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See Also: An Overview of the Methods of the Social Sciences |
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See Also: Research Design |
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The Choice of the Type of Analysis determines the mode of inquiry
(descriptive,
correlation, comparison, etc.) which will be used to achieve the Research Objectives |
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Introduction: This Webpage tells you how to develop a
most excellent analysis!
A weak analysis will only tell a story or describe the topic. A good analysis will go beyond a mere description by engaging in several of the types of analysis listed below, but it will be weak on sociological analysis, the future orientation & the development of social policy. An excellent analysis will engage in many of the types of analyses discussed below and will demonstrate an aggressive sociological analysis which develops a clear future orientation and offers social policy changes to address problems associated with the topic. |
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It is strongly suggested that all assignments contain a Socio-Historical Analysis. All assignments are required to have an extensive Future Orientation section of at least 10% of the length of the assignment. All assignments are required to have an extensive Social Policy section of at least 10% of the length of the assignment. |
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1. A Narrative Analysis tells a story |
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Emphasize Story-Telling here! |
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Story-Telling generally does not include the "Moral of the Story" |
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2. A Descriptive Analysis offers a detailed description |
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3. A Socio-historical Analysis examines historical events utilizing social concepts |
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4. A Comparative Analysis explain how something is like or unlike something else. |
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5. A SWOT Analysis addresses the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to the topic. |
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6. A "Cause & Effect" Analysis demonstrates how the
occurrence of one event
correlates w/ a particular outcome. |
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This analysis should focus on social causes not personal causes |
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Example: Durkheim on Suicide |
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This analysis should identify all social causes & effects |
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Example: School Shootings |
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It is often useful to construct a Flow Chart of immediate & remote causes |
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7. A Statistical Analysis will generally be used to demonstrate
a "cause & effect" relationship
( i.e. a correlation ) or a comparison. |
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8. A Critique assesses the ideas of another or a social phenomenon. |
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9. A Sociological Analysis utilizes one of the types of
analysis described here
while utilizing social concepts, processes, theories & one or more sociological paradigms. |
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Utilize common social science concepts |
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Utilize one or a few theories |
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Utilize a school of thought / cluster of theories |
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Utilize one or two perspectives or paradigms |
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Each theorist & school may be placed in a paradigm, & uses concepts differently |
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Use social analysis to show cause & effect |
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Social Theory |
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10. An analysis that utilizes a Future Orientation should,
in relationship
to the variables & issues examined, predict the future. |
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A Future Orientation should discuss the immediate term, long term, & distant term |
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A Future Orientation should discuss the best, middle, & worst case |
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A Future Orientation should apply narrative to the future |
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11. An analysis that offers a Social Policy is essentially
proposing an integrated set of solutions
that operate at both the individual & the social levels. |
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Social vs individual social policy |
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Other Types of Analyses are allowed & encouraged;
however, they must be approved by the Professor prior to use |
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1. A Narrative
Analysis tells a story using a lot of relevant & descriptive details;
usually organized to tell the story in sequence. The thesis is often
implied, but, preferably, makes some specific, clearly articulated point
about the story being told.
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Emphasize story
telling here! Post-modernists revolt against linear, scientific
analysis & instead, let the story provide insight.
Novel/vignette Action play Read someone else's story/biography/experience, then analyze or unpack or explain it You may also use anything from literature, the arts, the media to convey
your message
If you utilized your own experience ( biography ), tell it as a story/novel
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Story-Telling
will generally not include the "moral of the story." The person
who is truly committed to this method will only use narrative & refuse
to offer explanations. Most sociologist will use narrative, but then
go on to explain/apply it. The master of this method will so combine
them so that the observer will not know whether the work is narrative or
analysis. Thus the reader is forced/allowed/lead to create their
own meaning from the narrative. The writer is not imposing his/her
story, but presenting "reality" & then letting others decide/judge
it.
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2. A Descriptive
Analysis offers a detailed description through the use of objective
or subjective language to describe some object (a person, place or thing;
it may be a “social object” such as discrimination), & in the process,
give the reader some dominant impression (the thesis) of the thing being
described. The writer should identify their vantage point
(the perspective from which they are viewing the object) which also determines
the organization of the essay--going from far (macro-structural) to close
up (micro-structural), changing the angle or starting w/ a general description,
moving towards a specific one.
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| 3. A Socio-Historical Analysis examines historical events utilizing social concepts. While a historical analysis is merely a description of people & events from the past, a socio-historical analysis examines history using social concepts (see Social Theory below) such as the industrial revolution, urbanization, democratization, etc., to not only describe history, but also to understand it perhaps in a way that not even the people living at the time understood it. It is strongly suggested that all assignments contain a Socio-Historical Analysis. |
| 4. A Comparative Analysis explains how something is like or unlike something else. The items compared need to have a basis of comparison--that is, they need to be enough alike to warrant a comparison. The thesis should indicate whether the essay will focus on similarities or differences. The purpose of the essay should be in the thesis statement's main clause. Subject-by-subject comparison treats each of the subjects the writer is comparing, but does so separately. Each subject should be evaluated according to the same criteria and in the same order. A point-by-point comparison treats subjects individually but alternately, in pairs. |
| 5. A SWOT Analysis addresses the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, & threats to the topic. This comprehensive type of analysis addresses a topic w/ the aim of taking action in relation to the topic. If an analysis demonstrates particular strengths & weakness, then particular opportunities & threats (actions) are implied. |
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6. A "Cause
& Effect" Analysis demonstrates how the occurrence of one event correlates
w/ a particular outcome. ( Remember in the social sciences, we
generally hold that technically there is no "cause & effect" only correlations.
) While there are many types of cause & effect relationships,
for most assignments in the social sciences, the focus should be on social
causes and social effects. It is also reasonable to examine how non-social
(e.g. physical, biological, psychological, etc.) causes also have social
effects. Statistical Analysis are often designed to demonstrate
cause & effect, i.e. correlations between variables. It is often
helpful to ask: How does this particular cause & effect relationship
really work? ( as to opposed to how many believe it works )
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Social causes
should be the focus, not personal causes. The challenge of sociology
is to make people look beyond personal causes
Example: Durkheim on Suicide
Why? Link
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Identify all social
causes & effects. To identify social causes & effects
utilize social science concepts, theories, schools, & paradigms
1. Show your cause - effect relationship 2. Brain storm on all causes 3. Identify levels of causes ( personal, psychological, political, economic, etc. ) 4. Translate causes into social concepts 5. Look for theories, schools & paradigms that address your area See which of those theories apply |
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Example:
School shootings. Why do students kill students?
Depressed, Angry, Alone, Hurt,
Social isolation
Now which theories deal w/ school shootings or any of the concepts above?
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A Flow chart of
immediate & remote causes is often useful. Use your analysis
to construct a flow chart w/ all possible cause
Show interactions Show how individual cause are affected by social forces Show how individual forces aggregate to create social forces |
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7. A Statistical
Analysis will generally be used to demonstrate a "cause & effect" relationship
(i.e. a correlation) or a Comparison. Statistical Analysis should
always assume that the reader does not understand statistics. Thus,
Statistical Analysis should always be accompanied by the appropriate type
of analysis discussed here-in such as a Comparative Analysis or a "Cause
& Effect" Analysis.
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Statitical
Analysis is a.ka. Aggregate Data Analysis / Archival Research
Analysis of records & artifacts Old records Census Other current records pop income race rel ed age gender Aggregate Data Analysis is used to study current or historical events |
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Examples
Durkheim's Suicide Sir Francis Galton (1872) efficacy of prayer to prolong life Statistical inquiries into the efficacy of prayer. Fortnightly Review. 12, 125-135. Phillips (1977) copy-cat suicides Phillips, DP (1977) Motor vehicle fatalities increase just after publicized suicide stories. Science, 196, 1464-1465 |
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8. A Critique
assesses the ideas of another or a social phenomenon. Generally,
critiques address the strengths & weakness & take a position on
the balance of the two. In addressing strengths & weaknesses,
critiques may address the validity of a cause & effect relationship,
examining whether the relationship exists as assumed by its proponents.
Critiques are frequently given for private & public social policies.
The weakness of a critique is that it offers nothing but criticism.
This weakness, however, is mitigated in the current assignment by the requirement
that all assignments are to offer their own social policy/solutions.
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9. A Sociological
Analysis utilizes one of the types of analysis described here while utilizing
social concepts, processes, theories & one or more sociological paradigms.
the writer seeks to find causes and/or describe or predict effects.
Non-sociological types of analyses (biological, psychological, etc.) focus
on the individual while sociological analysis focuses on
- factors external to the individual such as social conditions in the community or society - the meanings that members of a social organization share - an individual's social location (class, status, gender, ethnicity, race, religion, authority position, etc.). In examining causes, the writer should look beyond the commonly accepted explanations (i.e., take nothing for granted, especially common sense assessments or explanations based on the prevailing view in society). It is often helpful to ask:
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Social Theory:
One
of the most effective ways to develop an analysis in-line w/ a particular
academic field is to use a particular set of concepts, processes, &
theories in the analysis that are rooted in that academic field. Thus,
in a social analysis, it is effective to use social concepts, & theories.
The writer should attempt to:
- use one of the sociological perspectives (functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism) - use the framework one or more sociological theorist (Parsons, Mead, Marx, Merton, Habermas, Giddens, etc.) - use many sociological concepts (alienation, anomie, culture, socialization, structure, etc.) |
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Utilize common
social science concepts. Below is a list of the most important
sociological concepts
alienation anomie culture ideal & real culture subculture class class & false consciousness deviance discrimination bias prejudice stereotype institutional discrimination division of labor ideology institutionalization latent & manifest functions organizational dynamics power charisma coercion rational authority traditional authority norms roles social movements/collective behavior social structures status stratification socialization urbanization values |
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Utilize one or
a few theories. It is perfectly acceptable, in a research
project which will produce a journal article or something similar to utilize
one theorists article as a "foil," i.e. a theory w/ which you have a conversation
- compare & contrast compare your idea - critique the other ideas - use the other theory to critique your ideas - build on the other ideas You do not need to state that compare & contrast is the pt of your
research, but if your thesis is directly related to another theory then
you may continually refer to that theory
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Utilize a school
of thought. A school of thought is where several theorists
w/in a perspective construct ( propose & critique )a set of theories
Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Parsons, Mead, Merton..... or Feminism, exchange theory, organizational theory, human ecology, equilibrium theory, evolutionary theory, social Darwinism, neo-Marxism, neo-functionalism, world-systems theory..... Note that many contemporary authors work in these areas.
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Utilize a perspective
or paradigm
Three of sociological perspectives
Other social sciences have perspectives or paradigms too:
Poli Sci
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| Each theorists & school may be placed in a paradigm |
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Use social analysis
to show cause & effect. Use social analysis ( concepts,
theory, schools, paradigms )
to show / uncover / explain all the causes affecting the object of the research Cause & effect occur at many levels
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10. An analysis
that utilizes a Future Orientation should, in relationship to the variables
& issues examined, predict the future. Many of the
types of analyses discussed here lean toward a discussion w/ a future orientation.
One of the major goals of any science is to predict the future. In
the future orientation analysis, the researcher uses any of the types of
analyses discussed here, not only to understand the past & the present,
but also to predict what will occur in the immediate term, the long
term and in the distant term. All assignments are required
to have an extensive Future Orientation section of at least 10% of
the length of the assignment.
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The Future Orientation
should analyze the immediate, long term, & distant terms.
Immediate: tomorrow to 5 yrs Long term: 5 yrs to 10 yrs Distant term: beyond 10 yrs; usually in increments of 25 yrs All sociological research should predict events for the next 5 yrs
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The Future Orientation
should analyze the best, middle, & worst cases. Whichever
type of analysis you choose from above, you may
want to offer three possible scenarios: best, middle, worst cases.
In other words, you offer at least 3 possibilities ( you may offer more
). The possibilities should cover the entire range of possible behavior,
w/in reasonable limits. Thus the range may include 3 continuing growth
scenarios or 1 growth, 1 stable, 1 shrinkage scenarios or any combination.
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Apply narrative
to the future. Do not get caught in simply posting numbers
which describe future social relationships. Offer a picture, a narrative,
an image of what the future will be like
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| 11. An analysis that offers a Social Policy is essentially proposing an integrated set of solutions that operate at both the individual & the social levels. An analysis may be used as a basis for assessing the outcomes or effects in a cause and effect relation and offering a recommendation or solution for the question examined. That is, an analysis may be used to formulate a policy that addresses the problems in relation to the causes or effects of the sociological analysis. All assignments are required to have an extensive Social Policy section of at least 10% of the length of the assignment. |
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Social vs individual
social policy. You may offer individual suggestions for
change. Good research should offer social solutions.
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| Other Types of Analysis: There are many other types of analysis/explanations, including: psychological, physical, biological, religious, historical, political, literary, etc. In general, these are not suitable for the social sciences. They may be used only when comparing them to, or in some way relating them to the types of analysis discussed above. |