Rev Notes: Professionals

Orgl actors is that set of human formations that exist in any type of human formation at or above the formal orgl type, thus org actors exist in formal orgs, institutions, social structures, & networks

Orgl actors as recognized by the people in the orgs include upper mgt, professionals, mid level mgt, lower level mgt, lower level employees, & others

a. Upper management

b. Professionals

c. Mid level management

d. Lower level management / supervisors

e. Lower level employees

Various social scientists have determined that it is useful to view orgl actors along various analytical dimensions thus viewing actors as including the dominant coalition, power brokers, cliques & coalitions, stakeholders, change agents, & others

a. The dominant coalition

b. Power brokers

c. Cliques & coalitions

d. Stakeholders

e. Change agents

The Amended Taft Hartley Act of 1974 definitions Employers, Employees, Supervisors, & Professionals as applied to union organizing

Orgl actors usually operate in a hierarchy, though some hierarchies are more closed than others

Orgl actors have social relations of both cooperation & conflict

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Outline on Professionals

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- Project: What are Professionals?

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A PROFESSIONAL IS A PERSON IN AN OCCUPATION WHO IS HIGHLY EDUCATED OR TRAINED IN THAT FIELD

A professional is an organizational actor who, because of their occupation, based on advanced education, is generally afforded high status & authority

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Traditionally, the professions included only doctors, lawyers, accountants, & professors

Today, the types of professionals has grown to include dentists, computer programmers, & other white collar occupations

In relation to professionals, a new category of workers has emerged who are called semi-professionals

Semi-professionals include nurses, police, firefighters, legal aids, and so on

For professionals, the evaluation, reward, control, & their relationship to their orgs is unique as compared to many other classes of workers

A. THE EVALUATION OF PROFESSIONALS BY NON PROFLS IS PROBLEMATIC BECAUSE THEY DON'T HAVE THE EXPERTISE

Evaluation of professionals is done the best by professionals in the same area of expertise

Often, there is no similarly trained professional available to do the evaluation

Professionals are not generally trained to do evaluations

The evaluation of professionals by non-professionals is NOT widely practiced

Problems arise in the evaluation of professionals when it is done by a manager w/o expertise

The evaluation of professionals by those w/o expertise creates conflict

B. THE CONTROL OF PROFLS IS PROBLEMATIC FOR MANY ORGS BECAUSE THEY TEND TO GO OFF ON TANGENTS

Our society has even developed a cultural icon of the the "nutty professor"

Orgs attempt to exert legitimate control over professionals through the organizational hierarchy

The professional is apt to resist control

If the org gives control over professionals to the professionals themselves, then the org loses control & cannot be sure they are contributing to org goals

The control dilemma is resolved by allowing professionals to control themselves w/ fellow professionals held accountable for the unit's success

C. THE REWARD SYSTEM FOR PROFLS IS UNIQUE TO THEM

The reward system is more complicated for professionals in that while professionals desire $$, etc., they are just as likely to want recognition from other professionals

Professionals are usually not promoted by moving them to administration positions

Professionals have a dual career ladder
Professionals can advance by

a. The traditional method; i.e., into an administrative position

b. Staying at professional work w/ an increase in pay

c. Publications & fame

d. Participation in professional associations

Argyris, 1969 critiques this reward system

D. PROFLS & THE ORGS THEY WORK IN OFTEN HAVE DIFFERENT VIEWS OF EACH OTHER

Professionals feel as if org is intrusive, rules & regulation bound, & unresponsive to their contributions to their field

The org sees professionals as hopelessly impractical, & out of touch w/ what is important for the org

The professionals themselves have very widely divergent points of view

There is no one universal orgl or sociological truth system

Experts can take differing views of what is good, rational, legal, or effective

Perspectives of accountants, lawyers, research scientists, mgt. consultants & execs often differ radically

Perspectives differ so much that they are often speaking different languages, using different vocabularies & meaning systems

PROFESSIONALS ARE OFTEN LINKED BY A NETWORK PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS, WHICH ALSO EVALUATE & REWARD THEM

In the past, the four classic professions of doctors, lawyers, accountants, & professors were primarily self employed

Self employed professionals had near total autonomy

Today, professionals increasingly find themselves in large bureaucracies subject to the control under managers

Because of the loss of autonomy, professionals are more frequently turning to unions & professional associations to retain & even regain some of their lost power

Professionals have begun to unionize to improve their bargain position relative to the large bureaucratic orgs in which they are increasingly employed

In the past, prof orgs focused on training, defense of members' legal rights, conferences, intellectual sharing, & legislative lobbying

Recently many prof orgs are turning to collective bargaining

The National Education Assoc. (NEA) & the Am. Federation of Teachers (AFT) have a combined membership of over 2.7 mm making teachers the largest group of organized workers in the US

See Also: The AAUP

The Union of American Physicians & Dentists has grown to over 50,000 in response to the pressure doctors experience from such large health care orgs such as HMO & corporate hospitals

The increasing centralization of the health care industry in large, for profit orgs is expected to shift the allegiance of doctors from the AMA to orgs practicing traditional union strategies

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Outline on the Qualities of Professionals

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FOR ILL OR GOOD, MANY SOCIAL SCIENTISTS BELIEVE PROFESSIONALS ARE COMING TO DOMINATE SOCIETY, & MAY EVEN USURP THE UC

[The profl complex] has already become the most important single component in the structure of modern societies. It has displaced 1st, the "state," in the relatively early modern sense of that term, & more recently, the "capitalistic" org of the econ. The massive emergence of the profl complex, not the special status of capitalistic or socialistic models of org, is the crucial structural development in the 20th C society.

Parsons, 1968, p. 545

I propose that we name the mid 20th C The Age of the Disabling Professions, an age when people had "problems," experts had "solutions" & science measured imponderables such as "abilities" & "needs." ... It will be remembered as the age of schooling, when people for 1 / 3 rd of their lives had their learning needs prescribed & were trained how to accumulate further needs, & for the other 2 / 3 rds became clients of prestigious pushers who managed their habits.

Illich, 1977, pp. 11-13

As Parson / Illich quotes indicate, social scientists disagree on a single view of professionals, but they agree that the professions are important

The debate btwn Parsons & Illich on the nature of the professions is symptomatic of the modern / post modern debate which debates the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats of the modern era

A few occupations are questionably professions, but many other occupations have some characteristics of a profession, & others are viewed as semi profl & para profl

Occupations can be ordered along a continuum from more professional to less profl

Various social forces push occupations to one end of the profl continuum or the other

FUNCTIONALISTS SEE THE HALLMARKS OF PROFESSIONALISM AS KNOWLEDGE, AUTONOMY, AUTHORITY, & ALTRUISM (KAAA)

A profession is a high status knowledge based occupation that is characterized by four hallmarks of professionalism, including:
a. abstract, specialized knowledge
b. autonomy
c. authority over clients & subordinate occupational grps
d. a certain degree of altruism

Social scientists define an occupation as professional if it exhibits specialized knowledge, autonomy, authority, & altruism

In wider society, a profl is a person who is qualified & legally entitled to pursue a profession

We usually associate experts w/ a profession & w/ higher status & higher pay

Law, medicine, & the ministry possess the characteristics of a profession

Other profl occupations, include military officers, scientists, & university professors

Members of other occupational specialties may self consciously seek to elevate the status of their occupation by adopting the characteristics of profs

Professionalization is the process by which an occupational specialty seeks to become a profession usually by demonstrating the 4 hallmarks of a prof

Identifying a prof by a set of hallmarks is called the structural functional approach, the traits approach, or the characteristics approach

Another approach to identifying profs is the power approach whereby the profs are merely the powerful occupations that are currently winning in the constant struggle among occupations to control preferred types of work

The problem is not which occupations are recognized as profs, but rather the process by which they gained their recognition / power

In pre historic times, the most powerful occupations might have been the hunter & the shaman because they controlled, or were believed to control, the food supply & fate in general

THE QUALITIES OF PROFESSIONALS INCLUDE KAAAAPP

Generally functionalists focus on the 4 hallmarks of professionalism as their central features, but conflict theorists note that these hallmarks ignore the fact that generally in society professionals have a high level of prestige

Prof prestige serves to give prof power outside of their narrow area of expertise & thus transmits their influence into the wider society

The combination of the classic 4 hallmarks of prof combined w/ their prestige or influence in the wider society reveals or demonstrates that the profs have power in society such that Weber, Mannheim, Bell, et al believe that they are an emergent class that may challenge the UC

In sum, the quals of profs include (KAAAAPP)

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1. Knowledge: A monopoly on an area of valuable, specialized knowledge is necessary for a prof to function

2. Autonomy: Prof are granted more autonomy on the job, i.e. wkplace control that any other occupation

3. Authority: Prof have authority in their area of expertise, but this sometimes can manifest itself in other spheres of life

4. Altruism: Prof altruism is declining as fewer prof take on pro bono work

Associations: Prof assocs are the orgl vehicle through which prof exercise monopolization of power, maintenance of autonomy & authority, altruism, & membership often brings increased prestige & power

5. Prestige: Prof are granted very high status in the wkplace & this often manifests itself in the wider society such that the professions generally have the highest prestige rankings of any occupations

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6. Power: The power of prof is increasing in their respective occupations to a historically high water mark & many social scientists only see this power as increasing such that they are challenging the power of the UC & thus we may move to a society dominated by profs, for ill or good

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Outline on Specialized Professional Knowledge

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While every occupation has its body of knowledge, profs master a very narrow, specialized body of knowledge

All societies have common knowledge which is generally known by many, & esoteric knowledge which is know only by a few

Just because esoteric knowledge is rare, does not make it valuable

PRE MODERN SOCIETY

In pre modern societies, the "profs" were sages or shamans who knew important lore about health, weather, sprits, genealogies, & the history of the grp

It was possible for a single person in the village to know all of this info

While others in pre mod society wanted to know this knowledge, it was denied to them & only offered to a selected apprentice

The sage gained an advantage in keeping the knowledge mysterious & inaccessible

Mystification added much to the prestige of the sage

The selection of apprentices & the teaching of esoteric knowledge were accompanied by rituals which underscored the importance of the sage & the knowledge

Late in the pre modern eras, monasteries & other formal religions preserved knowledge, maintaining the link btwn knowledge & religion

MODERN SOCIETY

In mod society the number & variety of profs is much greater as compared to pre mod society

Knowledge today has been secularized & the base of knowledge has exploded so that no know person can even begin to master a significant portion of it

Most of the knowledge today can be considered esoteric in that only a few experts are aware of segments of that knowledge

The volume of knowledge means that those who transmit & use that knowledge must become increasingly specialized thus mod societies will require more numerous & more varied knowledge based wkrs

Knowledge based fields have fueled the growth of the service sector, esp the profl services such as the ed, legal, med, fin, accting fields

Bell popularized the term 'post industrial society' in his book The Coming of the Post Industrial Society wherein in he defines the new society as one dominated by profl experts

THE KNOWLEDGE BASE

The knowledge base of the professions consists of three parts including theoretical knowledge, detailed,. practical knowledge, & technique

Theoretical knowledge is far removed from the day to day activities of the profession & is often acquired in college

Because theoretical knowledge continues to grow, many practicing profs cannot keep up w/ the growth in current knowledge

Scientists in academic & research setting continue to grow theoretical knowledge

Detailed, practical info is that which can be applied in serving a client

While this part of knowledge also continues to grow, profs must stay abreast of this knowledge to provide the best service available

Prof orgs require their professionals to continually update their knowledge

Technique is the application of the knowledge base & is similar to practical info but is even more exclusively concerned w/ direct application of the knowledge

Techniques are learned in an applied or clinical setting of a profl training program

Techniques may be learned during an apprenticeship, internship, or residence

Both profl assoc & profl schools expand & refine the professions knowledge base

Profl assocs lobby for funding of research & on other issues

Profl assoc & others publish profl journals through which new info is disseminated

Today new media such as video & the internet are being used in addition to journals & books to disseminate info

Different fields grow at different rates because they are considered to be 'hot,' exciting, interesting or esp relevant to today's world

Hot fields today in the social sciences include terrorism, criminology, feminist, race studies, & others

Hot fields today in the physical sciences include the internet, genetics, energy, medicine, & others

Many discoveries are being made in these hot fields & new professionals are flocking to these fields

The high rate of growth in knowledge in the professions encourages a greater division of profl knowledge into ever more refined subspecialties to enable wkrs to keep up w/ the volume of knowledge

As a result of the growth of knowledge, a division of labor continues to expand among professionals just as it does in other occupations

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Outline on Professional Culture

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PROF CULTURE IS THEIR SHARED, MONOPOLIZED KBVN

Culture may be defined as the shared content of society & thus organizational culture is the shared content of an org

The content of a society or org is it's shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN ) & the physical & abstract manifestations of that content

Org culture is the shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN ) of an org

Prof culture is an occupational culture, or more accurately, a subculture

Org culture is the interaction of the formal & informal structures of an org w/ the goals & objectives of the org leaders

Org culture is a special type of subculture that is unique to the network that includes & surrounds an org

An org culture includes all of an org's stakeholders or constituencies including customers, suppliers, govt regulators, families, similar orgs, etc.

PROF CULTURE IS MANIFESTED THROUGH MATERIAL & NON MATERIAL ASPECTS OF JARGON, PRACTICES, LIFESTYLES, IDEOLOGY, ETC.

Every profession has its characteristic jargon, behaviors, & lifestyles, all elements of the professional culture

Every occupation has it culture or subculture

PROF CULTURE IS TRANSFERRED FORMALLY BY PROF SCHOOLS & ASSOCIATIONS, & INFORMALLY BY THE TYPICAL WKPLACE CULTURAL PRACTICES VIA THE PROCESSES OF SOCIALIZATION INCLUDING SMIPNN

The wkplace socialization processes include (SMIPNN):
1. selective exposure to knowledge, ideology, practices, norms, etc.
2. modeling
3. identification, or attachment to particular prof models
4. positive reinforcement
5. negative reinforcement
6. nurturing / mentoring

Prof schools convey not only knowledge but also the beliefs, values, & norms of the profession

Older, estbed profs become role models who demonstrate how to dress & how to interact w/ clients & peers

Some cultural prep by the schools is explicit, such as the requirement that of completing courses in professional ethics

Much cultural info is conveyed informally

Student learn from the faculty in professional schools to accord prestige to researchers in the profession & they learn which specialties have high prestige & which do not

Law students are surprised to learn that criminal law has relatively low status compared w/ corporate law (Heinz & Laumann, 1982) & some change their goals accordingly

Learning the prof culture helps rookies blend in w/ the more experience profs

Prof assoc help estb & maintain prof culture (Halliday, 1987; Powell, 1989)

Prof assoc represent the interests of the prof to outsiders & shape consensus w/in the prof about norms for practice & the org of the work (Halliday, Powell, & Granfors, 1993)

PROF CULTURE FOSTERS PROF AUTONOMY, AUTHORITY, ALTRUISM, & POWER

Generally prof occupations have estbed KBVN which support / foster autonomy, authority, altruism, & power in their occupation

Prof autonomy means that profs can rely on their own judgment in selecting the relevant knowledge or the appropriate technique for dealing /w the problem at had

Prof authority means that a prof can expect compliance w/ his or her orders from clients & subordinate occupational groups

Prof altruism means that to a certain extent the profs see themselves as helping professions & they frequently show a concern / priority for the welfare of others

Prof power means that the intersection of a monopoly of specialized knowledge, autonomy or control of the wkplace, authority on & outside of the job, & the prestige which society accords profs creates power in the occupation & in society in general in the form of expert power & ideological power

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Outline on the Power of the Professions

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PROF POWER IS THE ABILITY OR AUTHORITY OF PROFS TO ACT OR DO SOMETHING, OR TO HAVE SOMETHING DONE, OR CONTROL SOMETHING OR SOMEONE

Power is the ability to affect the actions of others

The political scientist Robert Dahl ( 1957 ) defined power as the ability of a person or social formation (group) to get another social formation to act or believe in a particular way that they would not have done before

Power may be exercised on many levels such as
a. the individual level
b. the group level
c. the organizational level
d. the societal level

Specialized, monopolized knowledge, autonomy, authority, & altruism can only partially explain the degree of professional power

The knowledge base, which is monopolized by the prof, is a key to maintaining prof knowledge

Prof associations lobby use laws to enforce their privileges & this serves to maintain their power while denying it to others

Maintaining autonomy is the freedom to exercise their power

Prof altruism can mask other motives

THE PROFS ARE POWERFUL, BUT ARE LESS POWERFUL THAN THE RULING ELITE, & THUS THE CLAIMS OF POST INDUSTRIALISTS HAVE NOT MANIFESTED YET

Prof are attractive occupations because, unlike production, clerical, service, mfr, sales wkrs, & most other wkrs even in occupational specialties, they wield real power over their own work lives

Profs decide what they will do, how they will do it, direct other wkrs in their tasks, & act to prevent other occupations from doing the same sort of wk (Halliday & Karpik, 1997)

Perhaps profs main source of power is their profl knowledge base over which they have a monopoly,

The prof's monopoly over knowledge has existed since the time of the village shaman

Profs earn their living by applying their professional knowledge in service to paying clients

PROF MONOPOLIZE KNOWLEDGE BY CONTROLLING 1. PROF SCHOOLS 2. LICENSURE 3. MYSTIFICATION

Contemporary profs monopolize knowledge by erecting 3 barriers to lay people, including: prof schools, licensure, & mystification

The control of access to prof schools, the licensing process, & the mystification of knowledge & professionalism all serves to maintain the power of profs

But even the professions are experiencing dialectical contradictions as capitalist interests continually try to erode that power & as specialization makes knowledge ever more esoteric & therefore difficult to control by the profs associations themselves

	1. PROF SCHOOLS RESTRICT ACCESS TO INCREASE POWER FOR PROFS & THIS LIMITS BENEFITS TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC
	Admission to prof schools is intensely competitive because many choose to severely limit the available space
	In HG society the sage had to find & train a successor so the prof must select & train its new members
	In modern society training is accomplished in formally organized prof schools such as med school, law school, divinity school, & grad school
	Prof schools reason that by limiting the number of students, the schools will produce more competently trained grads
	In addition to quality control over students, the professions fear the production of a glut of gras who will compete against one another for clients, thus diminishing not only income, but also power / wkplace control
	Restricting access to prof schools creates higher prices for prof services, higher income for prof, more autonomy, & generally more power, but it limits the benefits to the wider public

	2. LICENSURE IS REQUIRED BY LAW & RESTRICTS ACCESS TO THE PROFESSIONS
	Even if lay people were to acquire professional knowledge, they would not be able to put it at the service of clients because profs require licensing by the state, & an applicant can qualify only w/ ed credentials & passing a licensing exam
	Most prof are protected by law that makes it illegal to practice w/o a state license (Zhou, 1993)

	3. MYSTIFICATION IS THE PROCESS OF OBSCURING KNOWLEDGE IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN CONTROL OF THAT KNOWLEDGE & THE PROF RELATIONSHIP
	The mystification of prof knowledge comes about because the learning is so specialized & often couched in such difficult jargon that even after being exposed to the info, a lay person might not understand it
	Prof's distinctive lingo makes their advice incomprehensible & so lay people perceive the knowledge as esoteric
	Just as the shaman gained prestige from possessing esoteric knowledge, a client today may leave a prof's office impressed by their knowledge, wisdom, status, & power, all such beliefs which serve to mystify the relationship & maintain prof power

	THE MOST POWERFUL PROFS HAVE THE MOST SPECIALIZED KNOWLEDGE, PRESTIGIOUS CLIENTS, COMPLEX TASKS, ORGL RESOURCES
	Many people are unaware of the inequality of power among the professions, para professions, services, production jobs, & generally all occupations other than to note the prestige of some occupations
	Any clear analysis of occupations recognizes that power, prestige, money, wkplace control, etc. all vary widely across the occupations & that professions generally are at the top of all of these dimensions
	The most powerful profs have the:
	a. greatest control over the sources of knowledge & possess the most important & specialized knowledge (Abbott, 1988; Halpern, 1992)
	b. most prestigious clients (Heinz and Laumann, 1982), &
	c. most challenging & complex intellectual tasks (Cullen, 1985), have
	d. greatest orgl or personal resources to max their personal autonomy & authority

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A Socio Historical Overview of the Post Industrial Age circa 1970 to Present

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- Project: Your Experience of the Post Industrial Age

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- Project: Your Experience of the European Model

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Introduction: During the Post Industrial Age, the economy shifted from basic industry to services & high tech jobs

The Post Industrial Age may be seen as a product of both the Industrial Age & the Era of Global Capitalism in that industry matured, resulting in the development of the service & the high tech sectors, and the deindustrialization of the core, i.e. movement of basic industry to the periphery, & the globalization of all facets of society, e.g. the economy, culture, etc.

The previous era, the Era of Global Capitalism, ( 1910 to the present ) created many of the conditions that came together to herald the Post Industrial Age

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The Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of the Post Industrial Age indicates that the ranking system is open, placement is based on achievement, legitimation is based on the culture of law ( "the rule of law" ), the basis of ranking is accomplished through a bureaucratized state capitalist, economic system, & the range of equality is broad, running from low to high

There are 10 fundamental qualities of Post Industrial Society
1. Less heavy basic industrial production
2. The service economy comes to predominate in the first world
3. More high tech jobs
4. The information economy / internet is integral to the overall economy & growth
5. Knowledge & education are equivalent to property & wealth
6. Working middle class transforms into the white collar middle class
7. Rise of professional classes
8. Part time, serial employment
9. The continuation of the growth of global capitalism
10. Global monopolies & mergers develop

Some of the fundamental qualities of post industrial society have decreased inequality and many other have increased inequality

During the Post Industrial Age, many people have not made the educational shift to high tech / service because education is an expensive investment

Some people see the rise of professional class in the Post Industrial Age as the end of the class dominated system

In the Post Industrial Age, production is more complex, forcing the elites to make concessions to get knowledge from workers

In the Post Industrial Age, there is increased productivity which creates more surplus, of which more is going to workers, resulting in less strikes & bigger markets

Employment relations in the Post Industrial Age achieve many Labor's goals, w/o the intervention of the Labor Movement

In the Post Industrial Age, the reduced population growth rate in industrial society has created a larger "pie", & less mouths to feed

In the Post Industrial Age, elites must invest in the workforce as they never have before

But an educated workforce & open trade systems creates a value system of egalitarianism / democracy

Historically, the elites needed the allegiance of the population only during times of war

In the post industrial era, the elites need the allegiance of the general population, especially the middle classes, for the normal functioning of the high tech / service economy

Given the high tech nature of wars of the 90s & 00s, it is not clear that the elites still have the need for the allegiance of the population during times of war, but most agree that they do

The marginal utility of wealth declines in the Post Industrial Age

Review the Marginal Utility

The declining MU of wealth means that middle & upper class workers & professionals are less motivated by $$ which result in the demand for more free time & other perquisites

But on the other hand, the international division of labor has resulted in increased world inequality which demonstrates that improved employment relations have not been globalized

The degree of inequality in the stratification system in the modern world system has increased

Historically there has been extensive social mobility in the US mostly from the beginning of immigration & conquest in the 1400's to the 1950s

There is clear evidence that upward social mobility slowed & eventually reversed from the 1960s through the 1980s

In the mid 1990s, there was a restart of upward social mobility which ended w/ the "slowdown" of 2001 to 2003 & has not restarted as of 2004

The economic decline of the US in the modern world system appeared as early as the 1960s

Economic decline stimulated support for Reaganomics in the 1980s

Average Americans became more afraid for their economic security

The corporate class became more involved in politics in an attempt to reverse the decline in US profits & market influence

Today's development of the modern world system goes beyond capitalism and communism in that there is competition among many forms of state and monopoly capitalism

The process of stratification has moved to a new level, the global level

Deindustrialization was the label given to the movement of industry from the core to the periphery & semi periphery

A major cause of the increase in inequality in the P-I Age is the large loss of industrial jobs in America

A major cause of the increase in inequality in the Post Industrial Age is the growth of jobs at both the higher & lower ends of the income scale

The P-I era is characterized by Reaganomics, the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the collapse of Communism during the early 90s, the "New Democrats" (Clinton, et al) in the 90s

It is no longer simply capitalism vs. communism, but competition among differing forms of organization in the capitalist world economies

Historically speaking, most global competition, which is often in the form of nationalism, has been among differing forms of capitalism

The cold war / competition btwn capitalism & forms of socialism are the historical anomaly

Ronald Reagan was the President from 1980 to 1988 & he ushered in a "Republican Revolution" which was labeled "Reaganomics"

Reaganomics was a unique combination of:
- econ policy which cut govt regulation, cut taxes, & had no Industrial Policy,
- social policy which eliminated welfare, &
- foreign policy which supported Poland & the Pope & oversaw the beginning of the collapse of communism

The effects of Reaganomics, including tax cuts, a military buildup, & deficits, were significant & are still felt in the 00s

Reaganomics in the 80s resulted in downsizing, “service” jobs, cut wages, mergers, less regulation & govt

During the era of Reaganomics, the US moved from having average inequality to having the greatest inequality

Reaganomics contributed to an increase in income & wealth inequality that had already begun as a result of changes in the world economy

But Reaganomics did little to change the basic causes of American economic decline

In 1989 temp jobs were only 3% of new jobs
In 1993 they were 26% (New York Times, March 10, 1994)

The poverty rate increased because of Reaganomics... & persisted

1989   poverty rate was 12.8%
1991   14.2 % as the recession grew
1992   14.8 % at the height of the recession
1993    15.1 % when the recession was over

Average family income declined after Reaganomics, & increased w/ Clinton

There has been a decline in average family income through 1994 when it temporarily increased, followed by continued decline
It was down 7 % since 1989

There was a short recession at the end of the 1st Bush admin, ( Bush, Sr Presidency 1989 - 1992 ) that ended in 1992 & there was econ growth by 1994

The econ growth in the 90s & 00s is a historically new phenomenon in that few new jobs were accompanying gen econ growth

When jobs appeared, they were "soft jobs" i.e. temporary, part time, w/ low wages & few benefits

In the 90s the effects of Reaganomics began to be reversed

From the beginning of the 1980s, the US already had the highest level of income inequality among industrial nations

By the end of the 1980s, this inequality was even higher, & it continued to grow in the 90s finally leveled out toward the end of the 90s

By 95, the US was coming out of the recession in better shape than Europe & Japan

By the late 90s the growth of inequality resulting from job cuts, lower paying jobs, & more temp jobs created higher profits, was reversed.... at least in the short term

Some analysts belief that the European Model will create a better econ in the 21st century

Germany & Japan have less inequality than the US because:

a. workers are paid more

b. workers have higher levels of education

c. workers have higher levels of skill

d. both the labor force & corp mg. are more loyal to each other than in the US

The major point of the P - I Age is that there has been a historic shift in the American stratification system & the place of the US in the modern world system

It is the end of the Cold War & while American is dominant, it is not absolute, economically speaking, because we are challenged by Europe & Japan

Gender in the P - I Age: The "New Woman"

Race in the P - I Age:

At this time there are no more historical eras on the horizon, but possibilities include
- the Biotech Age
- the environmental / global warming / population crash era
- Pax Democratica / market econ era
- "The End of History"
- the Information Age

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Socio Historical Overview

Epoch Name

Approximate Time Period

1. Geologic Time

5 bb BP - 5 mm BP

2. Pre Human Evolution

5 mm BP - 1.5 mm BP

3. Hunter Gatherer Society

1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC

4. Pre Empire Civilization

10 K BC - 3 K BC

5. Early Empires Era

3 K BC - 200 BC

6. Roman Era

200 BC - 500 AD

7. Middle Ages

500 - 1300

8. Early Industrial Age

1300 - 1700

9. Industrial Age

1700 - present

10. Global Capitalism

1910 - present

11. Post Industrial Society

1970 - present

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Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of the Post Industrial Age

Type of System

Ranks

Placement

Legitimation

Basis of Ranking

Equality

Primitive

open

achievement

tradition

status

hi equality

Slavery

generally closed

ascription

legal/racism

economic

hi inequality

Caste

closed

ascription

religion

status

hi inequality

Feudal

generally closed

generally ascription

legal/religious

economic

highest inequality

Class

open

mostly achievement

legal

economic / bureaucratic

low to medium

Post Industrial

open

mostly achievement

legal

economic / bureaucratic

low to high

The Chart on the Characteristics of the Stratification System of the Post Industrial Age indicates that the ranking system is open, placement is based on achievement, legitimation is based on the culture of law ( "the rule of law" ), the basis of ranking is accomplished through a bureaucratized state capitalist, economic system, & the range of equality is broad, running from low to high

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Outline on Stratification in Post Industrial Society

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The transition to the Post Industrial (P-I) economy has eliminated hundreds of thousands of manufacturing jobs & created hundreds of thousands of service jobs

The P-I economic transition has divided the labor force into two unequal segments

One new segment in the P-I economy consists of doctors, lawyers, researchers, financial specialists, technicians, engineers, etc.

The P-I professional segment is relatively well paid, well educated, & has high prestige

One new segment in the P-I economy consists of service workers, clerical workers, retail sales people, etc.

The P-I service segment is paid less than were many workers under the industrial economy, is less educated, & has lower prestige

The P-I economy is creating greater socioeconomic inequality

The more advanced segment of the workforce is creating the demand of services which the lower segment of the workforce provides, such as self fulfillment services, healthier, food preparation, etc.

In 1977 approximately 13% of meals were eaten outside the home while in 1995 approximately 27% of meals were eaten outside the home

The education & professionalism of at least part of the P-I workforce is an impetus towards democratization

In P-I Society, more people
- demand to be informed
- refuse to follow rules blindly
- object to discrimination
- think all people should be free

Inequality & the amount of stratification has increased in P-I Society because lower paying service jobs have replaced higher paying manufacturing jobs

In SW Va, in 2003, on average
- mining jobs paid $46,000
- construction jobs paid 34,000
- service jobs paid 28,000

In SW Va, in 2003, mining jobs are being steadily replaced by service jobs resulting in a decline in pay income for the area

"Deindustrialized", "down sized" workers often cannot afford the education to gain professional employment

Deindustrialized workers are often older & find it difficult to undergo education & career change

The number of professional jobs in the P-I economy are not sufficient for all of the deindustrialized workers

Deindustrialized workers often have a home & roots in a locale & find it unrealistic to relocate to where the new jobs are

The share of income going to the working or lower classes has fallen sharply whereas those in the upper & upper middle classes have gained income

It is fair to say that compared to industrial society, in P-I society, the rich have gotten richer & the poor have gotten poorer, & the middle & working classes are smaller

Nielson & Alderson found that internationally in P-I society, the rich have gotten richer & the poor have gotten poorer, & the middle & working classes are smaller

Nielson & Alderson found that inequality declines w/ the development of industrial society, then levels off, & then increases w/ the development of P-I society

The transition from industrial to P-I Society has hurt the industrial workers & their families who once had high paying manufacturing jobs, but have since become unemployed or moved to low paying service jobs

W/ deindustrialization, Blacks, Hispanics, poor Whites, etc. in the Midwest & Northeast have had difficulty finding employment as the manufacturing jobs disappeared

See Also: Wilson: The Declining Significance of Race

See Also: Professionals

The "classic professions" historically included only doctors, lawyers, accountants / banker, & professors

Today nurses, social workers, teachers, & others are also labeled as professional

Professionalization is the process whereby an occupation attempts to be recognized as a profession by increasing education, licensing, regulation, etc. requirements

Some social theorists would call nurses, social workers, teacher, & others semi-professionals

Police, firefighters & others are attempting to professionalize

Police, firefighters & many other occupations are called blue collar professionals by some social theorists

The proportion of professions in the workforce has risen steadily during the development of the P-I economy

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Outline on Weber on Professionals & Bureaucracy / Rationality

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In “Politics as a Vocation” Weber looks for the development of political leaders w/ "a calling" to oppose the rule of bureaucracy

In “Churches and Sects in North America: An Ecclesiastical Socio-Political Sketch” (Quakers), Weber examines TWO ethics that may assist professionals in resisting the rationalization of bureaucracy

a. With the "ethic of responsibility," passionate commitment to ultimate values is combined w/ a dispassionate analysis of alternative means of pursuing them

b. With the "ethic of conviction," rational choice is foregone & actor orients action to the realization of some absolute value or unconditional demand

For Weber, ethics of responsibility & conviction, these are important components in the constitution of a professional as compared to a bureaucratic, managerial, worker, etc. dominated society

Weber's conception of the role of professionals & professional orgs in confronting the dysfunctions of bureaucracy & social problems in general is very similar to Durkheim's conception of workplace associations

For Weber, a slim hope of breaking out of the "iron cage of rationality" lies in professionals who stand outside the bureaucracy & can control it to some degree

For Weber, professionals includes a broad class of knowledge workers such as lawyers, doctors, professors, accountants, professional politicians, scientists, intellectuals, capitalists & others

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Outline on Professionalism & Organizational Change

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- Project: 'New Orgs' & Organizational Change

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SOCIETY & THE ORGS THAT COMPRISE IT ARE IN A PERIOD OF CONSTANT, RAPID CHANGE

For Kanter, Stein & Dick, the only constant in orgs is orgl change

Society & orgs have exp a tidal wave of org change from bureaucracy to the flexible org

The old generalizations about orgs as stable, stagnant, behemoths are no longer accurate because orgs today have more temp wkrs, more part time wkrs, & more contracted wk

Today, centralization & hierarchy are dysfunctional while decentralization & networks are functional

The new org is characterized as having:

- flexibility

- adaptability to change

- few levels of hierarchy

- loose boundaries among functions & units

- sensitivity & responsiveness to the env

- concern w/ stakeholders such as wkrs, communities, customers, suppliers, shareholders, & others

- the ability to empower people to be entrepreneurial

- the ability to help people gain skill & "employability"

Thus, for K, D, & S, the new org is in a continual state of change, experiencing all the processes, complexities, & effects of change

Thus the new org is an org consisting largely of professionals who have prof, collegial, relationships w/ each other that mix both admin & work tasks

The new prof org is in sharp contrast to hierarchical bureaucracies where wkrs are highly constrained

NEW ORGS OPERATE MORE AS NETWORKS THAN STABLE STRUCTURES

New changing orgs are seen as networks which experience a continuous flow of production, people, & other networked orgs

New, changing orgs are bundles of activities w/ common elements that allow activities & people to be grouped & treated as an entity

In new, changing orgs activities shift, new or diff units or people are included in activities clusters & thus what is identified as the org also shifts

In new, changing orgs, membership, composition & ownership & goals are constantly changing

In new, changing orgs, projects rather than positions are central

In new, changing orgs, bonds btwn actors are more meaningful & ongoing

LEADING THE NEW, CHANGING ORG IS LIKE STEERING A SHIP

Orgs are always in motion

In new, changing orgs, central direction results from past events, the env, strategies embraced by org's dominant coalition, by org character, & by the activities clusters in org may or may not be in sync w/ this direction

NEW, CHANGING ORGS HAVE THEIR OWN UNIQUE SET OF PROBLEMS INCLUDING AGENCY, COORDINATION, IMPLEMENTATION, DELEGATION, & OTHERS

The new, changing orgs have:

- an agency problem where the ownership of authority & responsibility, & who is acting in whose interest is not clear

- a coordination problem where even coordinated actions don't always produce intended results

- an implementation problem where things just don't get done

- a delegation problem where some people delegate too much, & some not enough

Problems occur in new, changing orgs because they consist of multiple stakeholders carrying out multiple but overlapping activities

THE FACTORS LEADING TO THE NEW CHANGING ORG INCLUDE: GLOBALISM, TECHNOLOGY, STAKEHOLDERS, PROFESSIONALS, & OTHERS

The factors leading to the new, changing org include:

a. global econ competition

b. techl change

c. the rise of stakeholder pwr

d. professionalization

The authority over the new, changing org comes from many sources & directions & through many pathways rather than "down" a "chain of command"

Authority in the new changing org has greater limits than it did in the old org

In the new, changing org, intentional "strategic" acts are only one form of action

Because there are are multiple strategists in the new, changing org; the orgl purpose becomes problematic & debatable

THE BONDS / CONNECTIONS THAT MAKE ORGS ARE DIFFERENT FOR OLD & NEW ORGS IN CUSTOMER / CLIENT TYPE, ABILITY TO CHANGE, STASIS,INTERORG RELATIONS, & OTHERS

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The Table on the Comparison of Orgl Ties in Old & New Orgs shows that the bonds / connections that make orgs work are different for old & new orgs

It is important to note that the differences btwn old & new orgs is not absolute, it is a matter of degree as seen in the fact that action possibilities as in mkt transactions are neither completely open in the new, changing or nor completely closed in a bur

In the new, changing org, there is a great variety of relationships of the indiv to the org

In the new, changing org, some roles are defined by place in hierarchy (or in several hierarchies), others are defined by ability to mobilize resources, others by the ability to dev commitment

In the new, changing org, rewards may be social, psycl, or econ

In the new, changing org, activity sets are minimally institutionalized

For the new, changing or, network theory or soc mvmt theory may be more relevant to orgs than bur theory

Orgs must use momentum built from a coalition of interests & a network of activities w/in a momentum bearing structure

THE 'NEW ORG' IS IN FLUX, MGED BY WKRS / PROFESSIONALS, WHO SET THEIR OWN GOALS, ARE NETWORKED

The implications of the new, changing org for action are that

a. change is always occurring

b. change may not be guided by org leaders

c. change may be inconsistent w/ the goals of principle stakeholders

d. mgrs who control / guide must be aware of the nature of networks so they are able to form / wk thru coalitions to induce multiple activities & interests to coalesce around the org's momentum

FOR 'OLD ORGS,' THEY HAD MANY SOP'S THAT ALLOWED THEM TO MAINTAIN STABILITY SUCH AS CONCENTRATION, CLOSED MKTS, TECH, COMMITMENT OF WKRS, STAKEHOLDERS, ETC.

Before the new profl, flexible org, the stability of yesteryear was achieved by

1. a unified motion from a coalescence of interest & activities in an env of adequate relative consistency & certainty

2. abundant resources

3. few competitors

4. geographically confined competition

5. protected mkts

6. standardized tech

7. understood tech

8. viewing indiv & grp ambition as a constraint

9. people accepting what they have

10. few disasters or sys failure, which if they do occur are accepted fatalistically

11. clear & acceptable commitments to stakeholders

12. adequately aligned interests

GM in the 50s & 60s was very stable

Stability today departs from old conditions to the new global econ where motion becomes apparent & change takes center stage

Stability becomes responding to change, harnessing change, creating change, & managing change

	THE ENV OF THE 'NEW ORG' IS ONE W/ SCARCE RESOURCES, NEW TECH, UNCOMMITTED WKRS, MGRS, ET AL, CRISES, ETC.
	Today in a climate of instability / change:
	1. resources are scarcer
	2. resources are more difficult to obtain
	3. new tech arises constantly
	4. indiv & grp ambition is given free reign
	5. crises are common; assumed to be solvable
	6. commitments of customers, wkrs, & other stakeholders are fragile & short lived
	In the new, changing org, uncertainty in decision making is more prevalent
	In the new, changing org, mgrs spend time, effort & $$ getting info to make decisions w/ info that is uncertain, incomplete, inaccurate, but mgrs must act anyway
	We look back at history to consider what can or might be & we see multiple possibilities, not a single inevitable ending
	Multiple possibility theory is well suited to org theory because history gives a coherent, orderly inevitable sheen to events
	For people in the action, the choices are far less clear, options less structure, results more mixed, rationales more arguable
	It is still up to people to act, & do more than predict the future, to invent it
	In the new, changing org, there is a participatory gap btwn the declared participatory mgt style & what is actually practiced
	In K, D, & S they report that Collins, Ross, and Ross (1989) found that 485 mgrs from 59 firms had total support for participatory mgt, but most di not install such sys's, blaming a lack of opportunity
	In the new, changing org, to pursue change
	1. know the sources of orgl success such as the things that /\ reliability, etc.
	2. such as the success factors in orgl change
	CHANGE OCCURS TODAY GENERALLY EITHER IN QUICK, BOLD STROKES, OR BY THE LONG MARCH
	Bold strokes (BSt) are big strategic decisions such as major econ initiatives such as e.g. buying a firm, closing a plant, or allocating crit resources
	Long marches (LM) are operational initiatives which combine several divisions, which have a transitional qual on customer relations which enhance orgl effectiveness
Link	The Table Comparing the Time frames of BSts & LMs shows that BSts & LMs vary in many important orgl dimensions
	Responsibility of bold strokes & long marches varies in that
	- BSts can be mandated by up mgt or a few people
	- LMs requires personal support of many people & cannot be mandated in practice
	Change at Ford under Donald Petersen in 80's used both Bld Ss & LMs
	At Ford, BSts were implemented in styling which shifted toward the Euro look of Taurus & Mercury Sable, & was a huge success & changed look of all Am autos
	At Ford, the LM was developed under the strategies of Quality is Job 1, participatory mgt, & reduced cycle time
	At Ford, it appears that today that the BSts succeeded while the LM failed
	LM succeeded at Xerox through the visible commitment & top mgt attn to ground level operations
	The characteristics of the firm & leaders are imp in determining whether BSts or LMs will succeed
	Orgs develop dispositions toward dealing w/ problems & these dev into habits
	Habits must be supported by the org character, mechanisms, standards, procedures

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Table on the Comparison of Orgl Bonds / Connections in Old & New Orgs

Type of Org >
Type of Connection \/

Old org

New, changing org

Customer / Client Type

mkt oriented

meaningful

Ability to Change

rigid

flexible

Stasis

immutable

ongoing

Interorgl Relations

none / independent

many / networked

The Table on the Comparison of Orgl Ties in Old & New Orgs shows that the bonds / connections that make orgs work are different for old & new orgs

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Table Comparing the Actions of Bold Strokes & Long Marches

Bold strokes

Long marches

Time frame

Fast

Slow

Locus of action

Decisions @ top

Initiatives throughout

Leader control

Hi: Can command results

Lo: Can initiate but not command

Initial results

Clear acts, impact

Unclear acts, impact

Later results

Erratic

Dependable

Culture impact

Habits unchanged

Habits can change

The Table Comparing the Actions of Bold Strokes & Long Marches shows that BSts & LMs vary in many important orgl dimensions

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Outline on Mannheim on the Intelligentsia

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THE INTELLIGENTSIA IS AN AGGREGATE OF INTELLECTUALS THAT HAS THE CAPACITY TO EMBRACE MULTIPLE VIEW PTS

The intelligentsia is the intellectual aggregate w/in a society, where aggregate implies the isolation or non unity of the grp, as compared to the unity of a class

The more common meaning of intelligentsia is the class or body of persons representing, or professing to represent, the superior intelligence or enlightened opinions of the country or public or political questions

The intelligentsia in general uses is a grp of persons professing or affecting special enlightenment in views or principle

Only the comparatively uncommitted intelligentsia is likely to approach nearer the truth

From its special & particularly favorable vantage pt, it could, & should, elaborate a 'total perspective' which would synthesize the conflicting contemporary worldviews & thereby neutralize, & to some extent overcome their one sidedness

The dynamic synthesis of the intelligentsia's vantage pt of multiple / total perspective is the nearest possible approximation to a truly realistic attitude, w/in the limitations imposed in a given epoch

The intelligentsia is a classless aggregation which became a satellite of one or another of the existing classes & parties

The intelligentsia is not a class because they:
a. have no common interests
b. cannot form a separate party
c. are incapable of common & concerted action
d. do not have a common relationship to the means of production, e.g. profs, scientists, writers, etc.

The intelligentsia are ideologues of this or that class but never speak for themselves

The intelligentsia was btwn, but not above, the classes

Intellectuals are not a superior stratum nor does their peculiar social position assure any grater validity for their perspectives

Their position does enable them to do something others cannot do which is ability to view the problems of the day in several perspectives

THE INTELLIGENTSIA IS USUALLY PARTISAN

From case to case, the intellectual may act as a partisan & align her or himself w/ a class

For Mannheim, the intelligentsia has the the potential to adopt a variety of perspectives, but that does not mean they will

The intelligentsia are no better able to overcome their own class interests than other gps

Thus intelligentsia are 'relatively unattached' in that they may or may not be unattached from their or other grps interests

Intelligentsia do not react as uniformly to a situation as, for example, workers do

Certain types of intellectuals have a maximum opportunity to test & employ the socially available vistas & to experience their inconsistencies

THE INTELLIGENTSIA IS NOT A CLASS & IS NOT ORGANICALLY ATTACHED TO ANY CLASS

When Mannheim describes the intelligentsia as 'relatively unattached' he is emphasizing the fact that after the Mid Ages, the intelligentsia became increasingly emancipated from the upper class & yet were unaligned w/ the lower classes

Salons & coffee houses were the first institutions where intellectuals were discernibly free & detached

Salons enabled people of different social backgrounds, views, stations, & allegiances to mingle, & entry to the salon required social acceptability & was in that sense restricted

The coffee houses were open to all & thus became the first centers of opinion in a partially democratized society

Membership & participation were not now determined by rank & family but by intellectual interests & shared opinions

In the modern era, some intellectuals are able to escape a relationship of dependence on local habitat, institution, class, & party

The detachment of the intelligentsia is not absolute in that some writers, some scholars, some scientists 'enjoy' a relatively uncommitted position

The non committal intelligentsia has positive & negative aspects in that while the intellectual has a potentially wider view, & is potentially less blinded by particular interests & commitments, he lack the restraints & experience of real life

The intelligentsia is more inclined to generate ideas w/o testing them in practice

The intelligentsia loses touch w/ reality & forgets that a main purpose of thought is the orientation of action

BUREAUCRATIZATION / RATIONALIZATION POSES THREATS TO THE INTELLIGENTSIA

Bureaucratization of all aspects of social life, as delineated by Weber, applied not only to wkrs, but also to scientists & scholars

For Mannheim, the dangers of bureaucratization / rationalization include that:

a. the intelligentsia is being separated from the means of production

b. the intelligentsia is subject to specialization which narrows the compass of thought & activity, discourages the will to dissent & innovate

c. more research, thinking, & scholarship is now carried out in the contest of large orgs, private & governmental

Other features of the bureaucratization of the intelligentsia include the:

a. commercialization of research

b. elimination of the security of freedom of intellectual exploration via the elimination of tenure

c. development of intellectual property rights which are used to make ideas the property of corps

d. consolidation of the publishing industry

The bureaucratic / rationalistic control of the intelligentsia is creating what Mannheim called intellectual desiccation

THE ROLE OF THE INTELLIGENTSIA IS POWERLESS YET INFLUENTIAL

The intelligentsia retains its role of diagnostic, constructive, & critical thinking

The intelligentsia's role does not follow naturally from its social position

It is only by a conscious & deliberate commitment that the intellectual can prevent her affiliation w/ parties & orgs from resulting in self abnegation

Intellectuals are powerless & yet they play an influential role in the preservation of freedom & the reconstruction of society

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Outline on the Semi Professions

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THE SEMI PROFS HAVE THE HALLMARKS OF PROFS (KAAAP) & EMPLOY A HI % OF WOMEN

The semi professions are an occupation that has achieved some of the characteristics of a profession or possesses the hallmarks of a profession to an attenuated degree including specialized knowledge, autonomy, authority, altruism, & power (KAAAP)

While the class profs include lawyers, doctors, professors, & accountants, the semi prof occupations include dietitians, pharmacists, teachers, librarians, social wkrs, nurses

Many of the semi profs are called the female semi profs because they are dominated by women

The Figure on the Percentage of Women & Minorities in the Semi Pros shows that nearly all the semi profs are employed by a majority of women & many have over 2/3 employment by women

Many accord semi professionals professional status & many govt agencies classify them as true profs

Most of these occupations are professionalizing & may ultimately succeed in gaining prof status power & exhibit all the hallmarks of the classic profs

Often the few men in the female occupations earn higher salaries & receive rapid promotions (Williams, 1992)

Because women generally exercise less social power than men, the female semi profs face obstacles in gaining collective power

BLACKS & HISPANICS ARE CONCENTRATED IN A FEW SEMI PROFS

Blacks & hispanics have the greatest representation in social work, as dietitians, & as nursery & kindergarten teachers

Blacks & hispanics have the lowest representation as librarians & pharmacists

TEACHERS ARE SEMI PROFS IN THAT THEY HAVE KAAA BUT LITTLE POWER OR PRESTIGE

Other occupations that qualify as semi professions include opticians, human resource officers, & systems analysts

Semi prof have a body of knowledge, but they do not monopolize it, nor do they erect barriers to entry

Elementary teachers have a college degree & usually have completed specialized work in ed & they have a body of knowledge on child dev, teaching methodologies & other fields but the basic info they teach is usually known to any educated adult

Some see elementary teachers as profs, but others do not, holding that "anyone could do that"

Parents give greater deference to a pediatrician than to a teacher

Teachers have to be licensed by the state & so there are some barriers to entry

The End

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