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A FOREST IS TREES & MUCH, MUCH MORE & THE WHOLE IS GREATER
THAN THE SUM OF THE PARTS |
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A forest is a large area of land covered w/ trees, but a forest is
much more than just trees |
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It also includes smaller plants, such as mosses, shrubs, & wild
flowers |
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In addition, many kinds of birds, insects, & other animals make
their home in the forest |
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Millions upon millions of living things that can only be seen under
a microscope also live in the forest |
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Climate, soil, & water determine the kinds of plants & animals
that can live in a forest |
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ECOSYSTEMS ARE CYCLES OF LIFE & OTHER NATURAL PROCESSES |
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The living things & their env together make up the forest ecosystem |
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An ecosystem consists of all the living & non living things in
a particular area & the relationships among them |
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The forest ecosystem is highly complicated |
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The trees & other green plants use sunlight to make their own food
from the air & from water & minerals in the soil |
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The plants themselves serve as food for certain animals. These
animals, in turn, are eaten by other animals |
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After plants & animals die, their remains are broken down by bacteria
& other organisms, such as protozoans & fungi |
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This process returns minerals to the soil, where they can again be
used by plants to make food |
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Although individual members of the ecosystem die, the forest itself
lives on |
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If the forest is wisely managed, it provides us w/ a continuous source
of wood & many other products |
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THE CARBON CYCLE IS ONE OF THE NATURAL CYCLES IN THE FORESTS &
ALL ECOSYSTEMS |
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The balance carbon cycle in the forest is critical to the balance of
the carbon cycle on the Earth |
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One step in the arboreal carbon cycle occurs when trees & other
plants take carbon from the air by breathing in CO2 |
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The carbon is contained, or sequestered in the living plants, such
as the wood of the trees themselves |
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As the plants die, some of the carbon is released back into the atm
by burning, or natural decomposition |
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Some carbon becomes part of the soil & is available as soil for
other plants to use, or simply remains sequestered in the soil |
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THERE IS HALF THE AMT FORESTED LAND TODAY AS COMPARED TO 12 K YRS
AGO |
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Before people began to clear the forests for farms & cities, great
stretches of forest land covered about 60 % of the earth's land area |
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Today, forests occupy about 30 % of the land |
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The forests differ greatly from one part of the world to another |
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For example, the steamy, vine choked rain forests of central Africa
are far different from the cool, towering spruce & fir forests of northern
Canada |
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FORESTS ARE A KEY FEATURE IN THE CYCLICAL FLOW OF GLOBAL ECOSYSTEMS |
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Forests help conserve & enrich the env in several ways |
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WATER |
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For example, forest soil soaks up large amounts of rainfall |
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It thus prevents the rapid runoff of water that can cause erosion &
flooding |
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In addition, rain is filtered as it passes through the soil & becomes
ground water |
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This ground water flows through the ground & provides a clean,
fresh source of water for streams, lakes, & wells |
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AIR |
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Forest plants, like all green plants, help renew the atmosphere |
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As the trees & other green plants make food, they give off oxygen |
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They also remove carbon dioxide from the air |
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People & nearly all other living things require oxygen |
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If green plants did not continuously renew the oxygen supply, almost
all life would soon stop |
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CARBON |
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If carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, it could severely alter
the earth's climate |
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Forests are a carbon sink or reservoir in that it stores very large
amts of carbon |
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Besides the direct heating that affects the climate from deforested
areas, deforestation removes stored carbon from the forest & transfers
it to the atm in the form of CO2 |
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See Also: Deforestation |
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FORESTS ARE OUR SOURCES & RESERVES OF TYPICAL & RARE FLORA
& FAUNA |
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Forests also provide a home for many plants & animals that can
live nowhere else |
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Without the forest, many kinds of wildlife could not exist |
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FORESTS HAVE AN AESTHETIC VALUE WHICH ONLY NATURE CAN PROVIDE |
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The natural beauty & peace of the forest offer a special source
of enjoyment |
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In the US, Canada, & many other countries, huge forest lands have
been set aside for people's enjoyment |
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Many people use these forests for such activities as camping, hiking,
& hunting |
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Others visit them simply to enjoy the scenery & relax in the quiet
beauty |
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Forestry, falling trees, bucking trees skidding trees, etc. takes a
lot of skill |
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The labor force in forestry has continually & dramatically shrunk
even ask production has dramatically increased |
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Mechanization in harvesting pulpwood has increased, as has the amount
of pulpwood harvested |
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The mechanization of pulpwood harvesting has increased the amount of
labor required in wood products production & has had a dramatic effect
on the environment |
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Pulpwood harvesting utilizes all sizes of trees, including small trees,
leaving the forest landscape completely barren |
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In pulpwood harvesting, operators sit in tractor like machines which
have arms that can grab & cut trees |
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Wood harvesters cut 150 to 180 trees per hour |
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Mechanization in the mills has also increased dramatically resulting
in a parallel dramatic decrease of labor |
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Mill mechanization has resulted in the closure of many mills in the
East & the West |
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In the West, many mills were the lifeblood of small western, mountain
towns such as Cascade, McCall, New Meadows, & Council ID & thus
their closure necessitated the difficult transition to new economic sectors
such as tourism |
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Despite mechanization in forestry, the accident rate continues to increase |
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Logging has highest fatality rate of any industry |
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Much logging is seasonal |
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Forestry is susceptible to its own business cycle which follows the
volatile construction & home building industry resulting in many workers
living a life of boom or bust |
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Outline on Environmental
Issues in Forestry
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External
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- Project: Forestry Issues |
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INTRODUCTION: |
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Reckless logging causes many physical env problems; however, appropriate
logging has some env benefits |
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Most of logging problems which can be addressed thru proper logging
methods |
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The big question in forestry is what is the sustainable harvest amt?
often called ASQ (Allowable Sustainable Quantity) |
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There are also many social problems pertaining to other forest uses
such as recreation, hunting, etc. |
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SUMMARY: Problems in forestry include
| 1. Roads |
4. Siltation |
7. Fires |
10. Global warming |
| 2. Fragmentation |
5. Waterways |
8. Indl pollution |
11. ASQ |
| 3. Erosion |
6. Diversity |
9. Deforestation |
12. Forest health |
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1. ROAD BUILDING |
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The FS is responsible for more roads than any other
single entity in the US |
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One of the main problems of roads is that they cause erosion--
see below |
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Another important problem of roads is that they create access:
roads increase access to an area |
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The positive side of the road access problem is that people want
access |
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The negative side of the road access problem is that access
hurts flora & fauna |
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2. FRAGMENTATION |
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Flora & fauna need large, unbroken tracts of land or forest
to maintain a viable population |
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Roads, clear cuts, & development break up areas, increasing fragmentation,
harming flora & fauna |
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3. EROSION |
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Roads themselves cause tremendous amts of erosion |
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Roads must be maintained & often maintenance budgets are under
funded |
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The lack of maintenance of roads increases the level of erosion |
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The effects of logging on erosion varies by region |
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In west, it might take 20 yrs for plants to come back after an area
is logged, in the east refoliation is quicker, but it rains more |
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Erosion varies by type of logging in that |
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- helicopter logging has least effect |
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- horse logging has a low effect |
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- high line logging has a low effect |
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- limited cuts have a medium effect |
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- cat logging has a high effect |
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- clear cutting has the highest effect |
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4. SILTATION |
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Road bldg & logging causes erosion, which runs off into streams
& lakes, causing siltation |
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Siltation may kill aquatic plants & animals or may ruin the streams
& lakes by transforming them to bogs |
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Even what appears to be minor siltation can be devastating to fish
because they need clean gravel beds to attach their eggs to |
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The effects of erosion & siltation can be reduced: |
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- by the use helio- or high line logging |
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- by the min use of roads |
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- through erosion reduction methods such as |
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-- stream buffers |
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-- proper, more exp road bldg tech |
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-- erosion barriers |
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5. DESTRUCTION OF WATERWAYS & FLOODS |
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Waterways are also hurt by removal of trees near streams |
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Besides increasing erosion & siltation, the removal of tress reduces
shade, which causes water to rise in temp harming or killing plants &
fish |
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The water temp issue can be addressed by leaving 150 to 300 ft buffers
of trees along water ways |
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Forests are water reservoirs in that they will absorb tremendous amts
of rainfall, varying by ecozone |
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When areas are logged or deforested, rainfall runs off rather than
being absorbed |
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Logged / deforested rain runoff erodes streams & causes floods
& landslides |
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6. DIVERSITY OF FLORA & FAUNA |
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Logging & replanting reduces tree & general flora diversity |
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When they are logged, forest are often replaced w/ a single species
of trees |
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The reduction of flora reduces the diversity of food which causes a
reduction of fauna |
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Single species areas, i.e. monocultures are susceptible to disease |
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Logging increases access to an area |
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Access also allows people to come to an area |
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People hunt out some species |
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Other species are more solitary by nature & cannot survive w/o
large tracts of land |
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7. FIRES |
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The FS, the BLM, & other land mgt agencies pursue policies
which reduce the natural burning of the forests & grasslands |
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Logging itself increases fire danger because: |
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- mature forests, w/ large trees are more fire resistant |
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- immature forests have more brush & brush which acts as
kindling or ladder fuels |
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Mature forests are not the most productive |
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Young, "teenaged" forests are the most productive |
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Young, "teenaged" forests are much thicker & more prone to fire |
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There is a debate over whether the increased fire danger is more a
result of the immature, logged forests, or the result of 50 yrs of fire
suppression |
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Both logging & fire suppression increase fire danger, but it is
likely that logging has had a greater impact |
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8. INDL POLLUTION |
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Indl pollution of micro pollutants such as mercury causes cancer &
genetic defects in forest fauna |
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One of the major issues for the USFS surrounding a proposed coal burning
electricity generating plant is the effect of air pollution on key areas
in the local forests |
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There are five federally mandated Class I areas managed by the USDA
Forest Service that could be impacted by this new source of air pollution. |
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The Class I areas are James River Face (161 miles), Linville Gorge,
(70 miles), Shining Rock (105 miles), Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock (135 miles),
and Cohutta (181 miles) Wilderness. |
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- Supplement: USDS Document:
Proposed Virginia City Hybrid Energy Center: Impacts to the Air Quality
Related Values at Five USDA Forest Service Class I Areas |
Link
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Indl pollution combines w rain or other precip & fall to Earth
as acid rain |
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While the acidity is very low, its cumulative effect is to restrict
plant growth & eventually kill most plants in the affected area |
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The effects of acid rain also kill plants & animals in lakes &
streams too |
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9. DEFORESTATION |
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Until late the 1940s, tropical rain forests = 6 mm sq. mi |
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By the late 1980s, there were 4 mm sq. mi of tropical forests |
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Worldwide, about 39,000 sq. mi of tropical forests are logged / yr.
which is over 90% of the state of VA |
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Most tropical logging occurs in So Am, SE Asia, & some in Africa |
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India: |
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India is losing 1.3 million hectares of forest each year |
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1 ha = 2.47 acres |
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India is losing 1.3 mm ha = .3.2 million acres = 5000 sq. miles which
is over 1/10 the size of VA |
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Malaysia: |
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Because of deforestation & corporate profiting, Malaysia has experienced
anti logging demonstrations |
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The envl issues of developing nations in Asia are quite different from
those in the developed nations & nations on other continents |
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Neither media nor academia has done much around envlism in developing
nations |
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There is a strong link btwn govt & industry, both whom emphasize
profit over sustainabilty or even econ development |
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10. GLOBAL WARMING |
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O2 in the air is decreasing |
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CO2 is increasing |
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Global warming, aka the greenhouse effected is |
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- the result of heat from sun being trapped on Earth |
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- instead of being reflected back into space |
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- because CO2 traps more heat |
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Global warming is related to forestry because forests are a major absorber
of CO2 & producer of O2 & thus has the ability to reverse some
causes of global warming |
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Deforested areas experience a significant change in climate toward
a hotter & dryer climate |
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11. ALLOWABLE SUSTAINABLE QUANTITY ( ASQ ) |
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The big question for forestry is 'what is the sustainable
harvest amt?' i.e. how much can we cut & still maintain a vital forest? |
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The amt of timber that can be cut is often called the allowable sustainable
quantify or ASQ |
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The issues of landowners in relation to ASQ include that |
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a. large corp landowners are responsible in US, not overseas |
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b. the fed govt is prone to let corps over log |
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c. many state govts are more lax in logging reg than the
feds, but some better than others |
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(In general, the fed govts often acts
responsibly around logging reg, but has "lapses") |
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d. some small landowners are responsible, some are not |
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Obviously deforestation is occurring worldwide |
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Deforestation is not obvious in US |
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There are more trees now, but less acreage is covered |
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The US has a forest that is younger than it was before logging, thus
we have large tracts of immature forests |
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12. FOREST HEALTH |
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Most forestry experts now acknowledge that there is a general forest
health problem in most forests in the US due to forestry practices, disease,
& the suppression of forest fires |
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Social problems in forest use include: |
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- unequal access |
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- unequal allocation of costs & benefits of forest use, esp
btwn East & West states & forests |
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- capture of govt land mgt. agencies |
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- oppositional as opposed to consensus building strategy &
tactics by the major participants in the forestry debate |
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- balancing a wide variety of forest use |
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- visual quality |
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- forest over-use |
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DEFORESTATION BEGAN WHEN CIVILIZATION BEGAN, ABOUT 11,000 YRS AGO |
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Human activities have had tremendous impact on modern forests |
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Since ag began about 11,000 yrs ago, large forest areas have been cleared
for farms & cities |
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Beginning in the 1800s, great expanses of forest have also been eliminated
because of logging & indl pollution |
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The destruction & degrading of forests is called deforestation |
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DEFORESTATION HAS AFFECTED MOST OF THE EARTH'S FORESTS |
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Severe deforestation now occurs around the world, even in the most
remote rain forests & boreal forests |
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Until the late 1940s, rain forests covered about 8.7 million sq mi
of the Earth's land |
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Today, they cover less than half that area |
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Millions of acres or hectares of rain forests are destroyed each year |
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Since 1800, huge areas of temperate forests have also been cleared |
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Many parts of eastern North America, for example, have less than 2
% of even degraded forests remaining |
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LOGGING FOR TIMBER & TO CLEAR LAND FOR AG HAS DEFORESTED MANY
AREAS |
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Commercial logging & the expansion of agriculture have damaged
or wiped out extensive areas of rain forest |
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Huge mining projects, the construction of hydroelectric dams, &
govt resettlement programs have also taken their toll |
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In the last 50 years half of tropical rain forest have been cut for
timber or to make farmland |
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A complex mix of social, political, & econ factors has triggered
these destructive activities |
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Rapid population growth & poverty often intensify the pressure
to clear rain forest for short term econ benefits |
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Brazil, Indonesia, & other nations have cut down huge expanses
of rain forest to create new settlements that allow people to move out
of overcrowded cities |
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Moreover, the govts of many tropical countries are deeply in debt |
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This debt provides a strong motivation to gather as much as possible
from the rain forest as quickly as possible |
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After clearing the forest to harvest wood & other products, people
then commonly use the land to grow crops |
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LOGGING OCCURS NOT ONLY IN RAIN FORESTS, BUT ALSO IN TEMPERATE FORESTS |
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The developed nations continue to log both their own forests, &
fund the deforestation around the world |
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Many temperate forests have been cleared for farms & cities, &
many others have been cut down for fuel & lumber |
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Many Canadian forests have been heavily logged |
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The scale of Canadian deforestation now compares to that in the US |
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Many people in British Columbia & other provinces are greatly concerned
about the destruction of original forests & the common practice of
clear cutting (removing all trees) over large areas |
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ACID RAIN ALSO DEFORESTS LARGE AREAS |
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Industrial pollution is a chief cause of deforestation |
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Factories often release poisonous gases into the air & dangerous
wastes into lakes & rivers |
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Air pollutants may combine w/ rain or other precipitation & fall
to earth as acid rain |
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Acid rain & polluted bodies of water can restrict plant growth
or even kill most plants in a forest |
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LOGGING & SCAVENGING DEFORESTS LARGE AREAS AS PEOPLE GATHER
WOOD FOR FUEL FOR COOKING & FOR HEAT |
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Most of the population of the world cooks & heats w/ wood |
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Heating & cooking w/ wood is often done in very inefficient stoves
which also create large amts of air pollution & CO2 |
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Many of the areas of the cradles of civilization & of ancient society
from England to Italy to Greece to Judea to China & more were deforested
as early people logged & scavenged for wood for construction,
heat, & cooking |
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Many of the ancient areas which experienced ancient deforestation have
had their climate / weather changed to such an extent that they are still
impacted & remain largely w/o forests, esp Israel, the Sahara, &
even the UK & Italy |
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DEFORESTATION FRAGMENTS FORESTS INTO MERE ISLANDS OF TREES
UNABLE TO SUSTAIN THEIR NATURAL FLORA & FAUNA |
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Massive deforestation has made many remaining forest tracts small,
isolated islands |
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As forests become smaller, their ability to sustain the full variety
of plant species decreases |
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Many forests are so seriously degraded by logging activities that they
fail to regenerate replacement forests |
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The destruction of forest ecosystems also destroys the habitats of
many living creatures |
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Countless species of animals & plants have been wiped out by deforestation,
& more are killed each year at an increasing rate |
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This deforestation places woodland animals in danger |
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Extensive logging in the Pacific Northwest of the US, for example,
has destroyed much of the habitat of the spotted owl, threatening the existence
of that species |
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DEFORESTATION HARMS PEOPLE TOO |
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Deforestation usually displaces forest peoples |
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When denied access to the forest, these peoples often lose important
knowledge about rain forest species & their uses |
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Loss of such knowledge further threatens the survival of the forests |
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DEFORESTATION CAUSES FLOODS & LESS O2 PRODUCTION |
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Loss of forests has helped create many ecological problems |
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For example, rain water normally absorbed by the forests is causing
more floods around the world |
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In addition, as forest areas decrease or degrade, the production of
oxygen from photosynthesis also decreases |
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Oxygen renewal is vital to the survival of oxygen breathing organisms |
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DEFORESTATION CREATES MORE GREENHOUSE GAS, ESP CO2 |
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At the same time, as less carbon dioxide is taken up by photosynthesis,
the amounts of carbon dioxide released into the air increases |
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The clearing of forests also contributes to the buildup of atmospheric
CO2 by reducing the rate at which the gas is removed from the air |
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Trees & other green plants remove CO2 from the air during photosynthesis
the process they use to produce food |
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Thus more heat from the sun is trapped near the earth's surface instead
of being reflected back into space |
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Many scientists believe that this greenhouse effect is causing a steady
warming that could lead to threatening climatic conditions |
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Rain forest destruction accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas problems,
which is small compared to the total amt of greenhouse gases produced by
the developed world |
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PEOPLE ARE FIGHTING DEFORESTATION BUT IT IS UNCLEAR WHETHER THE
PROBLEM IS DECREASING OR NOT |
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To combat these problems, people & govts have been seeking out
& protecting old growth forests that remain undisturbed by humans |
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Such protection enables scientists to conduct long term research on
how old growth forests sustain the variety of plants & animals that
live there |
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It has been estimated that as much as 75% of the Haitian population
is living in absolute poverty & wood has become the most valuable resource
in Haiti where it is relied upon for heating, cooking, & construction |
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The result of this reliance on wood has lead to only 3% of Haiti’s
forest being untouched & the subsequent deforestation has lead to the
rich topsoil run off choking the reefs & marine life |
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Internal
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Outline on the Participants
in the Environmental Debate
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External
Links
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- Project: Participants
in the Env Debate |
Link
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- Project: Video:
Yellow Creek & Participants in the Public Policy Issues |
Link
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GROUP THEORY |
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Group theory, aka pluralism, holds that pol decisions are result
of struggles among competing interests who have access to pol process |
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In any social / political conflict, the amt of pwr of each grp varies
slightly over short run & much more over the long run |
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Some of the hist changes of power levels amongst participants in social
debates include:
- the public in gen has gained pwr
- industrialists who have lost absolute political power, but have gained
pwr in magnitude
- the media which has expanded reach but not issue clarity
- rec & env who have gained pwr
- the govt has gained & then lost some pwr / status since the 1980s |
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Group theory holds that in a democracy, & to a lesser extent in
an autocracy, each participatory grp has a role in pol & social debate |
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Each policy debate, public issue, etc. has its own unique set of participants |
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A conflict resolution analysis looks at who has how much power &
their role as a participant in the political & social debates |
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PARTICIPANTS IN THE ENVL DEBATE |
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Participants in env debate include 6 broad
strata of the population including: (PIMREG)
- the general public
- industrialists
- media
- recreationists
- environmentalists
- govt
The participants may also be referred to as stakeholders or social
groups, interest grps, etc |
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In forestry, there are three major grps involved, including:
- industrialists
- the recreationists
- the environmentalists |
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Domhoff views conflict in democratic nations as involving three participants,
including the corporate coalition, i.e. big business, the small business
coalition, & the labor liberal coalition |
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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICIPANTS
IN THE ENVL DEBATE, (PIMREG) IE STAKEHOLDERS, SOC GRPS, INT GRPS, ETC INCLUDE
THEIR INTERESTS, IE THEIR BELIEFS, VALUES, ETC |
|
| |
The general public has an unformed interest
in any particular env issue; ie, they have not committed or made up their
mind yet, though in the long run they do have an interest; it just has
not been recognized yet |
|
| |
Industrialist have a resource use or resource mgt in
the env |
|
| |
Historically industrialist consumed nat resources w/o regard to sustainability,
but today many claim, some accurately, some inaccurately that they have
a sustainability pt of view towards resources |
|
| |
Industrialist will generally publicly adhere to the conservationist
perspective, but not generally the preservationist perspective |
|
| |
Some industrialists public voice support for conservation & sustainability
but their policies & actions indicate they are primarily concerned
w/ profits, mkt expansion, etc |
|
| |
An interest indirectly related to resource use has been the ability
to pollute, to dispose of haz mat, to degrade the env, to completely consume
a resource, & to put the costs of these processes on other stakeholders |
|
| |
The media in the West has, in the last 100 yrs, primarily
subscribed to the philosophy of journalism whereby they attempt objectivity
& so their interest is merely to report the facts as they see them |
|
| |
Given the politicization of both public policy & science the media
often appears & is biased |
|
| |
In an attempt to appear objective many media outlets will report on
stakeholders from many perspectives of an issue when the objective science
indicates there may not be such perspectives |
|
| |
Recreationists have interests of both conservation &
preservation of the env in that they have the interest of a range of activities
from simply exploring the env to passive tourism to active recreation to
extreme sports |
|
| |
Many recreationist have an interest in some level of resource use provided
sustainability is a real outcome & not simply a false pronouncement |
|
| |
Many recreationists have an interest in a high level of preservation |
|
| |
Environmentalists have interests of both conservation
& preservation of the env & the values supporting these interests
overlap w/ those of the recreationists, but generally include a stronger
aesthetic ethic which sees the env as a good or entity as an end in itself |
|
| |
Govt entities, like the media, have generally adhered
to a strategy wherein they are objective representatives of the people,
& not directly the env |
|
| |
The govt has generally followed the lead of Western history, of the
public, in that all levels of govt, natl, state, & local, have become
more concerned w/ estbing both conservation of the env, w/ sustainability,
& some preservation |
|
| |
The govt is often 'captured' by the industrialists, representing their
interests over that of the public & other stakeholders |
|
Table on the Social
Groups in Env Debate (aka Participants or Stakeholders [ PIMREG
] )
|
|
Gen Public
|
Industrialists
|
Media
|
Recreationists
|
Environmentalists
|
Govt
|
| Native Am |
Loggers |
Natl media: CNN, CBS, ABC, NBC, NYT, Wash Post & Internet |
Outfitted recreationists |
Preservationists |
World Orgs: WTO, World
Bank, IMF,
UN |
| Professionals, scientists, etc. |
Ranchers/ farmers |
Regional media
Large urban areas |
Motorized recists |
Conservationists |
US Fed Govt Link |
| Retirees |
Millworkers/ laborers |
Local media
Small cities, towns, etc. |
Hunters |
Restorationists |
Exec Branch: Fed land mgt. agencies: BLM, Nat Park Service, Nat Mar
Fish. Service, FS,
US Fish & Game, EPA, etc. |
| Foot-loose |
Miners |
Websites |
Non motor recists |
Radicals |
State Govts
State Forestry Services
State EPA's |
| Locals |
Oil & Energy |
Email lists, blogs, etc. |
Water recists |
Grass Roots env grps |
Local Govts
Counties & cities
Note, some cities are as pwrful as some nations: NYC, Beijing, etc. |
| Large & small private land holders |
Large retailers |
|
Tourists |
Other social justice orgs |
|
| Regional peoples: East, West, Urban, Rural, etc. |
|
|
Large rec biz |
|
|
| International peoples |
Biz orgs,
e.g. NAM, Chamber of Commerce |
Media advocacy orgs |
Rec Orgs: rec adv grps |
Env Orgs: The big 10 env grps, intl
env grps |
NGOs |
| Biz serving gen public |
Biz serving indl gps |
Biz serving the media |
Biz serving recists |
Biz serving envlists |
Biz serving govt |
| Other gen pub |
Other indists |
Other media grps |
Other recists |
Other envlists |
Other govt grps |
t is necessary to include an “other” category under each
of the major soc grps since some grps may not match grps as listed
Examples of "others" might be tree planters, mushroom pickers,
media, water recists, photographers, etc.
While each of these grps is important, it is not possible to
include every grp |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
|
Outline on the
General Public's Influence on Forestry Issues
|
|
External
Links
|
| |
INTRODUCTION |
|
| |
In relation to forestry issues, there is a wide divergency of interest
btwn the gen public of the West & the rest of the nation |
|
| |
The percentage of public forest lands, and public lands in general
is much higher in the West than in the rest of the nation, running as high
as 70% in some states, thus making forestry issues very important |
|
| |
People in the East, Midwest & South & thus their legislators
generally support policies at odds w/ the West |
|
| |
The West generally wants more use & less restriction on public
land while the rest of the nation generally advocates more conservationist
policies |
|
| |
THE ENV & THE ECON |
|
| |
The public's concern for the environment is linked to economics |
|
| |
To date, most env issues have been voted on as short term econ issues |
|
| |
The Fed govt ownership of land displaces local land taxes |
|
| |
Because of the displacement of local land taxes, in many cases the
Fed govt has replaced this w/ rev from timber sales |
|
| |
The dependence of local econ's on Fed rev from timber sales makes them
complacent toward forestry policy |
|
| |
Examples of the short term econ view on forestry is seen in the fact
that |
|
| |
- the protection of old growth forests was turned down by voters
in CA in 1990 |
|
| |
- OR gov Roberts was threatened w/ recall after she made anti
industry comments |
|
| |
COMMUNITIES & INDUSTRY |
|
|
|
Small communities are dependent on local industry & often are a
"company town" |
|
| |
Often company towns have a majority of wkrs employed in one or a few
industries |
|
| |
Small communities tend to be very supportive of their ind |
|
| |
Often the closing of plants is portrayed as an envl issue |
|
| |
The argument is often made to gen pub by indlists that a plant closing
is the result of envl regs when in fact, just like in most industries,
jobs lost to mechanization & tech is greater than from govt reg |
|
| |
The public in small communities often embraces the govt reg argument
when in fact they see & experience more frequent job loss to mechanization
& tech because they realize there is nothing they can do about the
latter, but if they can enlist public support support to fight govt regs,
they hope they can save some jobs |
|
|
|
Timber sales come from fed land, state land, private land, & timber
corp land |
|
| |
Locals feel sympathy for for wkrs & mill workers when the FS limits
the amt of timber to be cut |
|
| |
Also, local taxes are proportional to the amt of timber cut |
|
| |
Larger communities & cities even in timber areas are less supportive
of ind policies & more supportive of envl policies than are people
in small communities & rural areas |
|
|
|
THE MEDIA & THE FS |
|
| |
The media has highlighted the internal strife & disagreement w/in
FS |
|
| |
The media generally polarizes debate by presenting extreme views of
indlists & envlists in dramatic forms |
|
| |
There is little centrist debate in the media or amongst the participants
in the forestry debate |
|
| |
Is this the fault of the media, or are they merely giving the public
what they want? |
|
| |
The increasing focus on infotainment raises the question of whether
the media has a duty to present hard news or not |
|
| |
The media usually reflects the position of the public they serve, thus
media in small communities is more likely to be pro ind, while large city
media is more likely to be pro envlist |
|
| |
Because most of the gen public pays scant attn to envl issues, the
media also largely ignores it, & when it does report on it, it is at
a general level, which tends to support the status quo |
|
| |
PUBLIC ATTENTION ON FORESTRY ISSUES |
|
| |
Both indlists & envlists struggle to gain attn & support of
gen public |
|
| |
Usually the pub's attn is only focused on the env during a crisis |
|
| |
There is usually only a small amt of attn given to an env issue when
there is not a crisis
- by the rich
- by professionals |
|
| |
What scant action there is taken in support of the env, contra the
indlists, is usually carried out by the rich, the upper mid class, &
by professionals because these grps have the resources & the knowledge
to address envl issues |
|
| |
The mid & lo classes do not have the time nor the resources to
be involved w/ most public forum issues except when crisis arises |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
|
Outline on the
Envl Participants Involved in Forestry Envl Debate
|
|
External
Links
|
| |
INTRODUCTION |
|
|
|
From the env perspective, forestry is one of the most contentious env
issues, perhaps in the top three in terms of the resources they expend
preserving it |
|
|
|
Forestry is inextricably wound up w/ many other env issues such as
endangered species, water, global warming, wilderness & other land
use problems, & many minor issues such as fire, urban sprawl, etc. |
|
| |
Env grps have set up networks across the country & at all levels
of the forestry env debate |
|
| |
Most env grps have a strong grass roots, i.e. local constituency in
any area where they are active |
|
|
|
ENVL TOOLS |
|
|
|
The major tools that envlists use include 'inhouse' or bureaucratic
appeals, legal cases, public pressure, sponsoring / opposing legislation
/ rules |
|
|
|
Because of the network nature of env grps, national level grps will
send people & money to local level grps to assist them in particular
situations such as the resistance to the High Knob logging on the GWJNF |
|
| |
Most of env support comes from the mid class & a few "angels,"
i.e. rich individuals |
|
| |
The main envl tool in the forestry debate is to appeal FS decisions
thru the FS appeal process which operates in the FS bur, outside of the
govt judicial system, until the last step |
|
| |
If envlist utilize all the 'in house' govt procedures to try to stop
or appeal a labor sale, then they may oppose it w/in the civil court system |
|
| |
To pursue the legal strategy, it takes money to do research, to hire
lawyers, to hire experts for testimony, etc. |
|
| |
Like the ind & other major participants in the forestry debate
the env try to enlist the gen public to serve their cause |
|
| |
While the ind will enlist local people in support of their forestry
position, the env will try to enlist people in non forested areas, i.e.
the East, South, & Midwest |
|
| |
While the ind will enlist ind related wkrs & businesses in their
position, the env will enlist the mid & prof classes |
|
| |
Another tool that envlists can use to stop a logging sale is to get
a significant amt of public support to oppose the sale |
|
| |
Land mgt agencies often respond to high levels of public pressure |
|
| |
Another tool envlists use to impact forestry policy includes either
sponsoring legislation or bureaucratic rules they see as positive or opposing
legislation / rules they see as negative |
|
| |
To pursue legislation or bureaucratic rule making, it takes considerable
amts of money to pay lobbyists, lawyers, & experts in the field |
|
| |
Furthermore to pursue legislation, envlists must rally significant
public support to pressure legislators |
|
| |
ENVL GRPS INVOLVED IN FORESTRY |
|
| |
The major envl grps that often deal w/ forestry issues include:
1. Sierra Club
2. Wilderness Society
3. Nat Wildlife Federation
4. World Wildlife Fund |
5. Environmental Defense Fund
6. Greenpeace USA
7. Natural Resources Defense Council
8. Nature Conservancy |
|
|
| |
The minor grps that often deal w/ forestry issues include:
Earth First!
WAFC: Western Ancient Forest Coalition
ICL: Idaho Conservation League |
Forest Watch
The Clinch Coalition
many others |
|
|
| |
POLICIES PURSUED BY FORESTRY RELATED ENVL GRPS |
|
| |
Because of the contentious nature of the struggle btwn envl grps &
ind, both side often take a 'no compromise' attitude until the last possible
moment |
|
| |
That is to say, indlist will propose the biggest timber sale w/ the
least reg possible in hope of getting a fraction of it in the end |
|
| |
Envlists will try to completely shut down nearly every timber sale
in the hope of stopping some timber harvest wherever they can |
|
| |
Not all grps take this contentious approach, for example the Nature
Conservancy takes an alternate policy path wherein they confront few forest
projects, but instead try to buy up & preserve more land each yr |
|
| |
Envl grps often address fed legislation, policies, regulations etc.
because they are more able to be impacted than state regs because there
has been a longer, standardized legal set of regulation at the fed level
as compared to the state level |
|
| |
It is more difficult to oppose state regs because each state is different,
states are more likely to submit to ind pressure than is the fed govt,
& states have less of a history of successfully regulating forest mgt |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
|
Outline on the
Other Participants in the Forestry Debate
|
|
External
Links
|
| |
RECREATIONISTS |
|
| |
Forestry recreationists are networked into many groups, including outfitted
recreators, motorized recreators, hunters, non motorized recreators, water
recreators, tourists, businesses serving recreationists, recreational orgs,
but not as many recreational corporations, the hotel industry |
|
| |
In relation to the env issues, recreationists often choose a middle
path btwn the forestry indlists & the forestry envlists |
|
| |
In some cases forestry recreationists choose more extreme positions
that opposes either or both forestry indlists & the forestry
envlists such as is seen in water uses, preservation of visual quality,
preservation of habitat or endangered species |
|
| |
Recreationists are usually more involved than the gen public &
often support policies that enhance or expand rec uses which may conflict
or support polices by indlists or envlists |
|
| |
The tourist ind is usually less supportive of envl policies than gen
recreationists |
|
|
|
Rec orgs such as Trout Unlimited or the Appalachian Tourism Counsel
run the gamut from being very envl oriented, to no envl concerns |
|
| |
Today tourism has displaced logging as the major econ force in many
regions |
|
| |
Forest rec is a subset of tourism |
|
| |
Typically forest rec is incompatible or at a minimum limits or conflicts
logging; however, many forest recists have ties to the forest ind &
so support ind positions |
|
| |
Typically Easterners & other non forested areas rec have little
chance to recreate in the forest, have little knowledge of it, but based
on gen knowledge & a romanticized view, support env positions |
|
| |
GOVT AGENCIES INVOLVED IN FORESTRY |
|
|
|
Some of the govt agencies involved in forestry include:
1. USFS
2. BLM
3. NPS
4. EPA |
5. Natl Marine Fisheries Service
6. State forestry agencies
7. Other fed land mgt. agencies
8. some county govts |
|
|
| |
When the land mgt. agencies were formed in the early 1900s, they were
small & consisted of people |
|
| |
In the past, it was clear that most bur wkrs in the govt land mgt.
agencies were closely related to ind & embraced the ind position |
|
| |
Early govt wkrs like the forest ranger, or the govt agent such as Elliott
Ness had a very high social status & were practically folk heroes |
|
| |
In the FS & other govt agencies, there was a policy that top level
bureaucrats such as forest rangers would be required to move to a new location
every few years to avoid 'local capture,' i.e. to be too influenced by
the local industrial leaders |
|
| |
The policy of changing locations to avoid local capture is still in
operation today; however, the policy has not adapted to the fact that industry
is not longer locally based; it is nationally based |
|
| |
Envlists consider most FS bureaucrats to be captured by ind |
|
| |
In the FS & other land mgt. agencies, the capture trend has been
countered to a limited degree by the addition of new professions such as
wildlife biologists, recreation director, & many others |
|
Internal
Links
Top
|
|
Outline on the
US Forest Service
|
|
External
Links
|
| |
- Project: The USFS |
Link
|
| |
INTRODUCTION |
|
| |
The FS is part of the Dept of Ag |
|
| |
The FS manages over 191 mm acres which is almost 9 % of the US land
mass |
|
| |
The FS is mostly made up of Nat Forests & Nat Grasslands |
|
| |
There are 155 Nat Forests in US & Puerto Rico & 20 Nat Grasslands
in 44 states |
|
| |
- Supplement: FS maps |
Link
|
| |
- Supplement: Clinch Ranger
District recreation |
Link
|
| |
- Supplement: Washington
Jefferson NF Offices |
Link
|
| |
- Supplement: Washington
Jefferson NF Expansion |
Link
|
|
|
- Supplement: Wilderness
Areas on the Washington Jefferson NF |
Link
|
| |
Today, the multiple use doctrine is the predominate philosophy
of the FS |
|
| |
In the early 1990s the doctrine of ecosystem mgt. was tacked
on to the multiple use doctrine |
|
|
|
Private water power, forestry, mining, grazing, recreation, & other
uses are allowed in the nat forests |
|
| |
The FS headed by the Chief (Dombeck in
2000) |
|
| |
The FS is divided into 9 Regions each of which is headed by a Regional
Forester |
|
| |
Forests are headed by the Forest Supervisor |
|
| |
Forests are divided into Ranger Districts, headed by the District Ranger |
|
| |
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE FS |
|
| |
In 1891, the Congress estb. the first natl forest for conservation
by setting aside areas known as Forest Reserves |
|
| |
The first Forest Reserve was estb. in WY, which later became Yellowstone
Park |
|
| |
In 1897 Congress began setting aside tracts of public land to: |
|
| |
- create forest reserve |
|
| |
- furnish continuous timber supplies |
|
| |
- protect mountain watersheds |
|
| |
The FS was founded as the Bureau of Forestry in the 1800s, the agency
became the Forest Service in 1905 |
|
| |
The Forest Reserves became known as National Forests |
|
| |
THE FS TODAY |
|
| |
The FS is the largest branch of the Dept of Ag w/ 35,000 wkrs |
|
| |
The FS is the nation's largest road building org at 8 times length
of the interstate hwy sys |
|
| |
Fed law dictates that the Forest must give 25% of their revenues to
county govt for roads & schools in order to replaces tax revenue lost
by fed ownership of land |
|
| |
MULTIPLE USE DOCTRINE |
|
| |
Except for areas set aside as wilderness, forests are managed under
the multiple use doctrine |
|
| |
Under the multiple use doctrine, private water power development, forestry,
mining, etc. is allowed in natl forests |
|
| |
Multiple use doctrine calls for a balance of
- recreation
- timber |
- grazing
- conservation activities, & more |
|
|
| |
In theory all resources receive equal status & consideration but
in practice this has not been the case in that many resource areas 'complete'
inside the bur for funding for use, dev, & maintenance, esp among the
areas of:
- outdoor recreation
- range
- timber |
- watershed conservation
- wildlife
- fish, & more |
|
|
| |
The MAJOR FS FUNCTIONAL AREAS include
1. Timber
2. Recreation
3. Fire
4. Grazing |
|
|
|
FS PAYMENTS TO THE COUNTIES |
|
| |
The FS pays counties money in place of property taxes that the county
would have collected if the land were privately owned |
|
| |
The amt of pmt that the FS pays counties is usually based on how much
timber is cut |
|
| |
The fed - county pmts give the counties incentives to pressure the
FS to log |
|
| |
- Supplement: FS Payments
to Virginia by County |
Link
|
| |
- Supplement: FS Payments
to all US States by county |
Link
|
| |
There are 4 LEVELS OF FS OFFICES including
1. Natl office in Washington, DC
2. Regional offices
3. Natl Forest Offices
4. Ranger Districts |
|
| |
1. THE NATIONAL OFFICE |
|
| |
The FS Nat Office is in Washington, DC & is run by the Chief |
|
| |
The FS Nat Office works w/ the office of the President to dev a budget
to submit to Congress |
|
| |
The FS Nat Office supplies info to Congress on FS activities |
|
| |
2. THE REGIONAL OFFICES aka
RO |
|
| |
An RO is headed by the Regional Forester |
|
| |
There are 9 regions in the FS which are numbered 1 - 10 because Region
7 was eliminated some yrs ago |
|
| |
Each Region covers a multi state area |
|
| |
Region 8 is the eastern Forests & includes the GWJNF |
|
| |
Region 4 includes |
|
| |
- parts of ID |
|
| |
- parts of UT |
|
| |
- parts of NV |
|
| |
- parts of WY |
|
| |
An RO's duties include: |
|
| |
- coordinating the activities btwn the Forests in the Region |
|
| |
- monitoring activities on the Forests in Region |
|
| |
- providing guidance for Forest Plans |
|
| |
- allocation of budgets to the Forests |
|
| |
3. NATIONAL FOREST OFFICES aka
The
Supervisor's Office or the
SO |
|
| |
An SO is headed by the Forest Supervisor who reports to the Regional
Forester in the RO |
|
| |
The duties of an SO are to: |
|
| |
- coordinate activities w/in each Forest |
|
| |
- allocate the budget |
|
| |
- provide tech support to Forest personnel |
|
| |
4. RANGER DISTRICTS
or just Districts |
|
| |
A District is headed by the District Ranger |
|
| |
The Ranger reports to the Forest Supervisor |
|
| |
Districts vary in size from 50,000 acres to over a mm acres |
|
| |
The Clinch Ranger District in the GWJNF is 80,000 acres |
|
| |
There are over 600 Ranger Districts in all the Forests |
|
| |
The duties of a District are to: |
|
| |
- carry out on the ground activities related to logging, recreation,
grazing, conservation |
|
| |
- plan & implement logging sales |
|
| |
- plan & implement forest cultivation |
|
| |
- build & op recreation |
|
| |
- plan & supervise grazing |
|
| |
- plan & implement conservation |
|
| |
FOREST SERVICE PLANNING |
|
|
|
FS Planning occurs on 3 levels the national level, the
regional level, & the forest level |
|
| |
The Forest level is the most imp for planning |
|
| |
NATIONAL PLANNING |
|
| |
Under the Forest & Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act
( RPA ) the FS must consider a RPA Assessment every 10 yrs |
|
| |
An RPA Assessment includes an inventory of renewable resources |
|
| |
Mgt. goals are based on RPA resource data & econ analysis |
|
| |
REGIONAL PLANS |
|
| |
Regional goals are distributed to the 9 FS regions |
|
| |
FOREST PLANS |
|
| |
As authorized by the Natl Forest Mgt. Act ( NFMA ) each Forest incorporates
the regional goals based on its own resource capabilities in a Forest Plan |
|
| |
Forest Plans must be revised every 10 to 15 yrs |
|
| |
THE FOREST PLANNING PROCESS |
|
| |
1. Identify issues & concerns through the process of
public scoping |
|
| |
2. Dev planning process criteria where the public can influence
criteria for choosing alternatives in the Forest Plan |
|
| |
3. Gather data & conduct studies & the public can
request special studies |
|
| |
4. Analyze forest resources |
|
| |
5. Dev a range of alt |
|
| |
Based on issues from step 1, alts are dev according to NEPA |
|
| |
The public can voice their opinions on each alt |
|
| |
6. Compare the impacts of each alt |
|
| |
The FS must examine the physical, bio, & social impacts of each
alt |
|
| |
7. Prepare Draft EIS ( DEIS ) |
|
| |
A DEIS discusses the phys, bio, econ & soc aspects of each alt
according to NEPA rules |
|
| |
8. Select & review the "preferred alt" |
|
| |
The Forest Supervisor determined the preferred alt, & provides
it to the Reg'l Forester who makes the decision |
|
| |
The RF provides the rationale for the choice which becomes part of
the "record of decision" ( ROD ) |
|
| |
9. Review the Final Plan |
|
| |
10. Implement the plan & monitor its effectiveness |
|
| |
The FS must monitor the phys, bio, econ & soc effects of the alt |
|
| |
The monitoring of individual projects is open to the public & is
a good method to ensure FS compliance w/ rules |
|
| |
ECOSYSTEM MGT |
|
| |
Ecosystem mgt. is the guiding mgt. phil of the FS which was adopted
in 92 |
|
| |
EM called for multiple use thru sustained mgt. of healthy ecosystems |
|
| |
EM held that the FS must balance econ & non-econ considerations
in resource mgt. |
|
| |
The FS began to look beyond individual projects on individual Forest
to projects as having an impact on ecosystems, which are often defined
as a watershed or a major part of a watershed, but may be delineated by
other broad scale categories such as forest type |
|
| |
RPA DOCUMENTS |
|
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The Sec of Ag is required by the RPA to assess nation's renewable forest
&
rangeland resources & evaluate their future use & sustainability
for the planning purposes |
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The FS prepares 3 RPA documents |
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1. the RPA Assessments |
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2. the RPA Program |
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3. the Annual Report |
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The RPA info estb a large info base on which public & agencies
can make decisions & provide input to the FS |
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PUBLIC PARTICIPATION |
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To find out what projects are in the FS pipeline, one must be on the
scoping list |
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You may request to be added to the FS mailing list by contacting Rangers
or Forest Supervisors |
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Scoping lists give the name, location, type, etc. of each FS individual
District project & a contact person in charge of the project |
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SCOPING |
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As we saw above, scoping is done for the For Plan |
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Scoping is also done for each major project |
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A person may: |
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- submit written input |
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- submit oral input |
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- attend public scoping meeting |
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Scoping runs during a predetermined comment period, so comments must
be given during a specific period or they do not influence the process |
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Scoping comments are public info so you may see all other comments,
for & against a proposal |
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INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS |
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Each major individual project that a Ranger District undertakes must
be examined under NEPA rules |
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Thus an EA or EIS must be performed |
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The EIS process is similar to For Plan process |
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A Decision Notice ( DN ) will be given & if the project is to go
ahead it must be give a Finding of No Significant Impact ( FONSI
) by the FS |
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ADMIN APPEALS |
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If someone disputes the chosen alt or the FONSI, they may appeal |
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A Reg'l Plan or For Plan may be appealed to the Chief of the FS |
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A Reg'l or For indiv project may be appealed to the Reg'l Forester |
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Failing here, a person may appeal in court |
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THE APPEAL PROCESS |
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1. A citizen must file a "notice of appeal" w/ forest officer
who made the decision w/in 45 days |
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2. W/in 30 days of the decision on the appeal, a notice of appeal
must be filed w/ the next higher forest officer |
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3. The deciding officer must provide a "responsive statement"
w/in 30 days |
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4. Citizens must respond w/in 20 days |
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5. Entire appeal record is sent to Chief for review |
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In Jan of 2005, Pres GW Bush signed an exec order which changed the
For Plan & EIS process giving the RF more power |
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Internal
Links
Top
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Outline on the
Forest Service & Forestry Issues
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External
Links
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INTRODUCTION |
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Frequently, the struggle over forest use is centered on FS in such
areas as
1. jobs
2. economic diversity
3. how much logging = sustained yield? |
4. endangered species
5. env quality
6. global warming |
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Industry, the envlists & govt are caught in middle of the
struggle over forest issues |
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It is worthwhile to note that other major forest owners, i.e. the individual
states, large private landowners, & small private landowners all are
much less likely to face the scrutiny of the fed govt, the media, the gen
public, the envlists |
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It is esp. ironic that the FS faces more scrutiny that other landowners
because it is the most ecological landowner as compared to most individual
states, large private landowners, & small private landowners |
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The FS faces more scrutiny from the govt, the gen public, envlists,
Indlists, & others because it is the biggest single land mgr. &
because it is part of an open, dem govt, it responds more easily &
quickly to the demands of its many constituencies |
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Thus, envlists confront the FS because it is less 'captured' by ind
than the individual states forestry agencies |
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Envlists will rarely confront large private landowners, & small
private landowners because they are nearly immune to outside pressure because
of the western norms of priv prop & individualism |
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The early FS was widely respected & it managed the forest in a
much more sustainable manner than had the previous priv ind sys which was
dominated by the robber baron mentality, even among small logging firms |
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The middle aged FS was criticized for allowing too many timber sales,
at too low a price, w/o envl considerations |
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1. The mid aged FS was criticized for placing timber above
all other uses & so is often considered to be "captured" by the timber
lobby |
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2. The FS is often criticized because it is allowed to
keep the $ it earns from timber sales: $629 mm in 1990 |
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Because the FS keeps the $ it earns from timber sales, it has a monetary
incentive to log while it has little incentive to expand the other traditional
uses of recreation, grazing or fire use |
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BELOW COST SALES |
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The cost to the FS & thus the Am taxpayer for surveying the sale,
putting in roads, admin the sale, & restoring the area after the sale
is often greater than the amt the FS receives from the logging corp for
the timber |
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The FS is "inefficient" in its logging operations |
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In the mid 1990s, a report showed that 110 of 120 national forests
are losing money since trees are sold @ prices below the costs necessary
to prepare sites for logging & managing the sales |
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The FS lost $5.6 b on logging ops in the 80s, which has the net effect
of subsidizing the timber ind by that amt |
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In timber ops, the effect of below cost logging is that the FS pays
for:
1. road building & maintenance
2. surveying & marking timber
3. env studies |
4. admininstering the sale
5. restoration
etc. |
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The costs to the FS for timber sales are greater than the amt of $$
FS receives from timber sales & are a subsidy to the timber industry
paid for by taxpayers |
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LACK OF CLEAR GOALS |
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There is a lack of clear goals for the FS & all govt from the Pres
& Congress |
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For most observers, there is even more than a lack of clear goals from
the Pres & Cong; there are confusing & contradictory goals, &
goals that change radically from admin to admin |
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The FS is not the only agency to struggle w/ confusing, contradictory,
& rapidly changing goals, but it is easier to see how the land mgt
agency's goals are more politicized that the goal of the military, the
FCC, HUD, etc. |
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The struggles w/in Congress & btwn Congress & the Pres reflects
the struggle w/in society btwn indlists & enlists |
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Thus goals bounce back & forth as factions gain & lose pwr |
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The Pres appoints Agency leaders & Congress controls purse strings |
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THE FS'S POLITICAL / INTERNAL STRUGGLES |
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Conflicts over policy w/in the FS often reflect larger struggles in
the govt & in society at large |
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The internal struggles w/in the FS are often played out in the govt
& in society at large |
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The pol struggles in FS are often over:
1. the amt of harvest
2. where to harvest |
3. what kind of trees to harvest
4. the designation or removal of fed land |
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Secondary issues in the land mgt. agencies that reflect on harvest
& designation include struggles over:
1. wildlife
2. water quality |
3. road building
4. recreational use |
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FS & SOCIETAL CONFLICT |
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The internal struggles of FS reflect the struggles w/in society |
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W/in the FS, employees disagree on the ASQ & clear cutting |
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In 1976, the National Forest Management Act limited clear cutting |
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In Jan, 1998, Chief Dombeck issues order for a 2 yr. moratorium on
new roads in Roadless Areas |
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In 2000, the Clinton Admin essentially made the moratorium permanent
& made most of the Roadless Areas permanently roadless |
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In 2003, the Bush, Jr. Admin reversed the Roadless Area decision, putting
roadless areas back into play politically |
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The Assoc for FS Employees for Env Ethics (AFSEEE) has
2,000 members of the 35,000 FS members |
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NON COMPLIANCE |
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The FS is known to be slow, inefficient & often does not follow
its own rules |
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The FS is slow, inefficient, & out of compliance w/ its own rules
because: |
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1. It is a huge bureaucracy w/ under trained & overworked
staff |
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2. The Laws passed by conflicted pol sys (Pres & Cong) are
vague & inconsistent, & change from yr. to yr., even mo to mo |
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3. There are factions w/in FS reflecting factions in soc |
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OLD GROWTH |
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There is disagreement w/in the FS on the definition of old growth forests |
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Old growth by current definition, makes up less that 5% of nation's
entire forest |
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Envlists try to preserve old growth |
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The FS & the Indlists seek to harvest it |
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The FS has 3 classifications of mgt strategy:
1. preservation
2. intensive mgt.
3. non intensive mgt. |
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Some old growth are in non intensive mgt. areas because fire suppression
has choked them off |
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By the 1980s, the US had doubled the volume of timber harvested in
forests from 50 yrs ago & new seedlings are being planted faster than
trees are being harvested |
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In the 2000s, timber harvesting on FS land has slowed |
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ROADLESS AREAS |
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Since RARE in the 70s, the FS has tried to "zone" all its land: &
determine what the land will be used for |
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The debate over roadless areas was temporarily ended in 2000 when as
a last act of the Clinton admin, they enacted by exec order the Roadless
Area Conservation Rules |
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See Also: Forestry Law: Roadless Area Conservation Rules |
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FIRE |
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The Great Fire of 1910 burned from OR & WA thru ID into MT |
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Burned over 3 mm acres in one day |
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As a result, the FS dev 10:00 am policy under which they wound muster
the resources to suppress all fires by 10:00 am the next day |
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The 10:00 am policy lasted until the 70s |
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THE FUNCTION OF FIRE |
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It is widely recognized in FS & sci circles that the forest needs
fires to:
1. thin out brush & trees
2. allow fire species to reproduce
3. create young forage & open range for wildlife |
4. replenish the soil
5. cleanse forest of dead & dying trees & disease
etc. |
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PRESCRIBED FIRES & LET BURNS |
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In the 70s the FS sets prescribed burns & lets fires burn |
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79 was an intense fire season which tested the new let burn policy |
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The ID govt & the President intervene against FS's handling of
fires forcing it to fight fires ostensibly because of the smoke & public
fear the fires engendered |
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Some critics maintained that the let burn policy was attacked because
it limited logging, & because the FS itself had a bureaucratic imperative
to fight fires, which it could not reign in |
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As a result of the political struggles around the let burn
policy, the FS cuts back on its let burn policy |
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In the 80s, the let burn policy is reviewed & re-instit |
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In 88, Yellowstone Park burns again bringing the let burn policy into
question |
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The FS has repeatedly failed to ed the Pres, Cong, & the gen public
that this type of fire season is normal |
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In 94, there is an intense fire season that burns millions of acres
& kills more firefighters than any other single season |
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The FS uses the firefighter safety issue to expand its prescribed burn
program & to allow many fire salvage sales |
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00 is an intense fire season crowned by the Cerreo Grande fire around
Los Alamos that begins as a prescribed burn |
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Another major fire of the 00 season is in CO which is started by an
arsonist who is an FS employee |
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The debate around fire is around the issues of the types of fuel reduction
which include let burn, prescribe burn, thin, or the use of logging to
reduce fuel |
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Another debate around fire is which areas should be treated, i.e. have
their fuel reduced thru on ot the types of fuel reduction |
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The debate was concluded but not resolved w/ the passage of the Healthy
Forest Act |
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See Also: Forestry Law: The Healthy Forest Act |
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THE FS'S PHILOSOPHIES |
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The many FS phil's demonstrates the FS's conflicted guidance |
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The Multiple Use phil was used for first 50 yrs of the land mgt. agencies
demonstrating the relative respect, efficiency, & consistency of the
early years |
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The New Forestry phil was used for about a decade & moved toward
leaving trees for wildlife & habitat & other ecological concerns |
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Heritage sites were protected under a UN resolution that the US choose
to accept |
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Ecosystem Mgt. has been used from about 1985 on, & represents an
increased attn to ecological concerns as well as the need to meet econ
goals |
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The ultimate question remains as to whether the land mgt. agencies
are meeting the ASQ or not |
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Sagebrush Rebellion |
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Internal
Links
Top
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Outline on the
Timber Mgt.
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External
Links
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About one third or 730 mm acres of US land is forested |
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Two thirds or 480 mm acres of the US forest land is considered to have
commercially valuable timber, though every year forests that had no commercial
value are now commercially viable |
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COMMERCIAL LAND OWNERSHIP |
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Of the commercially viable land,
- the Feds own 20
%
- the States own 7
%
- the Tribes own 1
%
- Private non industrial owners own
58 %
- the Forest Industry owns
14 % |
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The early FS was criticized for timber rip offs, i.e. sweet deals for
ind, looking the other way as in logged larger swaths than agreed too,
giving away sales & below mkt prices, etc. |
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CRITIQUE OF TIMBER POLICY |
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More recently, observers critique the timber policy of the land mgt.
agencies for |
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a. placing timber above all other uses because they are
'captured' by the timber lobby |
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b. keeping the $ it earns from timber sales, which amounted
to $629 mm in 1990 |
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The timber industry says the envists will do anything to shut them
down such putting the welfare of a spotted owl above the needs or working
men & women |
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The communities that are dependent on timber sales from public lands
tend to support the timber ind, & thus in the West many communities
support the timber ind |
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Nearly 1.2 mm workers earn a living from forestry |
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The public's concern for the environment is linked to timber economics
as is seen in
- CA voters turning down the protection of old growth forests
in 1990
- the gov of OR being threatened w/ recall after making anti
industry comments |
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Some old growth forests are in the non intensive forest mgt. areas
because fire suppression has choked them off & reduced their value |
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Industry argues that forests are being locked up by no use advocates |
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TIMBER SALVAGE SALES |
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Recent trends in forest mgt include the suspension of env laws in the
forests so that timber may be salvaged |
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In the mid 1990s, after a severe fire season in 1994, Pres Clinton
did not veto the salvage logging rider which suspended env laws in the
forests so that burned timber could be logged quickly |
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Envists point out that
- burned logs help replenish the forest
- the timber industry logged more than burned trees |
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Envists claim that ind used the suspension of env logs to log in an
unenvl manner & to take more than just burned trees |
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In the mid 00s, Pres Bush Jr signed the Healthy Forest Act (HFA) which
like the salvage logging rider suspended env laws |
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Under the HFA, there is a suspension of env law similar to that of
the salvage rider |
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Env laws are suspended under the HFA not because of the need to remove
trees to be rapidly salvaged, but because of the possibility that trees
may need to be rapidly salvaged |
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The ostensible reason for the HFA is to improve forest health because
the suppression of fire has resulted in an unnatural crowding of trees
& other foliage |
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The trend in timber mgt in the 1990s is not to roll back env laws,
but to "temporarily" suspend them |
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Envists charge that the reason for the HFA is to allow more logging
w/o the restriction of envl laws |
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Top
Internal
Links
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Summary of the Environmental
Solutions Process
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External
Links
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There are two aspects of any social / political issue that must be
addressed in order to find a societally accepted solution, including:
I. the reduction physical problems
II. the process of social change |
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I. The reduction of environmental physical problems
in finding a solution to a social issue / problem may be accomplished via
FOUR stages including prioritizing, examining context, invoking best practices,
conducting a cost / benefits analysis, & proposing actual solutions |
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A. In order to find a solution, problems must be prioritized
& examined in their context of relations & dynamic feedback loops
of other problems / issues |
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B. In order to find a solution, the best available
practices / sciences must be invoked to reduce the physical aspects
of the problem / issue |
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The science to reduce most social problems / issues is generally available,
but not applied, as seen in that we know how to reduce pollution, but as
a society we choose not to |
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Society knows how to feed & give health care to children worldwide,
but as a society, we choose not to |
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C. In order to find a solution, a cost & the benefits
analysis of reducing / eliminating the problem must be done w/ attn paid
to the economic multiplier effect & economic incidence |
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D. In order to find a solution actual alternatives
must be proposed |
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II. The achievement of social change around any
issue / problem can only be accomplished through the involvement of
participants & the institutional of social change |
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A. Involvement of participants in finding a solution to
a social problem / issue must seek to involve all participants in open
dialogue w/ the aim of solution seeking |
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1. Involvement of environmental movement |
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2. Involvement of industrialists |
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3. Involvement of recreationists |
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4. Involvement of general public |
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5. Involvement of government |
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B. The institutionalization of social change is
accomplished by way of making new social roles & relationships standardized
w/in society so that they are integrated into the very fabric of society
as a normal part of everyday life |
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1. Education of the general public on environmental issues
via media, schools, etc. is generally considered to be one of the most
effective ways to achieve social change |
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Emotionality: Many people find personal fulfillment & reward
in the environment & thus solutions must take this into account:
They offer a high level of energy & a clear vision |
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2. Environmentalists help others prioritize |
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3. Industrialists offer market solutions
& respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates |
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4. Recreationists offer market solutions &
respond responsibly to voluntary & govt mandates |
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5. The govt encourages voluntary change
& implements laws where necessary |
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a. The govt passes new laws as a result of public
pressure & / or govt pressure |
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b. The govt passes new regulations as a result
of public pressure & / or govt pressure |
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c. The govt reforms agencies as a result of public
pressure & / or govt pressure |
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6. Legal suits have been very important in changing environmental
policy by both upholding & creating law |
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Internal
Links
Top
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Outline on Forestry
Solutions
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External
Links
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- Project: Solutions for
Forestry |
Link
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REDUCE FORESTRY PHYSICAL PROBLEMS |
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Solutions to forestry physical problems include
- the reduction of erosion & siltation
- leaving buffers around waterways
- leaving corridors for wildlife connectivity to prevent fragmentation
- matching cut w/ growth rate: find sustainable quantity
- expanding the forest to counter global warming
- preserving a sufficient amt & quality of forest & old
growth
- reducing or eliminating roads
- burning or mechanically reducing undergrowth & stands that
are too dense |
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REDUCE FORESTRY SOCIAL PROBLEMS |
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Solutions to forestry social problems include
- reducing unequal access
- reducing unequal allocation of costs & benefits of forest
use, esp btwn East & West states & forests
- reducing the capture of govt land mgt. agencies
- creating oppositional as opposed to consensus building strategy
& tactics by the major participants in the forestry debate
- balancing a wide variety of forest use
- reducing forest over-use |
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INVOLVEMENT OF FORESTRY PARTICIPANTS |
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To achieve forestry goals:
Involve the participants
1. Involvement of env mvmt
2. Involvement of indlists
3. Involvement of reclists
4. Involvement of gen public |
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The three major participants in the forestry debate, i.e. the Env Mvmt,
the Indlists, & the Reclists, are engaged in a zero-sum competition
whereby they believe if one side wins, then the other side looses |
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The three major participants in the forestry debate oppose every action
of their counterparts, regardless of whether they think it matters in the
big picture or not |
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The three major participants in the forestry debate often promote positions
that they regard as extreme because they expect to be opposed, even in
reasonable proposals, & so offer the extreme position w/ the expectation
that they will have to compromise, i.e. reduce their proposal |
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1. Involvement of Env Mvmt |
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Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public |
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2. Involvement of Indlists |
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Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public |
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3. Involvement of Reclists |
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Must seek realistic positions, compromise, bring in the public |
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4. Involvement of Gen Public |
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The public needs more education on forestry issues so that a national
consensus can be created on the use of the forest |
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The East West split of the public must be addressed & reduced by
any reasonable means such as more compensation going to the Western nations
for the use of the forest & forest products by the rest of the nation,
increased public lands in the East accompanied by a reduction in public
lands in the West, etc. |
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5. Involvement of Govt |
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The govt is not perceived by any as being an honest broker & is
often accused of co-optation or orgl capture by ind |
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The history of forest reg has created a vast, unwieldy body of law,
regs, & rules which needs to be reduced, streamlined, & implemented |
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| |
The vast body of forest regs has resulted in the failure of the land
mgt. agencies to implement their own policies, & thus the govt must
implement its policy in a timely manner & only embrace policy that
can be implemented |
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INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF CHANGE IN THE FORESTRY DEBATE |
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Institutionalization of change
1. New laws
2. New regs
3. Reform of agencies
4. Legal suits
5. Educate gen public via media, etc. |
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1. New laws |
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Laws must be matched to each of the physical & social problems
in forestry |
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2. New regs |
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Regs must be matched to each of the physical & social problems
in forestry |
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3. Reform of agencies |
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Implement policy, do not ignore it |
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Streamline & rationalized policy |
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4. Legal suits, which are very individualized |
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Use legal suits to address gaps, inequities, etc. in policy |
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5. Indl, Envl, & Recl grps lobby at all levels & take direct
action |
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|
The three major players in forestry must strive for consensus among
themselves & bring in the public, reducing the East West split |
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6. Local grps who most likely influence the state reg agency to do
a better job |
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Local grps provide grass roots influence |
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Conclusion
Most logging is influenced by
1. legislation by Congress or the states
2. rules by the FS, BLM & others, implemented by states
3. reform govt agencies
3. legal suits, which are very individualized
4. envl grps who lobby at all levels & take direct
action
5. local grps who most likely influence the state reg
agency to do a better job |
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Internal
Links
Top
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Outline on Saving
the Rain Forest
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External
Links
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SAVING THE RAIN FOREST WILL REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING BECAUSE IT STORES
CO2 & COOLS THE EARTH |
|
| |
Rain forests have a significant amt of biomass, more than any other
single entity except the ocean |
|
| |
In the rain forests' biomass is a significant amt of carbon |
|
| |
The rain forests also keep the equator region cooler by absorbing the
sun's rays |
|
| |
MANY GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE WORKING TO SAVE THE RAIN FOREST |
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|
Many conservation orgs, including the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation
Intl, & the Nature Conservancy, are working w/ govts to conserve rain
forests |
|
|
|
Efforts to save the rain forest include:
a. establishing protected areas
b. promoting intelligent management of rain forests
c. increasing public awareness about the importance of
the forests |
|
| |
In the 1980s & 1990s, hundreds of protected areas were established
in tropical forests |
|
| |
These areas included nature reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, & national
parks |
|
| |
However, such efforts affected only a small percentage of the total
area of rain forest |
|
| |
Moreover, many conservation areas remain only "paper parks," w/ little
protection or enforcement on the ground |
|
| |
GOVTS & ENVL ORGS ARE DEVELOPING BEST MGT STANDARDS FOR
RAIN FORESTS TO EDUCATE & REGULATE RAIN FOREST USERS |
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Govts & conservation orgs also promote sound mgt of tropical forests
by the people who use them |
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For example, certain orgs certify timber from loggers that harvest
rain forest wood in a sustainable fashion |
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Lowes & Home Depot now carry certified lumber in their stores,
which is lumber that has been grown & harvested under more envlly sound
practices |
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Certified timbers may bring a higher price on the intl mkt |
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Areas of some rain forests have been set aside as extractive reserves |
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Local populations manage these reserves & practice sustainable
harvesting of many forest products |
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THE RAIN FOREST AFFECTS EVERYONE IN A GLOBAL ECON |
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In the core nations, we all use products that come from the rain forest,
most notably, fast food |
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Thus saving the rain forest saves people & their lifestyle in the
core nations & what people in the core nations do impacts what happens
in the rain forest |
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Increasing public awareness about the plight of rain forests may also
aid the struggle to conserve them |
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Awareness has grown due to greater exposure of rain forest issues in
the media, & to an increasing number of tourists who travel to rain
forests |
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