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Review Notes on  Env Soc:  Forestry
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Forests  
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         The Rain Forest   
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         The Amazon Rain Forest   
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History of Forestry   
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Forestry   
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         Envl Issues in Forestry   
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         Deforestation   
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Participants in Env Debate   
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          Indlists in the Forestry Env Debate   
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          The Gen Public & the Forestry Env Debate   
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          Envlists & the Forestry Env Debate   
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          Other Participants & the Forestry Env Debate   
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The US Forest Service   
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          The US Forest Service & Forestry Issues   
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          Timber Mgt   
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Envl law   
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          Forestry law   
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Solutions   
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         Solutions for Forestry   
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         Saving the Rain Forest   

 
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 Outline on  Forests
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  A FOREST IS TREES & MUCH, MUCH MORE & THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF THE PARTS   
  A forest is a large area of land covered w/ trees, but a forest is much more than just trees   
  It also includes smaller plants, such as mosses, shrubs, & wild flowers   
  In addition, many kinds of birds, insects, & other animals make their home in the forest   
  Millions upon millions of living things that can only be seen under a microscope also live in the forest   
  Climate, soil, & water determine the kinds of plants & animals that can live in a forest   
  ECOSYSTEMS ARE CYCLES OF LIFE & OTHER NATURAL PROCESSES   
  The living things & their env together make up the forest ecosystem   
  An ecosystem consists of all the living & non living things in a particular area & the relationships among them  
  The forest ecosystem is highly complicated   
  The trees & other green plants use sunlight to make their own food from the air & from water & minerals in the soil  
  The plants themselves serve as food for certain animals.  These animals, in turn, are eaten by other animals  
  After plants & animals die, their remains are broken down by bacteria & other organisms, such as protozoans & fungi  
  This process returns minerals to the soil, where they can again be used by plants to make food  
  Although individual members of the ecosystem die, the forest itself lives on  
  If the forest is wisely managed, it provides us w/ a continuous source of wood & many other products  
  THE CARBON CYCLE IS ONE OF THE NATURAL CYCLES IN THE FORESTS & ALL ECOSYSTEMS   
  The balance carbon cycle in the forest is critical to the balance of the carbon cycle on the Earth  
  One step in the arboreal carbon cycle occurs when trees & other plants take carbon from the air by breathing in CO2  
  The carbon is contained, or sequestered in the living plants, such as the wood of the trees themselves   
  As the plants die, some of the carbon is released back into the atm by burning, or natural decomposition   
  Some carbon becomes part of the soil & is available as soil for other plants to use, or simply remains sequestered in the soil   
  THERE IS HALF THE AMT FORESTED LAND TODAY AS COMPARED TO 12 K YRS AGO   
  Before people began to clear the forests for farms & cities, great stretches of forest land covered about 60 % of the earth's land area  
  Today, forests occupy about 30 % of the land  
  The forests differ greatly from one part of the world to another  
  For example, the steamy, vine choked rain forests of central Africa are far different from the cool, towering spruce & fir forests of northern Canada  
 
FORESTS ARE A KEY FEATURE IN THE CYCLICAL FLOW OF GLOBAL ECOSYSTEMS 
 
 
Forests help conserve & enrich the env in several ways
 
  WATER   
  For example, forest soil soaks up large amounts of rainfall
 
  It thus prevents the rapid runoff of water that can cause erosion & flooding
 
  In addition, rain is filtered as it passes through the soil & becomes ground water
 
  This ground water flows through the ground & provides a clean, fresh source of water for streams, lakes, & wells
 
  AIR   
  Forest plants, like all green plants, help renew the atmosphere
 
  As the trees & other green plants make food, they give off oxygen
 
  They also remove carbon dioxide from the air
 
  People & nearly all other living things require oxygen 
 
  If green plants did not continuously renew the oxygen supply, almost all life would soon stop
 
  CARBON   
  If carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, it could severely alter the earth's climate
 
  Forests are a carbon sink or reservoir in that it stores very large amts of carbon 
 
  Besides the direct heating that affects the climate from deforested areas, deforestation removes stored carbon from the forest & transfers it to the atm in the form of CO2
 
  See Also:  Deforestation   
 
FORESTS ARE OUR SOURCES & RESERVES OF TYPICAL & RARE FLORA & FAUNA 
 
 
Forests also provide a home for many plants & animals that can live nowhere else
 
 
Without the forest, many kinds of wildlife could not exist
 
 
FORESTS HAVE AN AESTHETIC VALUE WHICH ONLY NATURE CAN PROVIDE 
 
 
The natural beauty & peace of the forest offer a special source of enjoyment
 
  In the US, Canada, & many other countries, huge forest lands have been set aside for people's enjoyment  
  Many people use these forests for such activities as camping, hiking, & hunting  
  Others visit them simply to enjoy the scenery & relax in the quiet beauty  

 
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 Outline on the  Rain Forest
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  RAIN FOREST IS A WOODLAND GENERALLY FOUND IN WET, TROPICAL AREAS 
 
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The Map of the Earth's Rain Forests shows that the largest rain forests occur in tropical parts of the Americas, Africa, Asia, & Oceania   
  Smaller areas of rain forest exist on many Pacific Islands & in parts of Australia's northeastern coast   
  Rain forests lie chiefly near the equator, in regions that receive some of the world's heaviest rainfall   
  A rain forest is a woodland of tall trees growing in a region of year round warmth & abundant rainfall 
 
  Almost all rain forests lie at or near the equator 
 
  No Am has temperate rain forests on the coast of southern AK, British Columbia, WA state, & OR   
  The tropical rain forests on the equator forms an evergreen belt of lush vegetation that encircles the planet 
 
  German botanist Andreas FW Schimper first coined the term rain forest, in German, Regenwald, in 1898 
 
  Tropical rain forests occupy only 6 to 7 % of the Earth's surface 
 
  However, they support more than half of the world's plant & animal species 
 
  More kinds of frogs & other amphibians, birds, insects, mammals, & reptiles live in rain forests than in any other area 
 
  Scientists believe millions more rain forest species remain undiscovered 
 
  In spite of the benefits of rain forests, people cut down thousands of sq miles of rain forest each yr 
 
  This destruction eliminates thousands of species of animals 
 
  A number of govts & conservation orgs are working to preserve the rain forests 
 
  RAIN FORESTS HAVE ENVIRONMENTAL VALUE IN ADDITION TO THEIR ECON VALUE 
 
  RAIN FORESTS REGULATE RAIN FALL & FLOODING   
 
Tropical rain forests help regulate the Earth's env in several ways 
 
 
For example, tropical trees help control the amt of rain water that reaches the ground 
 
 
These trees absorb an enormous quantity of rain 
 
 
In a process called transpiration, much of this water evaporates from the trees' leaf pores & reenters the atm as vapor 
 
  Eventually, the vapor condenses into water & falls to the Earth again as rain   
  Transpiration may account for as much as half of the rainfall in some rain forests   
  By regulating rainfall, rain forest trees keep floods & droughts from becoming too severe   
  The dense rain forest vegetation also reduces soil erosion   
  RAIN FORESTS REGULATE TEMPERATURES   
  Rain forests help control temperatures in their own regions & in other parts of the world   
  Rain forest trees absorb light & heat   
  This absorption keeps tropical climates from becoming too hot or too cold   
  The forests also take in & store massive amounts of CO2, preventing the build up of this gas in the atm   
  Scientists believe the accumulation of CO2 & other gases in the atm increases temperatures around the world   
  By absorbing CO2, tropical rain forests may help keep worldwide temperatures from becoming too warm   
  RAIN FORESTS SEQUESTER CARBON   
  Like all forests, rain forests store carbon in their plant matter, & in the decomposed plant matter in the soil   
  Like all forests, rain forests remove CO2 from the atm, store it in their woody matter as carbon, & release the oxygen back into the atm   
  HUMANS ARE CONSUMING THE RAIN FOREST   
  People are rapidly destroying the world's rain forests   
  In 1950, rain forests covered about 8,700,000 sq mi of the Earth   
  This area would cover about three fourths of Africa   
  Today, less than half the original extent of the Earth's rain forest remains   
  Few rain forest species can adjust to severe disturbance of their habitat   
  Most perish when people clear large areas of forest   
  In such regions as Madagascar, Sumatra, & the Atlantic coast of Brazil, only small patches still stand   
  Scientists estimate that tropical deforestation wipes out about 7,500 species per year   
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See Also:  Deforestation 
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 MORE INFO IN WBE NOTES
 

 
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Map of the Earth's Rain Forests 
The Map of the Earth's Rain Forests shows that the largest rain forests occur in tropical parts of the Americas, Africa, Asia, & Oceania 

 
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 Outline on the  Amazon Rain Forest
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  THE AMAZON RAIN FOREST IS THE WORLD'S LARGEST TROPICAL RAIN FOREST 
 
  It covers approximately 2 mm sq miles in the Amazon River Basin of So Am 
 
  About two thirds of the rain forest lies in Brazil & also occupies parts of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, & Venezuela
 
  The Amazon rain forest receives an average annual rainfall of 50 to 175 inches & temperatures average about 80 °F 
 
 Link
The Map on the Amazon Rain Forest shows that it covers much of northern So Am w/ about two thirds of the rain forest lying in Brazil & the rest occupying parts of several other lands 
 
  THE AMAZON HAS A DISTINCT STRUCTURE 
 
  Trees in most of the Amazon rain forest grow in several distinct layers 
 
  Some trees, called emergents, tower above the rest of the forest & may reach heights of over 165 ft 
 
  The upper canopy generally grows 65 to 165 ft 
 
  Plants called epiphytes, or air plants, thrive in this layer & include aroids, bromeliads, ferns, liverworts, mosses, & orchids 
 
  One or two lower canopies consist of saplings of the trees found in the upper canopy, in addition to smaller trees & shrubs 
 
  Lianas (woody vines) wind around tree trunks & branches, extending from the ground to the upper canopy 
 
  The canopies get sunlight, but they prevent much light from reaching the forest floor   
  Most of the Amazon rain forest has infertile soil   
 
THE FLORA IN THE AMAZON IS EXCEPTIONALLY DIVERSE 
 
 
The Amazon rain forest contains a wider variety of plant & animal life than any other place in the world 
 
 
Tens of thousands of different plant species live there 
 
  A 21/2 acre area of the rain forest may contain up to 280 or more species of trees   
  Many economically important plants live in the rain forest   
  They yield such products as Brazil nuts, cocoa, curare (an important drug), pineapples, & rubber   
  More than 1,500 species of birds make their homes in the rain forest   
  The region's rivers contain up to 3,000 species of fish   
  In addition, scientists believe that as many as 30 mm different insect species may live in the forest   
  THE AMAZON IS LOGGED FOR TIMBER & TO CREATE PASTURES   
  The world's rapid population growth & increasing demands for natural resources have seriously threatened the Amazon rain forest   
  Loggers cut down trees, which the lumber industry uses to make wood products   
  Ranchers & farmers clear land to use for grazing beef cattle & growing crops   
  The cycle of destruction takes many steps, including:   
  -  logging the 'commercial' timber   
  -  burning the slash which remains after logging   
  -  bull dozing the burnt slash, to clear the land for raising crops   
  -  raising crops, which depletes the weak soils after 5 or 10 yrs   
  -  converting depleted crop land to grazing   
  -  in some cases, the desertification of the pasture   
  The cycle of destruction is financed by the core nations who use the timber, crops, & animal products from the rain forests   
  One of main linkages btwn the econs of the core nations & the exploitation of the rain forest is the fast food ind which gets much of it's beef from deforested rain forests   
  REFORESTED RAIN FOREST DOES NOT REGAIN IT'S VIBRANCY   
  Areas of the rain forest that have been cleared can regenerate   
  However, regenerated areas are much less diverse than the original forest   
  About 10 % of the Amazon rain forest has been destroyed as of the yr 2000   
  Development, deforestation, & gold mining also threaten the culture of the few remaining native peoples of the Amazon rain forest   
  Many of these people depend on the forest to support themselves   

 
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Map on the Amazon Rain Forest 

The Map on the Amazon Rain Forest shows that it covers much of northern So Am w/ about two thirds of the rain forest lying in Brazil & the rest occupying parts of several other lands 


 
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 Outline on the History of Forestry
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  -  Project:  Forestry Solutions
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  EARLY FORESTRY   
  Forestry was first practiced in prehistorical times
 
  Prehistorically, forests covered 60 % of the Earth w/ a mixture of young, medium, & mature trees of a wide variety of species
 
  Since about 11,000 yrs ago, large areas have been cleared of forests for farms & cities
 
  It is now understood that deforestation became a problem even in the landscape surrounding the hearths of civilization & the Early Empire Era civilizations including the Middle East
 
  In the Middle Ages, deforestation was a problem in Europe
 
  During the 1800s & 1900s, great expanses of forest were eliminated because of logging & industrial pollution
 
  Today, forests cover only 30 % of the Earth's area & the areas of forest coverage continues to drop
 
  In No. Am. in the 1600s, forest covered most of the land from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River & nearly 40% of the land north of Mexico from the Rocky Mtns to the Pacific coast
 
  FORESTRY IN THE MODERN ERA   
  Today, only 30% of the land is is forested in the US
 
  Logging began in the east in the US & followed the European's expansion to the West
 
  Most forested areas were decimated
 
  As mining began, the JNF & the surrounding area was totally clear cut for timber for the cities, for mine timbers, for railroad ties, for fuel for home & industry, etc.
 
  The govt purchased the land for the JNF on the cheap because of the degradation due to logging
 
  After extensive logging in the East & Southeast, unregulated logging moves west to the upper mid-west in WI, MI, etc. & eventually to the far West
 
  The effects of early logging include the degradation of
 
  - watersheds, including the streams & lakes which were water source for cities
 
  - wildlife
 
  - wildlife habitat  
  - flora
 
 
Watershed degradation which results from logging or mining makes areas downstream susceptible to flash flooding  
  Logged areas were not reforested & so, for decades, they became brush patches & even today, many areas are not in their "natural state"  
  Economies exhibited "boom town" aspects because of the logging rush which was inevitably followed by the logging bust  
  See Also:  Forestry as an environmental problem   
  Forest land today makes up about one third or 730 mm acres of the total US land mass, while about wo thirds of that or 480 mm acres is considered timber land  
  796 mm acres in Canada are forested  
  In many western states the % of Fed land ownership is above 60% -- some above 90% while in many midwestern states, there is no fed land, & in many eastern & southern states, Fed ownership is less than 30%   
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The Table on the Ownership of US Land shows that the the majority of land in the US is owned by private, non industrialized owners  
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The Table on the Leading Countries in Forest Products / Yr in 1989 shows that the US harvests the most timber even though it does not have the most forest  
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The Table on No Am Forest Products / Yr in 1989 shows that 11 regions produce 60% of the harvest  

 
 
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Table on the Ownership of US Land

Ownership % of lower 48 land mass
Private, non industrial owners 58
Feds 20
Forest Industry 14
States 7
Tribes 1
The Table on the Ownership of US land shows that the the majority of land in the US is owned by private, non industrialized owners

 
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Table on the Leading Countries in Forest Products / Yr in 1989

Country Forest Products / Yr
US 586.6 mm cu yds
Russia 465.2 
China 344.5
India 320.5
Brazil 295.5
Canada 224.1
Indonesia 194.9
Nigeria 124.1
Sweden 69.8
Tanzania 59.6
The Table on the Leading Countries in Forest Products / Yr in 1989 shows that the US harvests the most timber even though it does not have the most forest

 
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Table on No Am Forest Products / Yr in 1989

Region Production Level
BC 97.5 mm cu yds
OR 68.3
GE 53.6
WA 52.5
Quebec 47.8
AL 38.8
Ontario 36.8
MS 33.0
CA 31.8
LA 24.5
Total 484.6 or 60%
The Table on No Am Forest Products / Yr in 1989 shows that 11 regions produce 60% of the harvest

 
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 Outline on the  Forestry
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  Forestry, falling trees, bucking trees skidding trees, etc. takes a lot of skill
 
  The labor force in forestry has continually & dramatically shrunk even ask production has dramatically increased  
  Mechanization in harvesting pulpwood has increased, as has the amount of pulpwood harvested
 
  The mechanization of pulpwood harvesting has increased the amount of labor required in wood products production & has had a dramatic effect on the environment   
  Pulpwood harvesting utilizes all sizes of trees, including small trees, leaving the forest landscape completely barren  
  In pulpwood harvesting, operators sit in tractor like machines which have arms that can grab & cut trees  
  Wood harvesters cut 150 to 180 trees per hour  
  Mechanization in the mills has also increased dramatically resulting in a parallel dramatic decrease of labor
 
  Mill mechanization has resulted in the closure of many mills in the East & the West   
In the West, many mills were the lifeblood of small western, mountain towns such as Cascade, McCall, New Meadows, & Council ID & thus their closure necessitated the difficult transition to new economic sectors such as tourism  
  Despite mechanization in forestry, the accident rate continues to increase
 
  Logging has highest fatality rate of any industry
 
  Much logging is seasonal
 
  Forestry is susceptible to its own business cycle which follows the volatile construction & home building industry resulting in many workers living a life of boom or bust
 

 
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 Outline on  Environmental Issues in Forestry
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 Link
-  Project:  Forestry Issues
Link
  INTRODUCTION: 
 
  Reckless logging causes many physical env problems; however, appropriate logging has some env benefits  
  Most of logging problems which can be addressed thru proper logging methods  
  The big question in forestry is what is the sustainable harvest amt?  often called ASQ (Allowable Sustainable Quantity)  
  There are also many social problems pertaining to other forest uses such as recreation, hunting, etc.  
  SUMMARY:  Problems in forestry include
1.  Roads 4.  Siltation 7.  Fires 10.  Global warming
2.  Fragmentation 5.  Waterways 8.  Indl pollution 11.  ASQ
3.  Erosion 6.  Diversity 9.  Deforestation 12.  Forest health
 
  1.  ROAD BUILDING   
  The FS is responsible for more roads than any other single entity in the US  
  One of the main problems of roads is that they cause erosion-- see below  
  Another important problem of roads is that they create access:  roads increase access to an area  
  The positive side of the road access problem is that people want access  
  The negative side of the road access problem is that  access hurts flora & fauna  
  2.  FRAGMENTATION   
  Flora & fauna need large, unbroken tracts of land or forest to maintain a viable population  
  Roads, clear cuts, & development break up areas, increasing fragmentation, harming flora & fauna  
  3.  EROSION   
  Roads themselves cause tremendous amts of erosion  
  Roads must be maintained & often maintenance budgets are under funded  
  The lack of maintenance of roads increases the level of erosion  
  The effects of logging on erosion varies by region  
  In west, it might take 20 yrs for plants to come back after an area is logged, in the east refoliation is quicker, but it rains more  
  Erosion varies by type of logging in that   
  helicopter logging has least effect  
  horse logging has a low effect   
  high line logging has a low effect  
  limited cuts have a medium effect  
  cat logging has a high effect  
  clear cutting has the highest effect   
  4.  SILTATION   
  Road bldg & logging causes erosion, which runs off into streams & lakes, causing siltation  
  Siltation may kill aquatic plants & animals or may ruin the streams & lakes by transforming them to bogs  
  Even what appears to be minor siltation can be devastating to fish because they need clean gravel beds to attach their eggs to   
  The effects of erosion & siltation can be reduced:   
  -  by the use helio- or high line logging  
  -  by the min use of roads  
  -  through erosion reduction methods such as  
   -- stream buffers  
     -- proper, more exp road bldg tech  
     -- erosion barriers  
  5.  DESTRUCTION OF WATERWAYS & FLOODS   
  Waterways are also hurt by removal of trees near streams  
  Besides increasing erosion & siltation, the removal of tress reduces shade, which causes water to rise in temp harming or killing plants & fish  
  The water temp issue can be addressed by leaving 150 to 300 ft buffers of trees along water ways  
  Forests are water reservoirs in that they will absorb tremendous amts of rainfall, varying by ecozone   
  When areas are logged or deforested, rainfall runs off rather than being absorbed  
  Logged / deforested rain runoff erodes streams & causes floods & landslides  
  6.  DIVERSITY OF FLORA & FAUNA   
  Logging & replanting reduces tree & general flora diversity   
  When they are logged, forest are often replaced w/ a single species of trees   
  The reduction of flora reduces the diversity of food which causes a reduction of fauna  
  Single species areas, i.e. monocultures are susceptible to disease   
  Logging increases access to an area   
  Access also allows people to come to an area   
  People hunt out some species  
  Other species are more solitary by nature & cannot survive w/o large tracts of land  
  7.  FIRES   
  The FS, the BLM, & other land mgt agencies pursue policies which reduce the natural burning of the forests & grasslands   
  Logging itself increases fire danger because:   
  -  mature forests, w/ large trees are more fire resistant   
  -  immature forests have more brush & brush which acts as kindling or ladder fuels   
  Mature forests are not the most productive  
  Young, "teenaged" forests are the most productive  
  Young, "teenaged" forests are much thicker & more prone to fire  
  There is a debate over whether the increased fire danger is more a result of the immature, logged forests, or the result of 50 yrs of fire suppression  
  Both logging & fire suppression increase fire danger, but it is likely that logging has had a greater impact  
 
8.  INDL POLLUTION   
 
Indl pollution of micro pollutants such as mercury causes cancer & genetic defects in forest fauna   
  One of the major issues for the USFS surrounding a proposed coal burning electricity generating plant is the effect of air pollution on key areas in the local forests   
  There are five federally mandated Class I areas managed by the USDA Forest Service that could be impacted by this new source of air pollution.   
  The Class I areas are James River Face (161 miles), Linville Gorge, (70 miles), Shining Rock (105 miles), Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock (135 miles), and Cohutta (181 miles) Wilderness.  
  -  Supplement:  USDS Document:  Proposed Virginia City Hybrid Energy Center:  Impacts to the Air Quality Related Values at Five USDA Forest Service Class I Areas
Link
 
Indl pollution combines w rain or other precip & fall to Earth as acid rain  
 
While the acidity is very low, its cumulative effect is to restrict plant growth & eventually kill most plants in the affected area   
 
The effects of acid rain also kill plants & animals in lakes & streams too   
  9.  DEFORESTATION   
  Until late the 1940s, tropical rain forests = 6 mm sq. mi  
  By the late 1980s, there were 4 mm sq. mi of tropical forests  
  Worldwide, about 39,000 sq. mi of tropical forests are logged / yr. which is over 90% of the state of VA  
  Most tropical logging occurs in So Am, SE Asia, & some in Africa  
  India:   
  India is losing 1.3 million hectares of forest each year   
  1 ha = 2.47 acres   
  India is losing 1.3 mm ha = .3.2 million acres = 5000 sq. miles which is over 1/10 the size of VA  
  Malaysia:   
  Because of deforestation & corporate profiting, Malaysia has experienced anti logging demonstrations  
  The envl issues of developing nations in Asia are quite different from those in the developed nations & nations on other continents   
  Neither media nor academia has done much around envlism in developing nations  
  There is a strong link btwn govt & industry, both whom emphasize profit over sustainabilty or even econ development   
  10.  GLOBAL WARMING   
  O2 in the air is decreasing  
  CO2 is increasing  
  Global warming, aka the greenhouse effected is  
  -  the result of heat from sun being trapped on Earth  
  -  instead of being reflected back into space  
  -  because CO2 traps more heat  
  Global warming is related to forestry because forests are a major absorber of CO2 & producer of O2 & thus has the ability to reverse some causes of global warming  
  Deforested areas experience a significant change in climate toward a hotter & dryer climate  
  11.  ALLOWABLE SUSTAINABLE QUANTITY ( ASQ )  
  The big question for forestry is 'what is the sustainable harvest amt?' i.e. how much can we cut & still maintain a vital forest?   
  The amt of timber that can be cut is often called the allowable sustainable quantify or ASQ  
  The issues of landowners in relation to ASQ include that   
  a.  large corp landowners are responsible in US, not overseas  
  b.  the fed govt is prone to let corps over log   
  c.  many state govts are more lax in logging reg than the feds, but some better than others  
        (In general, the fed govts often acts responsibly around logging reg, but has "lapses")  
  d.  some small landowners are responsible, some are not  
  Obviously deforestation is occurring worldwide  
  Deforestation is not obvious in US  
  There are more trees now, but less acreage is covered  
  The US has a forest that is younger than it was before logging, thus we have large tracts of immature forests  
  12.  FOREST HEALTH   
  Most forestry experts now acknowledge that there is a general forest health problem in most forests in the US due to forestry practices, disease, & the suppression of forest fires  
  Social problems in forest use include:   
  -  unequal access  
  -  unequal allocation of costs & benefits of forest use, esp btwn East & West states & forests  
  -  capture of govt land mgt. agencies  
  -  oppositional as opposed to consensus building strategy & tactics by the major participants in the forestry debate  
  -  balancing a wide variety of forest use  
  -  visual quality   
  -  forest over-use  

 
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 Outline on  Deforestation
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  DEFORESTATION BEGAN WHEN CIVILIZATION BEGAN, ABOUT 11,000 YRS AGO   
 
Human activities have had tremendous impact on modern forests 
 
 
Since ag began about 11,000 yrs ago, large forest areas have been cleared for farms & cities 
 
 
Beginning in the 1800s, great expanses of forest have also been eliminated because of logging & indl pollution 
 
 
The destruction & degrading of forests is called deforestation 
 
 
DEFORESTATION HAS AFFECTED MOST OF THE EARTH'S FORESTS 
 
 
Severe deforestation now occurs around the world, even in the most remote rain forests & boreal forests 
 
 
Until the late 1940s, rain forests covered about 8.7 million sq mi of the Earth's land 
 
 
Today, they cover less than half that area 
 
 
Millions of acres or hectares of rain forests are destroyed each year 
 
 
Since 1800, huge areas of temperate forests have also been cleared 
 
 
Many parts of eastern North America, for example, have less than 2 % of even degraded forests remaining 
 
  LOGGING FOR TIMBER & TO CLEAR LAND FOR AG HAS DEFORESTED MANY AREAS   
  Commercial logging & the expansion of agriculture have damaged or wiped out extensive areas of rain forest   
  Huge mining projects, the construction of hydroelectric dams, & govt resettlement programs have also taken their toll   
  In the last 50 years half of tropical rain forest have been cut for timber or to make farmland   
  A complex mix of social, political, & econ factors has triggered these destructive activities   
  Rapid population growth & poverty often intensify the pressure to clear rain forest for short term econ benefits   
  Brazil, Indonesia, & other nations have cut down huge expanses of rain forest to create new settlements that allow people to move out of overcrowded cities   
  Moreover, the govts of many tropical countries are deeply in debt   
  This debt provides a strong motivation to gather as much as possible from the rain forest as quickly as possible   
  After clearing the forest to harvest wood & other products, people then commonly use the land to grow crops   
  LOGGING OCCURS NOT ONLY IN RAIN FORESTS, BUT ALSO IN TEMPERATE FORESTS   
  The developed nations continue to log both their own forests, & fund the deforestation around the world   
  Many temperate forests have been cleared for farms & cities, & many others have been cut down for fuel & lumber   
  Many Canadian forests have been heavily logged   
  The scale of Canadian deforestation now compares to that in the US   
  Many people in British Columbia & other provinces are greatly concerned about the destruction of original forests & the common practice of clear cutting (removing all trees) over large areas   
  ACID RAIN ALSO DEFORESTS LARGE AREAS   
  Industrial pollution is a chief cause of deforestation   
  Factories often release poisonous gases into the air & dangerous wastes into lakes & rivers   
  Air pollutants may combine w/ rain or other precipitation & fall to earth as acid rain   
  Acid rain & polluted bodies of water can restrict plant growth or even kill most plants in a forest   
  LOGGING & SCAVENGING DEFORESTS LARGE AREAS AS PEOPLE GATHER WOOD FOR FUEL FOR COOKING & FOR HEAT   
  Most of  the population of the world cooks & heats w/ wood   
  Heating & cooking w/ wood is often done in very inefficient stoves which also create large amts of air pollution & CO2  
  Many of the areas of the cradles of civilization & of ancient society from England to Italy to Greece to Judea to China & more were deforested as early people logged & scavenged  for  wood for construction, heat, & cooking   
  Many of the ancient areas which experienced ancient deforestation have had their climate / weather changed to such an extent that they are still impacted & remain largely w/o forests, esp Israel, the Sahara, & even the UK & Italy   
  DEFORESTATION FRAGMENTS FORESTS INTO MERE ISLANDS OF TREES 
UNABLE TO SUSTAIN THEIR NATURAL FLORA & FAUNA 
 
  Massive deforestation has made many remaining forest tracts small, isolated islands   
  As forests become smaller, their ability to sustain the full variety of plant species decreases   
  Many forests are so seriously degraded by logging activities that they fail to regenerate replacement forests   
  The destruction of forest ecosystems also destroys the habitats of many living creatures   
  Countless species of animals & plants have been wiped out by deforestation, & more are killed each year at an increasing rate   
  This deforestation places woodland animals in danger   
  Extensive logging in the Pacific Northwest of the US, for example, has destroyed much of the habitat of the spotted owl, threatening the existence of that species   
  DEFORESTATION HARMS PEOPLE TOO   
  Deforestation usually displaces forest peoples   
  When denied access to the forest, these peoples often lose important knowledge about rain forest species & their uses   
  Loss of such knowledge further threatens the survival of the forests   
  DEFORESTATION CAUSES FLOODS & LESS O2 PRODUCTION   
  Loss of forests has helped create many ecological problems   
  For example, rain water normally absorbed by the forests is causing more floods around the world   
  In addition, as forest areas decrease or degrade, the production of oxygen from photosynthesis also decreases   
 
Oxygen renewal is vital to the survival of oxygen breathing organisms 
 
 
DEFORESTATION CREATES MORE GREENHOUSE GAS, ESP CO2 
 
 
At the same time, as less carbon dioxide is taken up by photosynthesis, the amounts of carbon dioxide released into the air increases 
 
  The clearing of forests also contributes to the buildup of atmospheric CO2 by reducing the rate at which the gas is removed from the air   
  Trees & other green plants remove CO2 from the air during photosynthesis the process they use to produce food   
  Thus more heat from the sun is trapped near the earth's surface instead of being reflected back into space   
  Many scientists believe that this greenhouse effect is causing a steady warming that could lead to threatening climatic conditions   
  Rain forest destruction accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas problems, which is small compared to the total amt of greenhouse gases produced by the developed world   
  PEOPLE ARE FIGHTING DEFORESTATION BUT IT IS UNCLEAR WHETHER THE PROBLEM IS DECREASING OR NOT   
  To combat these problems, people & govts have been seeking out & protecting old growth forests that remain undisturbed by humans   
  Such protection enables scientists to conduct long term research on how old growth forests sustain the variety of plants & animals that live there   
  It has been estimated that as much as 75% of the Haitian population is living in absolute poverty & wood has become the most valuable resource in Haiti where it is relied upon for heating, cooking, & construction   
  The result of this reliance on wood has lead to only 3% of Haiti’s forest being untouched & the subsequent deforestation has lead to the rich topsoil run off choking the reefs &  marine life   

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on the  Participants in the Environmental Debate
External
Links
  -  Project:  Participants in the Env Debate
Link
  -  Project:  Video:  Yellow Creek & Participants in the Public Policy Issues
Link
  GROUP THEORY   
 
Group theory, aka pluralism, holds that pol decisions are result of struggles among competing interests who have access to pol process
 
  In any social / political conflict, the amt of pwr of each grp varies slightly over short run & much more over the long run  
  Some of the hist changes of power levels amongst participants in social debates include: 
- the public in gen has gained pwr
- industrialists who have lost absolute political power, but have gained pwr in magnitude
- the media which has expanded reach but not issue clarity
- rec & env who have gained pwr
- the govt has gained & then lost some pwr / status since the 1980s
 
  Group theory holds that in a democracy, & to a lesser extent in an autocracy, each participatory grp has a role in pol & social debate  
  Each policy debate, public issue, etc. has its own unique set of participants  
  A conflict resolution analysis looks at who has how much power & their role as a participant in the political & social debates  
  PARTICIPANTS IN THE ENVL DEBATE   
 
Participants in env debate include 6 broad strata of the population including: (PIMREG)
- the general public 
- industrialists
- media
- recreationists
- environmentalists
- govt
The participants may also be referred to as stakeholders or social groups, interest grps, etc 
 
  In forestry, there are three major grps involved, including:
- industrialists
- the recreationists
- the environmentalists
 
  Domhoff views conflict in democratic nations as involving three participants, including the corporate coalition, i.e. big business, the small business coalition, & the labor liberal coalition  
  THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE ENVL DEBATE, (PIMREG) IE STAKEHOLDERS, SOC GRPS, INT GRPS, ETC INCLUDE THEIR INTERESTS, IE THEIR BELIEFS, VALUES, ETC  
  The general public has an unformed interest in any particular env issue; ie, they have not committed or made up their mind yet, though in the long run they do have an interest; it just has not been recognized yet   
  Industrialist have a resource use or resource mgt in the env   
  Historically industrialist consumed nat resources w/o regard to sustainability, but today many claim, some accurately, some inaccurately that they have a sustainability pt of view towards resources   
  Industrialist will generally publicly adhere to the conservationist perspective, but not generally the preservationist perspective   
  Some industrialists public voice support for conservation & sustainability but their policies & actions indicate they are primarily concerned w/ profits, mkt expansion, etc   
  An interest indirectly related to resource use has been the ability to pollute, to dispose of haz mat, to degrade the env, to completely consume a resource, & to put the costs of these processes on other stakeholders  
  The media in the West has, in the last 100 yrs, primarily subscribed to the philosophy of journalism whereby they attempt objectivity & so their interest is merely to report the facts as they see them   
  Given the politicization of both public policy & science the media often appears & is biased   
  In an attempt to appear objective many media outlets will report on stakeholders from many perspectives of an issue when the objective science indicates there may not be such perspectives   
  Recreationists have interests of both conservation & preservation of the env in that they have the interest of a range of activities from simply exploring the env to passive tourism to active recreation to extreme sports   
  Many recreationist have an interest in some level of resource use provided sustainability is a real outcome & not simply a false pronouncement   
  Many recreationists have an interest in a high level of preservation   
  Environmentalists have interests of both conservation & preservation of the env  & the values supporting these interests overlap w/ those of the recreationists, but generally include a stronger aesthetic ethic which sees the env as a good or entity as an end in itself   
  Govt entities, like the media, have generally adhered to a strategy wherein they are objective representatives of the people, & not directly the env   
  The govt has generally followed the lead of Western history, of the public, in that all levels of govt, natl, state, & local, have become more concerned w/ estbing both conservation of the env, w/ sustainability, & some preservation   
  The govt is often 'captured' by the industrialists, representing their interests over that of the public & other stakeholders  

 
Top
 
Table on the Social Groups in Env Debate (aka Participants or Stakeholders [ PIMREG ] )
Gen Public
Industrialists
Media
Recreationists
Environmentalists
Govt
Native Am Loggers Natl media: CNN, CBS, ABC, NBC, NYT, Wash Post & Internet Outfitted recreationists Preservationists World Orgs: WTO, World Bank, IMF, UN
Professionals, scientists, etc. Ranchers/ farmers Regional media
Large urban areas
Motorized recists Conservationists US Fed Govt Link
Retirees Millworkers/ laborers Local media
Small cities, towns, etc.
Hunters Restorationists Exec Branch: Fed land mgt. agencies: BLM, Nat Park Service, Nat Mar Fish. Service, FS, US Fish & Game, EPA, etc.
Foot-loose Miners Websites Non motor recists Radicals State Govts
State Forestry Services
State EPA's
Locals Oil & Energy Email lists, blogs, etc. Water recists Grass Roots env grps Local Govts
Counties & cities
Note, some cities are as pwrful as some nations: NYC, Beijing, etc.
Large & small private land holders  Large retailers   Tourists Other social justice orgs
 
Regional peoples: East, West, Urban, Rural, etc.     Large rec biz  
 
International peoples Biz orgs, e.g. NAM, Chamber of Commerce Media advocacy orgs Rec Orgs: rec adv grps Env Orgs: The big 10 env grps, intl env grps NGOs
Biz serving gen public Biz serving indl gps Biz serving the media Biz serving recists Biz serving envlists Biz serving govt
Other gen pub Other indists Other media grps Other recists Other envlists Other govt grps
t is necessary to include an “other” category under each of the major soc grps since some grps may not match grps as listed 
  Examples of "others" might be tree planters, mushroom pickers, media, water recists, photographers, etc. 
  While each of these grps is important, it is not possible to include every grp

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on  Forestry Industry Participants
External
Links
 
Major industrial participants in forestry include: 
 
  1.  major logging companies such as Georgia Pacific  
  2.  small logging companies  
  3.  paper & pulp mills  
  4.  the construction industry & other industries dependent on forest product  
  5.  organized labor for these industries  
  6.  the families & communities which depend on forestry  
  7.  the inland fisheries industry  
  Some major logging companies own vast land reserves  
Link
The Table on US Forest Products Corps, shows that many large corps are involved in forestry
 
 
Pulp & paper manufacturers realized in the 50s that recreation was demanding more forest use
 
 
The American Forest Institute was created to justify the need for more, not less, timber production
 
  US FOREST PRODUCTS INDUSTRY   
  The US forest products industry 
 
  a.  employs 1.5 + mm wkrs  
  b.  produces $120 bb goods / yr.  
  c.  has 50,000 mfr plants  
  d.  is composed of private forest corps who own 70 mm acres of commercially valuable forest land  
  The US forest products industry also harvests from 
a.  small private owners 
b.  state forests 
c.  National Forests owned by the USFS & other fed agencies
d.  their own land
 
  Large private forest owners & grps influencing them include:
1.  stockholders
2.  unorganized Labor
3.  some organized Labor
4.  industry grps such as the Chamber of Commerce, Nat Mfg. Assoc, the Forest Products Instit, the Am Forest Instit., etc.
5.  supporting businesses
6.  customer businesses
 
  THE INDUSTRY'S POSITION ON FORESTRY POLICIES
 
  The timber industry says enviros will do anything to shut down sales on fed land, such as protecting one bird such as the spotted owl, regardless of how it affects the econ  
  Industry argues that forests are being locked up by no use advocates   
  Some indlists do practice sustainable forestry   
  Some indlists do not practice sustainable forestry   
  The indlist who do not use sustainable practices use a variety of tactics to maximize profits such as:   
  1.  clear cutting & defaulting on restoration obligations  
  2.  harvesting timber to such a degree that it devalues the land, then selling the land at a loss in order to get a tax write off  
  3.  logging out entire regions, & then moving to another region  
  4.  opposing & circumventing forestry policies & regs  
  5.  old growth harvesting  
  6.  replanting w/ 'super trees' i.e. single species of farm grown seedling  
  7.  supporting policies & regs which shift expenses such as road bldg & restoration  

 
Top
 
Table on US Forest Products Corps, 1989
 
Company
Sales
Wkrs
Founded
HQ
1. Georgia Pacific
$10. 1 bb
44k
1927
Atlanta
2. Intl Paper
9.7
64
1898
NYC
3. Weyerhaeuser
7.8
45
1900
Tacoma, WA
4. James River
5.9
46
1969
Richmond
5. Kimberly Clark
5.6
40
1872
Dallas
6. Stone Container
5.3
33
1926
Chicago
7. Champion Intl
5.2
30
1937
Stanford, CT
8. Scott Paper
5.1
29
1879
Phil
9. Boise Cascade
3.0
20
1931
Boise, ID
10. Mead
2.0
22
1846
Dayton, OH
The Table on US Forest Products Corps, shows that many large corps are involved in forestry 

 
Internal
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 Outline on the  General Public's Influence on Forestry Issues
External
Links
  INTRODUCTION   
  In relation to forestry issues, there is a wide divergency of interest btwn the gen public of the West & the rest of the nation  
  The percentage of public forest lands, and public lands in general is much higher in the West than in the rest of the nation, running as high as 70% in some states, thus making forestry issues very important  
  People in the East, Midwest & South & thus their legislators generally support policies at odds w/ the West  
  The West generally wants more use & less restriction on public land while the rest of the nation generally advocates more conservationist policies  
  THE ENV & THE ECON   
  The public's concern for the environment is linked to economics
 
  To date, most env issues have been voted on as short term econ issues  
  The Fed govt ownership of land displaces local land taxes  
  Because of the displacement of local land taxes, in many cases the Fed govt has replaced this w/ rev from timber sales  
  The dependence of local econ's on Fed rev from timber sales makes them complacent toward forestry policy   
  Examples of the short term econ view on forestry is seen in the fact that  
  -  the protection of old growth forests was turned down by voters in CA in 1990  
  -  OR gov Roberts was threatened w/ recall after she made anti industry comments  
  COMMUNITIES & INDUSTRY   
 
Small communities are dependent on local industry & often are a "company town"
 
  Often company towns have a majority of wkrs employed in one or a few industries  
  Small communities tend to be very supportive of their ind  
  Often the closing of plants is portrayed as an envl issue  
  The argument is often made to gen pub by indlists that a plant closing is the result of envl regs when in fact, just like in most industries, jobs lost to mechanization & tech is greater than from govt reg  
  The public in small communities often embraces the govt reg argument when in fact they see & experience more frequent job loss to mechanization & tech because they realize there is nothing they can do about the latter, but if they can enlist public support support to fight govt regs, they hope they can save some jobs   
 
Timber sales come from fed land, state land, private land, & timber corp land
 
  Locals feel sympathy for for wkrs & mill workers when the FS limits the amt of timber to be cut  
  Also, local taxes are proportional to the amt of timber cut  
  Larger communities & cities even in timber areas are less supportive of ind policies & more supportive of envl policies than are people in small communities & rural areas   
 
THE MEDIA & THE FS 
 
  The media has highlighted the internal strife & disagreement w/in FS  
  The media generally polarizes debate by presenting extreme views of indlists & envlists in dramatic forms  
  There is little centrist debate in the media or amongst the participants in the forestry debate  
  Is this the fault of the media, or are they merely giving the public what they want?  
  The increasing focus on infotainment raises the question of whether the media has a duty to present hard news or not  
  The media usually reflects the position of the public they serve, thus media in small communities is more likely to be pro ind, while large city media is more likely to be pro envlist  
  Because most of the gen public pays scant attn to envl issues, the media also largely ignores it, & when it does report on it, it is at a general level, which tends to support the status quo   
  PUBLIC ATTENTION ON FORESTRY ISSUES 
 
  Both indlists & envlists struggle to gain attn & support of gen public  
  Usually the pub's attn is only focused on the env during a crisis  
  There is usually only a small amt of attn given to an env issue when there is not a crisis 
- by the rich
- by professionals
 
  What scant action there is taken in support of the env, contra the indlists, is usually carried out by the rich, the upper mid class, & by professionals because these grps have the resources & the knowledge to address envl issues   
  The mid & lo classes do not have the time nor the resources to be involved w/ most public forum issues except when crisis arises  

 
Internal
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 Outline on the  Envl Participants Involved in Forestry Envl Debate
External
Links
  INTRODUCTION   
 
From the env perspective, forestry is one of the most contentious env issues, perhaps in the top three in terms of the resources they expend preserving it
 
 
Forestry is inextricably wound up w/ many other env issues such as endangered species, water, global warming, wilderness & other land use problems, & many minor issues such as fire, urban sprawl, etc.
 
  Env grps have set up networks across the country & at all levels of the forestry env debate  
  Most env grps have a strong grass roots, i.e. local constituency in any area where they are active  
 
ENVL TOOLS
 
 
The major tools that envlists use include 'inhouse' or bureaucratic appeals, legal cases, public pressure, sponsoring / opposing legislation / rules  
 
Because of the network nature of env grps, national level grps will send people & money to local level grps to assist them in particular situations such as the resistance to the High Knob logging on the GWJNF
 
  Most of env support comes from the mid class & a few "angels," i.e. rich individuals  
  The main envl tool in the forestry debate is to appeal FS decisions thru the FS appeal process which operates in the FS bur, outside of the govt judicial system, until the last step
 
  If envlist utilize all the 'in house' govt procedures to try to stop or appeal a labor sale, then they may oppose it w/in the civil court system   
  To pursue the legal strategy, it takes money to do research, to hire lawyers, to hire experts for testimony, etc.   
  Like the ind & other major participants in the forestry debate the env try to enlist the gen public to serve their cause  
  While the ind will enlist local people in support of their forestry position, the env will try to enlist people in non forested areas, i.e. the East, South, & Midwest  
  While the ind will enlist ind related wkrs & businesses in their position, the env will enlist the mid & prof classes  
  Another tool that envlists can use to stop a logging sale is to get a significant amt of public support to oppose the sale   
  Land mgt agencies often respond to high levels of public pressure  
  Another tool envlists use to impact forestry policy includes either sponsoring legislation or bureaucratic rules they see as positive or opposing legislation / rules they see as negative  
  To pursue legislation or bureaucratic rule making, it takes considerable amts of money to pay lobbyists, lawyers, & experts in the field   
  Furthermore to pursue legislation, envlists must rally significant public support to pressure legislators   
  ENVL GRPS INVOLVED IN FORESTRY   
  The major envl grps that often deal w/ forestry issues include: 
 
1.  Sierra Club
2.  Wilderness Society
3.  Nat Wildlife Federation
4.  World Wildlife Fund
5.  Environmental Defense Fund
6.  Greenpeace USA
7.  Natural Resources Defense Council
8.  Nature Conservancy
 
  The minor grps that often deal w/ forestry issues include: 
Earth First!
WAFC:  Western Ancient Forest Coalition
ICL:  Idaho Conservation League
Forest Watch
The Clinch Coalition
many others
 
  POLICIES PURSUED BY FORESTRY RELATED ENVL GRPS  
  Because of the contentious nature of the struggle btwn envl grps & ind, both side often take a 'no compromise' attitude until the last possible moment   
  That is to say, indlist will propose the biggest timber sale w/ the least reg possible in hope of getting a fraction of it in the end   
  Envlists will try to completely shut down nearly every timber sale in the hope of stopping some timber harvest wherever they can  
  Not all grps take this contentious approach, for example the Nature Conservancy takes an alternate policy path wherein they confront few forest projects, but instead try to buy up & preserve more land each yr  
  Envl grps often address fed legislation, policies, regulations etc. because they are more able to be impacted than state regs because there has been a longer, standardized legal set of regulation at the fed level as compared to the state level  
  It is more difficult to oppose state regs because each state is different, states are more likely to submit to ind pressure than is the fed govt, & states have less of a history of successfully regulating forest mgt  

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on the  Other Participants in the Forestry Debate
External
Links
  RECREATIONISTS
 
  Forestry recreationists are networked into many groups, including outfitted recreators, motorized recreators, hunters, non motorized recreators, water recreators, tourists, businesses serving recreationists, recreational orgs, but not as many recreational corporations, the hotel industry
 
  In relation to the env issues, recreationists often choose a middle path btwn the forestry indlists & the forestry envlists
 
  In some cases forestry recreationists choose more extreme positions that opposes either or both  forestry indlists & the forestry envlists such as is seen in water uses, preservation of visual quality, preservation of habitat or endangered species
 
  Recreationists are usually more involved than the gen public & often support policies that enhance or expand rec uses which may conflict or support polices by indlists or envlists
 
  The tourist ind is usually less supportive of envl policies than gen recreationists
 
 
Rec orgs such as Trout Unlimited or the Appalachian Tourism Counsel run the gamut from being very envl oriented, to no envl concerns
 
  Today tourism has displaced logging as the major econ force in many regions  
  Forest rec is a subset of tourism  
  Typically forest rec is incompatible or at a minimum limits or conflicts logging; however, many forest recists have ties to the forest ind & so support ind positions  
  Typically Easterners & other non forested areas rec have little chance to recreate in the forest, have little knowledge of it, but based on gen knowledge & a romanticized view, support env positions  
  GOVT AGENCIES INVOLVED IN FORESTRY   
 
Some of the govt agencies involved in forestry include: 
1.  USFS
2.  BLM
3.  NPS
4.  EPA
5.  Natl Marine Fisheries Service
6.  State forestry agencies
7.  Other fed land mgt. agencies
8.  some county govts
 
  When the land mgt. agencies were formed in the early 1900s, they were small & consisted of people   
  In the past, it was clear that most bur wkrs in the govt land mgt. agencies were closely related to ind & embraced the ind position  
  Early govt wkrs like the forest ranger, or the govt agent such as Elliott Ness had a very high social status & were practically folk heroes  
  In the FS & other govt agencies, there was a policy that top level bureaucrats such as forest rangers would be required to move to a new location every few years to avoid 'local capture,' i.e. to be too influenced by the local industrial leaders  
  The policy of changing locations to avoid local capture is still in operation today; however, the policy has not adapted to the fact that industry is not longer locally based; it is nationally based  
  Envlists consider most FS bureaucrats to be captured by ind  
  In the FS & other land mgt. agencies, the capture trend has been countered to a limited degree by the addition of new professions such as wildlife biologists, recreation director, & many others  

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on the  US Forest Service
External
Links
  -  Project:  The USFS
Link
  INTRODUCTION   
  The FS is part of the Dept of Ag
 
  The FS manages over 191 mm acres which is almost 9 % of the US land mass  
  The FS is mostly made up of Nat Forests & Nat Grasslands  
  There are 155 Nat Forests in US & Puerto Rico & 20 Nat Grasslands in 44 states  
  -  Supplement:  FS maps
Link
  -  Supplement:  Clinch Ranger District recreation
Link
  -  Supplement:  Washington Jefferson NF Offices
Link
  -  Supplement:  Washington Jefferson NF Expansion
Link
 
-  Supplement:  Wilderness Areas on the Washington Jefferson NF
Link
  Today, the multiple use doctrine is the predominate philosophy of the FS  
  In the early 1990s the doctrine of ecosystem mgt. was tacked on to the multiple use doctrine  
 
Private water power, forestry, mining, grazing, recreation, & other uses are allowed in the nat forests
 
  The FS headed by the Chief      (Dombeck in 2000)  
  The FS is divided into 9 Regions each of which is headed by a Regional Forester  
  Forests are headed by the Forest Supervisor  
  Forests are divided into Ranger Districts, headed by the District Ranger  
  A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FS   
  In 1891, the Congress estb. the first natl forest for conservation by setting aside areas known as Forest Reserves  
  The first Forest Reserve was estb. in WY, which later became Yellowstone Park  
  In 1897 Congress began setting aside tracts of public land to:  
  - create forest reserve  
  - furnish continuous timber supplies  
  - protect mountain watersheds
 
  The FS was founded as the Bureau of Forestry in the 1800s, the agency became the Forest Service in 1905
 
  The Forest Reserves became known as National Forests  
  THE FS TODAY  
  The FS is the largest branch of the Dept of Ag w/ 35,000 wkrs   
  The FS is the nation's largest road building org at 8 times length of the interstate hwy sys  
  Fed law dictates that the Forest must give 25% of their revenues to county govt for roads & schools in order to replaces tax revenue lost by fed ownership of land  
  MULTIPLE USE DOCTRINE  
  Except for areas set aside as wilderness, forests are managed under the multiple use doctrine  
  Under the multiple use doctrine, private water power development, forestry, mining, etc. is allowed in natl forests  
  Multiple use doctrine calls for a balance of
- recreation
- timber
- grazing
- conservation activities, & more
 
  In theory all resources receive equal status & consideration but in practice this has not been the case in that many resource areas 'complete' inside the bur for funding for use, dev, & maintenance, esp among the areas of:
- outdoor recreation
- range
- timber
- watershed conservation
- wildlife
- fish, & more
 
  The MAJOR FS FUNCTIONAL AREAS include
1.  Timber
2.  Recreation
3.  Fire
4.  Grazing
 
 
FS PAYMENTS TO THE COUNTIES
 
  The FS pays counties money in place of property taxes that the county would have collected if the land were privately owned  
  The amt of pmt that the FS pays counties is usually based on how much timber is cut  
  The fed - county pmts give the counties incentives to pressure the FS to log  
  -  Supplement:  FS Payments to Virginia by County
Link
  -  Supplement:  FS Payments to all US States by county
Link
  There are 4 LEVELS OF FS OFFICES including
1.  Natl office in Washington, DC
2.  Regional offices
3.  Natl Forest Offices
4.  Ranger Districts
 
  1.  THE NATIONAL OFFICE   
  The FS Nat Office is in Washington, DC & is run by the Chief  
  The FS Nat Office works w/ the office of the President to dev a budget to submit to Congress  
  The FS Nat Office supplies info to Congress on FS activities  
  2.  THE REGIONAL OFFICES      aka   RO  
  An RO is headed by the Regional Forester   
  There are 9 regions in the FS which are numbered 1 - 10 because Region 7 was eliminated some yrs ago  
  Each Region covers a multi state area  
  Region 8 is the eastern Forests & includes the GWJNF
 
  Region 4 includes  
  - parts of ID  
  - parts of UT  
  - parts of NV  
  - parts of WY  
  An RO's duties include:  
  - coordinating the activities btwn the Forests in the Region  
  - monitoring activities on the Forests in Region  
  - providing guidance for Forest Plans  
  - allocation of budgets to the Forests  
  3.  NATIONAL FOREST OFFICES     aka The Supervisor's Office       or the SO  
  An SO is headed by the Forest Supervisor who reports to the Regional Forester in the RO  
  The duties of an SO are to:   
  - coordinate activities w/in each Forest  
  - allocate the budget  
  - provide tech support to Forest personnel  
  4.  RANGER DISTRICTS         or just Districts  
  A District is headed by the District Ranger   
  The Ranger reports to the Forest Supervisor  
  Districts vary in size from 50,000 acres to over a mm acres  
  The Clinch Ranger District in the GWJNF is 80,000 acres  
  There are over 600 Ranger Districts in all the Forests  
  The duties of a District are to:  
  - carry out on the ground activities related to logging, recreation, grazing, conservation  
  - plan & implement logging sales  
  - plan & implement forest cultivation  
  - build & op recreation  
  - plan & supervise grazing  
  - plan & implement conservation
 
  FOREST SERVICE PLANNING   
 
FS Planning occurs on 3 levels the national level, the regional level, & the forest level
 
  The Forest level is the most imp for planning  
  NATIONAL PLANNING   
  Under the Forest & Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act   ( RPA )  the FS must consider a RPA Assessment every 10 yrs  
  An RPA Assessment includes an inventory of renewable resources  
  Mgt. goals are based on RPA resource data & econ analysis  
  REGIONAL PLANS  
  Regional goals are distributed to the 9 FS regions  
  FOREST PLANS   
  As authorized by the Natl Forest Mgt. Act ( NFMA ) each Forest incorporates the regional goals based on its own resource capabilities in a Forest Plan  
  Forest Plans must be revised every 10 to 15 yrs  
  THE FOREST PLANNING PROCESS   
  1.   Identify issues & concerns through the process of public scoping  
  2.   Dev planning process criteria where the public can influence criteria for choosing alternatives in the Forest Plan  
  3.   Gather data & conduct studies & the public can request special studies  
  4.   Analyze forest resources  
  5.   Dev a range of alt  
  Based on issues from step 1, alts are dev according to NEPA  
  The public can voice their opinions on each alt  
  6.  Compare the impacts of each alt  
  The FS must examine the physical, bio, & social impacts of each alt  
  7.  Prepare Draft EIS   ( DEIS )  
  A DEIS discusses the phys, bio, econ & soc aspects of each alt according to NEPA rules  
  8.  Select & review the "preferred alt"  
  The Forest Supervisor determined the preferred alt, & provides it to the Reg'l Forester who makes the decision  
  The RF provides the rationale for the choice which becomes part of the "record of decision"  ( ROD )  
  9.  Review the Final Plan  
  10. Implement the plan & monitor its effectiveness  
  The FS must monitor the phys, bio, econ & soc effects of the alt  
  The monitoring of individual projects is open to the public & is a good method to ensure FS compliance w/ rules
 
  ECOSYSTEM MGT   
  Ecosystem mgt. is the guiding mgt. phil of the FS which was adopted in 92  
  EM called for multiple use thru sustained mgt. of healthy ecosystems  
  EM held that the FS must balance econ & non-econ considerations in resource mgt.  
  The FS began to look beyond individual projects on individual Forest to projects as having an impact on ecosystems, which are often defined as a watershed or a major part of a watershed, but may be delineated by other broad scale categories such as forest type  
  RPA DOCUMENTS   
  The Sec of Ag is required by the RPA to assess nation's renewable forest & rangeland resources & evaluate their future use & sustainability for the planning purposes  
  The FS prepares 3 RPA documents  
  1. the RPA Assessments  
  2. the RPA Program  
  3. the Annual Report  
  The RPA info estb a large info base on which public & agencies can make decisions & provide input to the FS  
 
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 
 
  To find out what projects are in the FS pipeline, one must be on the scoping list  
  You may request to be added to the FS mailing list by contacting Rangers or Forest Supervisors  
  Scoping lists give the name, location, type, etc. of each FS individual District project & a contact person in charge of the project  
  SCOPING   
  As we saw above, scoping is done for the For Plan  
  Scoping is also done for each major project  
  A person may:   
       -  submit written input  
       -  submit oral input  
       -  attend public scoping meeting  
  Scoping runs during a predetermined comment period, so comments must be given during a specific period or they do not influence the process  
  Scoping comments are public info so you may see all other comments, for & against a proposal  
  INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS   
  Each major individual project that a Ranger District undertakes must be examined under NEPA rules  
  Thus an EA or EIS must be performed  
  The EIS process is similar to For Plan process  
  A Decision Notice ( DN ) will be given & if the project is to go ahead it must be give a Finding of No Significant Impact  ( FONSI ) by the FS  
  ADMIN APPEALS   
  If someone disputes the chosen alt or the FONSI, they may appeal   
  A Reg'l Plan or For Plan may be appealed to the Chief of the FS  
  A Reg'l or For indiv project may be appealed to the Reg'l Forester  
  Failing here, a person may appeal in court  
  THE APPEAL PROCESS   
  1.  A citizen must file a "notice of appeal" w/ forest officer who made the decision w/in 45 days  
  2.  W/in 30 days of the decision on the appeal, a notice of appeal must be filed w/ the next higher forest officer  
  3.  The deciding officer must provide a "responsive statement"  w/in 30 days  
  4.   Citizens must respond w/in 20 days  
  5.   Entire appeal record is sent to Chief for review  
  In Jan of 2005, Pres GW Bush signed an exec order which changed the For Plan & EIS process giving the RF more power
 

 
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 Outline on the  Forest Service & Forestry Issues
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  INTRODUCTION   
  Frequently, the struggle over forest use is centered on FS in such areas as
1.  jobs
2.  economic diversity
3.  how much logging = sustained yield?
4.  endangered species
5.   env quality
6.   global warming
 
  Industry, the envlists & govt are caught in  middle of the struggle over forest issues  
  It is worthwhile to note that other major forest owners, i.e. the individual states, large private landowners, & small private landowners all are much less likely to face the scrutiny of the fed govt, the media, the gen public, the envlists  
  It is esp. ironic that the FS faces more scrutiny that other landowners because it is the most ecological landowner as compared to most individual states, large private landowners, & small private landowners  
  The FS faces more scrutiny from the govt, the gen public, envlists, Indlists, & others because it is the biggest single land mgr. & because it is part of an open, dem govt, it responds more easily & quickly to the demands of its many constituencies  
  Thus, envlists confront the FS because it is less 'captured' by ind than the individual states forestry agencies  
  Envlists will rarely confront large private landowners, & small private landowners because they are nearly immune to outside pressure because of the western norms of priv prop & individualism  
  The early FS was widely respected & it managed the forest in a much more sustainable manner than had the previous priv ind sys which was dominated by the robber baron mentality, even among small logging firms  
 
The middle aged FS was criticized for allowing too many timber sales, at too low a price, w/o envl considerations
 
  1.  The mid aged FS was criticized for placing timber above all other uses & so is often considered to be "captured" by the timber lobby  
  2.  The FS is often criticized because it is allowed to keep the $ it earns from timber sales: $629 mm in 1990  
 
Because the FS keeps the $ it earns from timber sales, it has a monetary incentive to log while it has little incentive to expand the other traditional uses of recreation, grazing or fire use
 
  BELOW COST SALES   
  The cost to the FS & thus the Am taxpayer for surveying the sale, putting in roads, admin the sale, & restoring the area after the sale is often greater than the amt the FS receives from the logging corp for the timber   
  The FS is "inefficient" in its logging operations  
  In the mid 1990s, a report showed that 110 of 120 national forests are losing money since trees are sold @ prices below the costs necessary to prepare sites for logging & managing the sales  
  The FS lost $5.6 b on logging ops in the 80s, which has the net effect of subsidizing the timber ind by that amt  
  In timber ops, the effect of below cost logging is that the FS pays for: 
1.  road building & maintenance
2.  surveying & marking timber
3.  env studies
4.  admininstering the sale
5.  restoration
     etc.
 
  The costs to the FS for timber sales are greater than the amt of $$ FS receives from timber sales & are a subsidy to the timber industry paid for by taxpayers   
  LACK OF CLEAR GOALS   
  There is a lack of clear goals for the FS & all govt from the Pres & Congress  
  For most observers, there is even more than a lack of clear goals from the Pres & Cong; there are confusing & contradictory goals, & goals that change radically from admin to admin  
  The FS is not the only agency to struggle w/ confusing, contradictory, & rapidly changing goals, but it is easier to see how the land mgt agency's goals are more politicized that the goal of the military, the FCC, HUD, etc.  
  The struggles w/in Congress & btwn Congress & the Pres reflects the struggle w/in society btwn indlists & enlists  
  Thus goals bounce back & forth as factions gain & lose pwr  
  The Pres appoints Agency leaders & Congress controls purse strings  
  THE FS'S POLITICAL / INTERNAL STRUGGLES  
  Conflicts over policy w/in the FS often reflect larger struggles in the govt & in society at large   
  The internal struggles w/in the FS are often played out in the govt & in society at large   
  The pol struggles in FS are often over:
 
1.  the amt of harvest
2.  where to harvest
3.  what kind of trees to harvest
4.  the designation or removal of fed land
 
  Secondary issues in the land mgt. agencies that reflect on harvest & designation include struggles over:
1.  wildlife
2.  water quality
3.  road building
4.  recreational use
 
  FS & SOCIETAL CONFLICT   
  The internal struggles of FS reflect the struggles w/in society  
  W/in the FS, employees disagree on the ASQ & clear cutting   
  In 1976, the National Forest Management Act limited clear cutting  
  In Jan, 1998, Chief Dombeck issues order for a 2 yr. moratorium on new roads in Roadless Areas  
  In 2000, the Clinton Admin essentially made the moratorium permanent & made most of the Roadless Areas permanently roadless  
  In 2003, the Bush, Jr. Admin reversed the Roadless Area decision, putting roadless areas back into play politically  
  The Assoc for FS Employees for Env Ethics (AFSEEE) has 2,000 members of the 35,000 FS members  
  NON COMPLIANCE   
  The FS is known to be slow, inefficient & often does not follow its own rules  
  The FS is slow, inefficient, & out of compliance w/ its own rules because:   
  1.  It is a huge bureaucracy w/ under trained & overworked staff  
  2.  The Laws passed by conflicted pol sys (Pres & Cong) are vague & inconsistent, & change from yr. to yr., even mo to mo  
  3.  There are factions w/in FS reflecting factions in soc  
  OLD GROWTH   
  There is disagreement w/in the FS on the definition of old growth forests  
  Old growth by current definition,  makes up less that 5% of nation's entire forest  
  Envlists try to preserve old growth  
  The FS & the Indlists seek to harvest it  
  The FS has 3 classifications of mgt strategy:
1.  preservation
2.  intensive mgt.
3.  non intensive mgt.
 
  Some old growth are in non intensive mgt. areas because fire suppression has choked them off  
  By the 1980s, the US had doubled the volume of timber harvested in forests from 50 yrs ago & new seedlings are being planted faster than trees are being harvested  
  In the 2000s, timber harvesting on FS land has slowed  
  ROADLESS AREAS   
  Since RARE in the 70s, the FS has tried to "zone" all its land: & determine what the land will be used for  
  The debate over roadless areas was temporarily ended in 2000 when as a last act of the Clinton admin, they enacted by exec order the Roadless Area Conservation Rules  
  See Also:  Forestry Law:  Roadless Area Conservation Rules  
  FIRE   
  The Great Fire of 1910 burned from OR & WA thru ID into MT  
  Burned over 3 mm acres in one day  
  As a result, the FS dev 10:00 am policy under which they wound muster the resources to suppress all fires by 10:00 am the next day  
  The 10:00 am policy lasted until the 70s  
  THE FUNCTION OF FIRE   
  It is widely recognized in FS & sci circles that the forest needs fires to: 
1.  thin out brush & trees
2.  allow fire species to reproduce
3.  create young forage & open range for wildlife
4.  replenish the soil
5.  cleanse forest of dead & dying trees & disease
      etc. 
 
  PRESCRIBED FIRES & LET BURNS   
  In the 70s the FS sets prescribed burns & lets fires burn  
  79 was an intense fire season which tested the new let burn policy  
  The ID govt & the President intervene against FS's handling of fires forcing it to fight fires ostensibly because of the smoke & public fear the fires engendered  
  Some critics maintained that the let burn policy was attacked because it limited logging, & because the FS itself had a bureaucratic imperative to fight fires, which it could not reign in  
  As a result of the political struggles around the let burn policy, the FS cuts back on its let burn policy  
  In the 80s, the let burn policy is reviewed & re-instit  
  In 88, Yellowstone Park burns again bringing the let burn policy into question  
  The FS has repeatedly failed to ed the Pres, Cong, & the gen public that this type of fire season is normal  
  In 94, there is an intense fire season that burns millions of acres & kills more firefighters than any other single season  
  The FS uses the firefighter safety issue to expand its prescribed burn program & to allow many fire salvage sales  
  00 is an intense fire season crowned by the Cerreo Grande fire around Los Alamos that begins as a prescribed burn  
  Another major fire of the 00 season is in CO which is started by an arsonist who is an FS employee  
  The debate around fire is around the issues of the types of fuel reduction which include let burn, prescribe burn, thin, or the use of logging to reduce fuel  
  Another debate around fire is which areas should be treated, i.e. have their fuel reduced thru on ot the types of fuel reduction  
  The debate was concluded but not resolved w/ the passage of the Healthy Forest Act  
  See Also:  Forestry Law:  The Healthy Forest Act  
  THE FS'S PHILOSOPHIES   
  The many FS phil's demonstrates the FS's conflicted guidance  
  The Multiple Use phil was used for first 50 yrs of the land mgt. agencies demonstrating the relative respect, efficiency, & consistency of the early years  
  The New Forestry phil was used for about a decade & moved toward leaving trees for wildlife & habitat & other ecological concerns  
  Heritage sites were protected under a UN resolution that the US choose to accept  
  Ecosystem Mgt. has been used from about 1985 on, & represents an increased attn to ecological concerns as well as the need to meet econ goals  
  The ultimate question remains as to whether the land mgt. agencies are meeting the ASQ or not  
  Sagebrush Rebellion   

 
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 Outline on the  Timber Mgt.
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About one third or 730 mm acres of US land is forested
 
  Two thirds or 480 mm acres of the US forest land is considered to have commercially valuable timber, though every year forests that had no commercial value are now commercially viable  
  COMMERCIAL LAND OWNERSHIP   
  Of the commercially viable land, 
     - the Feds own     20 % 
     - the States own     7 %
     - the Tribes own     1 %
     - Private non industrial owners own   58 %
     - the Forest Industry owns    14 %
 
 
The early FS was criticized for timber rip offs, i.e. sweet deals for ind, looking the other way as in logged larger swaths than agreed too, giving away sales & below mkt prices, etc.
 
  CRITIQUE OF TIMBER POLICY   
  More recently, observers critique the timber policy of the land mgt. agencies for   
  a.  placing timber above all other uses because they are 'captured' by the timber lobby  
  b.  keeping the $ it earns from timber sales, which amounted to $629 mm in 1990  
 
The timber industry says the envists will do anything to shut them down such putting the welfare of a spotted owl above the needs or working men & women
 
  The communities that are dependent on timber sales from public lands tend to support the timber ind, & thus in the West many communities support the timber ind  
  Nearly 1.2 mm workers earn a living from forestry  
  The public's concern for the environment is linked to timber economics as is seen in
-  CA voters turning down the protection of old growth forests in 1990
-  the gov of OR being threatened w/ recall after making anti industry comments
 
 
Some old growth forests are in the non intensive forest mgt. areas because fire suppression has choked them off & reduced their value
 
  Industry argues that forests are being locked up by no use advocates  
  TIMBER SALVAGE SALES   
  Recent trends in forest mgt include the suspension of env laws in the forests so that timber may be salvaged  
  In the mid 1990s, after a severe fire season in 1994, Pres Clinton did not veto the salvage logging rider which suspended env laws in the forests so that burned timber could be logged quickly  
  Envists point out that
- burned logs help replenish the forest
- the timber industry logged more than burned trees
 
  Envists claim that ind used the suspension of env logs to log in an unenvl manner & to take more than just burned trees  
  In the mid 00s, Pres Bush Jr signed the Healthy Forest Act (HFA) which like the salvage logging rider suspended env laws  
  Under the HFA, there is a suspension of env law similar to that of the salvage rider  
  Env laws are suspended under the HFA not because of the need to remove trees to be rapidly salvaged, but because of the possibility that trees may need to be rapidly salvaged  
  The ostensible reason for the HFA is to improve forest health because the suppression of fire has resulted in an unnatural crowding of trees & other foliage  
  The trend in timber mgt in the 1990s is not to roll back env laws, but to "temporarily" suspend them  
  Envists charge that the reason for the HFA is to allow more logging w/o the restriction of envl laws  

 
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 Outline on a  Summary of Environmental Laws & Regulations
External
Links
 
-  Project:  Envl Law
Link
Link
Table on Environmental Law by Administration & Topic of Env Law
 
  The Table on Env'l Law shows that env'l law is a patchwork of laws & regs that have provided an inconsistent, conflicted, & overly complicated regulatory climate for industry & env'ists  
  Most observers agree that the major US env laws include the 
1969  Nat'l Env'l Protection Act    (NEPA)   estb EPA 
1972  Clean Water Act 
1976  Nat Forest Mgt. Act 
1977  Clean Air Act 
1980  Superfund 
1990  Reauthorization of Clean Air Act
 
 
Modern major US env'l legislation was begun in the 1960s w/ a flurry of activity 

The major theme of modern env'l legislation is that the fed govt must take a major role in solving what was beginning to be called the env'l crisis

Early in the mod env'l leg era, participants believed a limited partnership btwn the feds & the states was insufficient to achieve env'l goals 

Early in the mod env'l leg era, the env'l crisis became a global issue

 
  Many major env laws such as the establishing of the Forest Reserve system under Pres TR, the establishment of the EPA under Pres Nixon, the AK lands bill under Pres Carter, & the establishment of the Roadless Rule under Clinton were all the work & effort of a far sighted president more than the govt responding to public pressure as activated through Congressional led legislation  
  Significant env leg, such as the Superfund law, the Clean Air Act, & several clean water bills, has been passed by Congress as the result of public pressure
 

 
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 Detailed Outline on  Envl Laws & Regs
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  There are six broad categories of env law including: 
 
Link
1.  Air Law
 
Link
2.  Water Law
 
Link
     -  Native Americans & Water Law
 
Link
     -  Water Projects & Irrigation Law
 
Link
     -  Drinking Water Law  
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     -  European Water Law  
Link
3.  Waste & Toxic Material Law
 
Link
4.  Land Use Law
 
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5.  Forest Law
 
Link
6.  Other Law  
Link
     -  Energy Crisis Law  
Link
     -  Mining Law   
Link
     -  Flora & Fauna Law  

 
  FOREST  LAW  
  1891  Forest Reserve Act  
  1907  USFS estb  
  1960  Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act     MUSYA  
  1974 Forest & Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act     RPA  
  1976 National Forest Management Act    NFMA  
  1978  Roadless Area Review & Evaluation    RARE  
  1998  New roads moratorium   
  2000  Roadless Area Conservation Rules   
  2003  Reversal of the Roadless Area Conservation Rules  
  2004  Healthy Forest Act  
  2005  Revision of For Plan & EIS Rules  

 
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 Outline on  Forestry Law
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ESTABLISHING PUBLIC LANDS 
 
 
In 1872  Yellowstone Park was established 
 
  In 1891 the Forest Reserve Act was passed  
  In 1906 the Antiquity Act was passed allowing the Pres w/draw lands from settlement if historically or naturally important  
  In 1907 the USFS is estb  
 
THE FOREST RESERVE ACT 
 
  In 1891 the Forest Reserve Act is passed which estb the first nat for  
  Congress estb a conservation policy setting aside areas known as Forest Reserves  
  The first For Res was estb in WY, & later became Yellowstone Park  
  Forest Reserves became known as National Forests  
  In 1905, the Bureau of Forestry was estb which became the FS in 1907  
 
1960  MULTIPLE USE SUSTAINED YIELD ACT           ( MUSYA )
 
  MUSYA institutionalized the concept of "Multiple Use" for the FS  
  Forests should be used for timber, grazing, recreation, conservation, watersheds, wildlife, & more  
  But MUSYA painted multiple use doctrine in broad strokes & left the details to each forest creating a variety of standards across the nation  
 
1974   FOREST & RANGELAND RENEWABLE RESOURCES PLANNING ACT         ( RPA )
 
  The RPA required:   
  a.  inventories of Forest resources  
  b.  the assessment of the cost & benefits of meeting forest resource needs  
  c.  the dev the concept of sustained yield:  which proposed that there should only be as much timber harvested in a year as as the forest can grow in a year  
 
The RPA is expanded by NFMA of 1976
 
 
If a forest takes approx. 100 yrs to return to productive age (as is the case in many Eastern Forests) then only one 100th of the commercial Forest should be cut each year
 
 
See Also:  NEPA  
  1976 NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT ACT          ( NFMA )  
  The NFMA  
  a.  limited clear cutting  
  b.  required inventories of forest resources  
  c.  required the assessment of the cost & benefits of meeting forest resource needs  
  The data from NFMA was used by envl grps to show that 110 of 120 NF's lost $$ on timber sales  
  FS road construction & envl studies cost more than the timber sales were worth:  
  NFMA dev the concept of below cost timber sales  
  NFMA is an expansion of RPA of 1974  
  1978-9:  ROADLESS AREA REVIEW & EVALUATION      ( RARE )  
  RARE I and II brought a lot of groups together in 1978-9  
  RARE attempted to create a land designation: i.e., determining the allowable uses of public lands including  
  - commercial grazing, timber, mining, etc.,  
  - motorized & non motorized recreation, hunting, hiking, camping, tourism, etc.  
  - preservation in the form of possible wilderness areas, roadless areas, wildlife sanctuaries, etc.  
  1998, JANUARY:  NEW ROADS MORATORIUM   
  In 1998 the FS Chief Dombeck issues an order for a 2 yr. moratorium on new roads in Roadless Areas while the roadless area studies were completed  
  ROADLESS AREA CONSERVATION RULES     2000       May - July    comment period  
  In 2000 the Clinton Gore presidency pushes through resolution of land designation  
  In the summer of 2000, the DEIS on Roadless Areas was issued & receiving comments  
  The FEIS was due out before the Nov. elections  
  Thus, as a last act of the Clinton Admin, the decision on the roadless areas was made, essentially making the roadless moratorium permanent in most, but not all areas, while still allowing harvesting  
  2003  REVERSAL OF THE ROADLESS AREA CONSERVATION RULES   
  The Bush Jr. Admin reversed this decision in 2003, allowing the political struggle to continue over Roadless Areas, in essence making a non decision while allows forest to make individual decisions  
  The Bush decision on the roadless areas will create a fragmented policy w/ some Forests putting roads into its roadless areas & allowing logging, while others will not  
  2004 HEALTHY FOREST ACT   
  The Healthy Forest Act is passed in 2004 under Pres Bush Jr. which allows for the use of any type of fuel reduction in almost any area that the land mgt. agencies determine need fuel reduction  
  Critics of the HFA of 2004 lobbied to have fuel reduction limited to the rural urban interface, i.e. the forested areas around urban areas  
  2005 Revision of For Plan & EIS Rules  

 
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Summary of the   Environmental Solutions Process
External
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  There are two aspects of any social / political issue that must be addressed in order to find a societally accepted solution, including:
I.    the reduction physical problems
II.  the process of social change
 
  I.  The reduction of environmental physical problems in finding a solution to a social issue / problem may be accomplished via FOUR stages including prioritizing, examining context, invoking best practices, conducting a cost / benefits analysis, & proposing actual solutions  
  A.  In order to find a solution, problems must be prioritized & examined in their context of relations & dynamic feedback loops of other problems / issues  
  B.  In order to find a solution, the best available practices / sciences must be invoked to reduce the physical aspects of the problem / issue  
  The science to reduce most social problems / issues is generally available, but not applied, as seen in that we know how to reduce pollution, but as a society we choose not to  
  Society knows how to feed & give health care to children worldwide, but as a society, we choose not to  
  C.  In order to find a solution, a cost & the benefits analysis of reducing / eliminating the problem must be done w/ attn paid to the economic multiplier effect & economic incidence  
  D.  In order to find a solution actual alternatives must be proposed  
  II.  The achievement of social change around any issue / problem can only be accomplished through the involvement of participants & the institutional of social change  
  A.  Involvement of participants in finding a solution to a social problem / issue must seek to involve all participants in open dialogue w/ the aim of solution seeking  
  1.  Involvement of environmental movement  
  2.  Involvement of industrialists  
  3.  Involvement of recreationists  
  4.  Involvement of general public  
  5.  Involvement of government  
  B.  The institutionalization of social change is accomplished by way of making new social roles & relationships standardized w/in society so that they are integrated into the very fabric of society as a normal part of everyday life  
  1.  Education of the general public on environmental issues via media, schools, etc. is generally considered to be one of the most effective ways to achieve social change  
  Emotionality:  Many people find personal fulfillment & reward in the environment & thus solutions must take this into account:  They offer a high level of energy & a clear vision  
  2.  Environmentalists help others prioritize  
  3.  Industrialists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates  
  4.  Recreationists offer market solutions & respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates  
  5.  The govt encourages voluntary change & implements laws where necessary  
  a.  The govt passes new laws as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure  
  b.  The govt passes new regulations as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure  
  c.  The govt reforms agencies as a result of public pressure  & / or govt pressure  
  6.  Legal suits have been very important in changing environmental policy by both upholding & creating law  

 
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 Outline on  Forestry Solutions
External
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  -  Project:  Solutions for Forestry 
Link
  REDUCE FORESTRY PHYSICAL PROBLEMS   
  Solutions to forestry physical problems include 
-  the reduction of erosion & siltation
-  leaving buffers around waterways
-  leaving corridors for wildlife connectivity to prevent fragmentation
-  matching cut w/ growth rate:  find sustainable quantity
-  expanding the forest to counter global warming
-  preserving a sufficient amt & quality of forest & old growth
-  reducing or eliminating roads
-  burning or mechanically reducing undergrowth & stands that are too dense 
 
  REDUCE FORESTRY SOCIAL PROBLEMS   
  Solutions to forestry social problems include 
-  reducing unequal access
-  reducing unequal allocation of costs & benefits of forest use, esp btwn East & West states & forests
-  reducing the capture of govt land mgt. agencies
-  creating oppositional as opposed to consensus building strategy & tactics by the major participants in the forestry debate
-  balancing a wide variety of forest use
-  reducing forest over-use
 
  INVOLVEMENT OF FORESTRY PARTICIPANTS
 
  To achieve forestry goals:
Involve the participants
  1.  Involvement of env mvmt
  2.  Involvement of indlists
  3.  Involvement of reclists
  4.  Involvement of gen public
 
  The three major participants in the forestry debate, i.e. the Env Mvmt, the Indlists, & the Reclists, are engaged in a zero-sum competition whereby they believe if one side wins, then the other side looses  
  The three major participants in the forestry debate oppose every action of their counterparts, regardless of whether they think it matters in the big picture or not  
  The three major participants in the forestry debate often promote positions that they regard as extreme because they expect to be opposed, even in reasonable proposals, & so offer the extreme position w/ the expectation that they will have to compromise, i.e. reduce their proposal  
  1.  Involvement of Env Mvmt 
 
  Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public
 
  2.  Involvement of Indlists
 
  Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public
 
  3.  Involvement of Reclists
 
  Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public
 
  4.  Involvement of Gen Public
 
  The public needs more education on forestry issues so that a national consensus can be created on the use of the forest
 
  The East West split of the public must be addressed & reduced by any reasonable means such as more compensation going to the Western nations for the use of the forest & forest products by the rest of the nation, increased public lands in the East accompanied by a reduction in public lands in the West, etc.  
  5.  Involvement of Govt
 
  The govt is not perceived by any as being an honest broker & is often accused of co-optation or orgl capture by ind
 
  The history of forest reg has created a vast, unwieldy body of law, regs, & rules which needs to be reduced, streamlined, & implemented  
  The vast body of forest regs has resulted in the failure of the land mgt. agencies to implement their own policies, & thus the govt must implement its policy in a timely manner & only embrace policy that can be implemented  
  INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF CHANGE IN THE FORESTRY DEBATE   
  Institutionalization of change
  1.  New laws
  2.  New regs
  3.  Reform of agencies
  4.  Legal suits
  5.  Educate gen public via media, etc.
 
  1.  New laws  
  Laws must be matched to each of the physical & social problems in forestry  
 
2.  New regs  
 
Regs must be matched to each of the physical & social problems in forestry  
  3.  Reform of agencies  
  Implement policy, do not ignore it  
  Streamline & rationalized policy  
  4.  Legal suits, which are very individualized  
  Use legal suits to address gaps, inequities, etc. in policy  
  5. Indl, Envl, & Recl grps lobby at all levels & take direct action  
 
The three major players in forestry must strive for consensus among themselves & bring in the public, reducing the East West split
 
  6. Local grps who most likely influence the state reg agency to do a better job  
  Local grps provide grass roots influence  
  Conclusion
Most logging is influenced by
1.  legislation by Congress or the states
2.  rules by the FS, BLM & others, implemented by states
3.  reform govt agencies
3.  legal suits, which are very individualized
4.  envl grps who lobby at all levels & take direct action
5.  local grps who most likely influence the state reg agency to do a better job
 

 
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 Outline on  Saving the Rain Forest
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SAVING THE RAIN FOREST WILL REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING BECAUSE IT STORES CO2 & COOLS THE EARTH 
 
  Rain forests have a significant amt of biomass, more than any other single entity except the ocean   
  In the rain forests' biomass is a significant amt of carbon   
  The rain forests also keep the equator region cooler by absorbing the sun's rays   
  MANY GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE WORKING TO SAVE THE RAIN FOREST   
 
Many conservation orgs, including the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation Intl, & the Nature Conservancy, are working w/ govts to conserve rain forests 
 
 
Efforts to save the rain forest include: 
a.  establishing protected areas 
b.  promoting intelligent management of rain forests 
c.  increasing public awareness about the importance of the forests 
 
  In the 1980s & 1990s, hundreds of protected areas were established in tropical forests 
 
  These areas included nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, & national parks 
 
  However, such efforts affected only a small percentage of the total area of rain forest 
 
  Moreover, many conservation areas remain only "paper parks," w/ little protection or enforcement on the ground 
 
  GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE DEVELOPING BEST MGT STANDARDS FOR 
RAIN FORESTS TO EDUCATE & REGULATE RAIN FOREST USERS 
 
  Govts & conservation orgs also promote sound mgt of tropical forests by the people who use them 
 
  For example, certain orgs certify timber from loggers that harvest rain forest wood in a sustainable fashion 
 
  Lowes & Home Depot now carry certified lumber in their stores, which is lumber that has been grown & harvested under more envlly sound practices   
  Certified timbers may bring a higher price on the intl mkt 
 
  Areas of some rain forests have been set aside as extractive reserves 
 
  Local populations manage these reserves & practice sustainable harvesting of many forest products 
 
  THE RAIN FOREST AFFECTS EVERYONE IN A GLOBAL ECON 
 
  In the core nations, we all use products that come from the rain forest, most notably, fast food   
  Thus saving the rain forest saves people & their lifestyle in the core nations & what people in the core nations do impacts what happens in the rain forest   
  Increasing public awareness about the plight of rain forests may also aid the struggle to conserve them   
  Awareness has grown due to greater exposure of rain forest issues in the media, & to an increasing number of tourists who travel to rain forests   

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