
 
  The World Bank's control of 3rd world debt is one of the primary determinants of 3rd world development 
 
  Social justice oriented opposition, which became much stronger at the end of Cold War, is still important, but adding the envl agenda to debt deals has only complicated  3rd world development making it appear that the social justice mvmts & the envl mvmt are resistant to econ dev
 
  Because of the perception of opposition to 3rd world dev, the social justice & envl mvmts must clearly state that they are for econ dev, & that envlly correct econ dev is superior to tradl dev
 
  Indebted countries are subject to having envl agendas attached to debt deals & unless envl agendas provide additional advantages, nations will avoid them 
 
  POOR NATIONS RESIST BEING FORCED INTO ENVLY COSTLY PROGRAMS UNLESS THERE IS ALSO A NET BENEFIT   
  Because they perceive that envlism limits their options, the 3rd world reacts against they see as 'envl colonialism' 
 
  In the debate over greenhouse gas emission, the 3rd world produces only a small proportion of the overall amt
 
  The 3rd world wants the right to produce more greenhouse gases, which will still only be a small proportion as compared to the lions share produced by the core nations 
 
  Greenhouse gases produced by developing nations are called 'survival emissions' because these nations need this level just for their people to survive & grow 
 
  Greenhouse gases produced by developed nations are called 'luxury emissions' because these nations do not need them in the sense of basic necessities as do the developing nations, & indeed many are produced by luxuries unknown to developing nations' peoples such as SUVs, air conditioning, lawn care, etc. 
 
  The 3rd world is demanding parity btwn 'survival emissions' of the semi peripheral & peripheral nations & the 'luxury emissions' of the core 
 
  REFORM CONTINUES ON 3 FRONTS:  ON 3RD WORLD DEV, ON THE DEV ORGS & BANKS, & ON ENVL DEV  
  The World Bank, GATT, state sovereignty, & end of Cold War have had adverse consequences for the env because today the globalized system degrades the env by forcing competition among countries over the exploitation / destruction of the env, i.e. it has exasperated the commons problem   
  The end of the Cold War provides little geopolitical reason to restore foreign aid to 70s level   
  Efforts to reform the World Bank & other world development orgs continue 
 
  Reformists of world development orgs want econ dev to be less on the western model & more customized to the needs of each nation 
 

 
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 Outline on  Saving the Rain Forest
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 SAVING THE RAIN FOREST WILL REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING BECAUSE IT STORES CO2 & COOLS THE EARTH
 
  Rain forests have a significant amt of biomass, more than any other single entity except the ocean   
  In the rain forests' biomass is a significant amt of carbon  
  The rain forests also keep the equator region cooler by absorbing the sun's rays   
  MANY GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE WORKING TO SAVE THE RAIN FOREST   
 
 Many conservation orgs, including the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation Intl, & the Nature Conservancy, are working w/ govts to conserve rain forests
 
 
 Efforts to save the rain forest include:
a.  establishing protected areas 
b.  promoting intelligent management of rain forests
c.  increasing public awareness about the importance of the forests
 
  In the 1980s & 1990s, hundreds of protected areas were established in tropical forests 
 
  These areas included nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, & national parks
 
  However, such efforts affected only a small percentage of the total area of rain forest
 
  Moreover, many conservation areas remain only "paper parks," w/ little protection or enforcement on the ground
 
  GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE DEVELOPING BEST MGT STANDARDS FOR 
RAIN FORESTS TO EDUCATE & REGULATE RAIN FOREST USERS
 
  Govts & conservation orgs also promote sound mgt of tropical forests by the people who use them
 
  For example, certain orgs certify timber from loggers that harvest rain forest wood in a sustainable fashion
 
  Lowes & Home Depot now carry certified lumber in their stores, which is lumber that has been grown & harvested under more envlly sound practices   
  Certified timbers may bring a higher price on the intl mkt
 
  Areas of some rain forests have been set aside as extractive reserves
 
  Local populations manage these reserves & practice sustainable harvesting of many forest products
 
  THE RAIN FOREST AFFECTS EVERYONE IN A GLOBAL ECON 
 
  In the core nations, we all use products that come from the rain forest, most notably, fast food   
  Thus saving the rain forest saves people & their lifestyle in the core nations & what people in the core nations do impacts what happens in the rain forest   
  Increasing public awareness about the plight of rain forests may also aid the struggle to conserve them  
  Awareness has grown due to greater exposure of rain forest issues in the media, & to an increasing number of tourists who travel to rain forests  

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