Rev: WO 9: High Tech Workplace

Tech & organizational structure are two sides of the same coin in that the social relations of production determine the type of, & the utilization of a particular technology in an environment of particular labor mgt relations

Tech & the org structure of labor mgt relations in which it is embedded may discussed separately but it must be noted that many theorists disagree on whether technology determines org structure & the social relations of production, or whether the social relations of production determine technology

Techl determinism is often misused as a justification for particular social relations of production that are to the advantage of mgt & the disadvantage of Labor

See Also: The Mode of Production & the Forces of Production & the Social Relations of Production

TECHNOLOGY & THE ENVIRONMENT

I = PATE
Humans' Impact on the environment is a function of a Population, their Affluence/wealth, Technology & Environmental values

Technological systems are specialized: info, transportation, manufacturing, agriculture, etc.

The Core Countries technologies uses the most energy:
The Industrialized world has 25 % of the population & uses 90 % of the resources
The US has world has has 5 % of the population & uses 25 % of the resources
China has world has has 25 % of the population & uses 6 % of the resources

Core countries use more resources

Core countries pollute less partially because they export toxic industrial processes & waste

The U.S. consumes 42% of the hydrocarbons (oil, gas, oil, coal), 38% of the molybdenum, 21% of the lead, 19% of the copper, & 15% of the zinc produced globally

Technology now changes the global environment through the harvesting of resources, waste in manufacturing, waste in consumption ( waste includes pollution )

How does the coal commodity chain affect the environment?

Corporations can now move mountains, affecting 10s of square miles all the while using less labor than in the mines of the early 1900s

Today's mines make less water pollution via catching ponds & settling ponds, per ton of coal mined

Burning coal today makes less air pollution per ton of coal because of scrubbers & other technologies

	Key natural resources are shaped by technology as is seen in cultivated land vs. natural landscape, energy development as a forest of well heads, mineral mining & strip mines, mountain top removal, deep mines, etc.
blank	Natural resources & technology do not guarantee wealth nor does a shortage of them relegate a nation to poverty as seen in the natural wealth of South Africa & Russia, & the lack of natural wealth in Japan & England
blank	There are THREE fundamental types of technology including operations, materials, & knowledge technology
blank	a. Operations technology includes the people & machines that produce & the set of rules that governs their operations
blank	b. Materials technology is any thing used in production
	Materials may be natural or human made & may be new or old, but used in a new way
	Materials used in one workplace affects others in that they may be subcomponents for another process of production: e.g. plastic to microchips
blank	c. Knowledge technology is the body of truths, facts, or information accumulated by humanity in the course of time as based in production
blank	There are FOUR technology stages including simple tool, craft, mass production, & high technology
blank	1. Simple tool technology includes the use of no tools, i.e. only operations & knowledge tech, to the use of stone & bone, to the use of baskets & other early technologies
	The division of labor w/ simple tool technology was stratified primarily & only by gender & age
blank	2. Craft technology includes the use of more advanced tools which require greater materials & knowledge to manufacture
	Craft tech includes clay fired pots, porcelain, bronze, wheels & gears, etc. as well as the tech to produce such tech such as mining of iron, copper & tin to make bronze
	The division of labor w/ craft technology was stratified primarily by skill & craft as in apprentice, journeyman, & craftsman in masonry or silver smithing
blank	3. Mass production technology includes the utilization of highly specialized tools & services integrated into mechanized production operation
	With mass production tech, knowledge is advanced via the crafts as well as universities
	The division of labor w/ mass production technology was stratified primarily by the wage system into workers & mgt., but also by industry
	4. High technology is knowledge based tech that today is based in computer & biotech technology
	High tech allows for the refinement & exact control of mass production & service industries
	Daniel Bell (1976) argues in the Coming of Post-Industrial Society that new knowledge based technology is transforming the nature of society as knowledge becomes the central resource in society
	Bell believes that the economy is becoming knowledge intensive rather than capital intensive
	For Bell, knowledge replaces capital as central resource in society
	For Bell, in post industrial society, there is a shift from goods production to services production
	But the services have remained labor intensive & low paying
	The epitome of the high tech business is Microsoft whose power comes from a pattern of zeros & ones
	While the core has indeed shifted to high tech & service industries, production has not decreased at all, it has merely shifted to the semi periphery & the periphery
	With high tech, mass production industry, workers in the late 20th C produce more goods, & a greater variety of goods, than was ever before possible
	With high tech, mass production industry comes the possibility of shorter hours, increased safety, greater employment security, & material abundance for all of society; yet none of this has come to pass
	The organization of the economic social structure of society, & society itself have shaped the implementation of technology & the distribution of rewards in such a way that some people are excluded from the benefits of increase productivity
	There is the widespread misconception that technology dictates the organization of work
	While tech could bring an end to alienated labor, technology can deskill or increase the skill required, or routinize or provide variety on the job
Link	The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

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The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

                     | Machine                  *         Assembly
                     | Tending              *        *     Line
                     |                        *                *
                     |                  *                            *
                     |               *                                    *
Level of         | Craft   *                                          *       Continuous
Alienation      |         *                                                  *    Process
                     |     *                                                           *
                     | *                                                                    *
                     |*________________________________________*_
                      Printing      Textiles         Autos        Chemicals

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Outline on Organizational Innovation

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- Project: Orgl Innovation

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The org change cycle has stages
a. Conception
b. Births & Foundings
c. Transformations
       Stasis
       Growth
       Decline
d. Innovation/ Reformulation
e. Death

An orgl innovation differs from an orgl transformation in that it may affect only a part of the org

An innovation is a departure from existing practices or technologies & represents a significant departure from the state of the art at the time it appears (Kimberly, 1981)

Much of the analysis of innovation focuses on technology, but any other feature of an org amy also be the seat of an innovation: administration, personnel hire procedures, etc.

A radical innovation is a significant departure from previous practices

Zaltman, Duncan, & Holbek, 1973, suggest THREE forms of innovation, including programmed innovation, non programmed innovation, & distressed innovation

a. Programmed innovation is planned

b. Non programmed innovation occurs when there is "slack" in the org & resources are available to be applied to innovations

c. Distressed innovation is that which is forced on the org often as a result of a crisis from w/in the org or from the env

Zaltman, Duncan, & Holbek, 1973, suggest NINETEEN factors on which orgl innovation is based, and/or hopes to achieve, including

a. controlling orgl cost

Orgl costs generally are accounted for in econ terms; however, some analyses are starting to integrate social costs into the mix

b. the maximization of return on investment (ROI), which is a common financial indicator

c. the maximization of efficiency

d. controlling of risk & uncertainty, allowing for the reduction of delays & accidents

e. increasing communication allowing for increased innovation & efficiency

f. enhancing compatibility allowing the smoothing of the work process among orgl units

g. managing complexity to match the need for complexity

h. managing scientific status so that R & D translates into info that serves orgl goals

i. increasing perceived relative advantages

j. increasing perceived absolute advantage

k. recognizing & point of origins so that internal innovations are more likely to be accepted, & so that the points of origin can be rewarded & fosters

l. coordinating timing so that innovations, processes, etc. are synchronous

m. making the status quo ante a possible end state because reversibility increases the likelihood an innovation will be accepted

n. commitment to the attitudes & behaviors toward the innovation

Participation in the decision to innovate increases commitment of all orgl actors

o. enhancing interpersonal relations because if an innovation is not disruptive to personnel or Labor, it is more likely to be accepted

p. managing the publicity & the vs. secretiveness of an innovation so that orgl actors who are not affected by the innovation are aware of that, & those that are affected have the necessary amt of info

q. managing gatekeepers, aka the power brokers, which the innovation must pass through, because the more the gatekeepers accept, the more likely the innovation is to be accepted

r. increasing the susceptibility to successive modification of the innovation because the more modifiable the innovation, the more likely the innovation is to be accepted

s. increasing gateway capacity since the adoption of one innovation may increase the capacity for other innovations

t. increasing gateway innovation since the adoption of one innovation may act as a gateway for other innovations

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Outline on Competing Views of Technology

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COMPETING VIEWS OF TECHNOLOGY

The micro chip is at the heart of much technology

Robotics utilized micro chips, software, & mechanized digits

The micro chip, robotics, & other technologies have altered the nature of production across a rage of settings from traditional blue collar mfr to clerical wk to white collar wk to professional wk

The US Bureau of Labor Statistics ( BLS ) defines hi tech ind as those
- employing one & a half time the average proportion of tech wkrs
- having R & D expenditures twice the average for all inds
- having both above ave tech wkrs & R & D expenditures

For the BLS, tech wkrs include engineers, life scientists, physical scientists, mathematicians, engineering techs, scientific techs, computer specialists, etc.

Using the tech wkr & R & D definition of the techl wkplace, the BLS identifies 48 hi tech inds including electronics, machinery, ordinance, chemicals, instrumentation, pharmaceuticals, aerospace, genetic engineering, communications, et al

The competing perspectives on tech can be seen in the discussion of the experts who may emphasize tech's benefits or tech's costs

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Outline on Technology & Skill Upgrading

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THE BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY

Duchin (1998) viewed tech as liberating people from drudgery

Piel (1994), the publisher of Scientific American, sees tech as the major vehicle bringing about higher living standards

Mowshowitz (1976) suggests, "techl change is ... an inevitable feature of human existence." provide improve wking conditions & skill upgrading

Riche (1982) notes that the benefits of tech outweigh the disadvantages

Many social scientists hold that tech has increased skills

Blauner's (1964) classic study of continuous processing automation in the chem. ind found that

- a greater proportion of skilled maintenance wkrs were required w/ the new tech

- wkrs had greater responsibility for the care & proper functioning of expensive capital equip than those in mass production mfr

In a Communications Workers of America ( CWA ) survey, 78% of wkrs indicated that tech had increase the skill requirements of the job

Subuoff, 1988, found that automated sys require both hi levels of tech knowledge & skills acquired through lengthy experience

Adler, 1984 found that in banks wkr responsibility, cognitive learning, & job interdependence increased w/ the advent of new tech

Adler found that the least skilled jobs are the ones most affected by automation in banks, many of which which are eventually eliminated

For Adler in banking as low level jobs are automated & eliminated, the overall effect is to upgrade the average skill requirements of the remaining jobs

Francis, 1981, found no evidence of deskilling in firms upgrading to micro processor production techniques such as computer aided design ( CAD )

Many studies demonstrate that wkrs must acquire new skills

Penn & Scattergood, 1985, found that hi level maintenance skills require autonomous choices as tech increases

Ozaki, 1999 examined printing, banking, & metal working inds & found that tech creates a need for formal knowledge, precision, & autonomous decision making

Cross, 1985, examined 36 continuous process firms & found that wkrs learned new skills including the ability to use, maintain, & diagnosis problems w/ the new tech

Zuboff, 1988, believes that new tech forces orgs to dispense info more widely to wkrs at the front lines of production

For Zuboff, orgs achieve a competitive advantage based on their ability to better understand their own businesses & apply innovation based on newly available data

For Zuboff, mgt is reluctant to release info because trad practices dictate that data can only be managed by certain people w/ certain accountabilities, skills, & capabilities

For Zuboff, if an org is to become critically competent at the data interface, then people need to

a. know how to keep equip running

b. be able to ask "Why am I doing what I am doing?"

c. diagnostic tactical, mid level, & strategic problems in the wkplace

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Outline on Technology & Deskilling

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THE COSTS OF TECHNOLOGY

Critics of tech note that tech may cause problems such as unemployment, deskilling, boredom on the job, alienation, etc.

Noble, 1977, found that there is nothing automatic about either the development or the consequences of tech

For Noble, tech is neither neutral nor inevitable, but is instead a tool to increase mgts' leverage in bargaining w/ wkrs

For Noble, when options exist, employers systematically select the tech that weakened wkrs' autonomy & solidarity

For Noble, systems that rely on expensive automated machine tools are selected over less expensive machine tools that require more skill to operate

In Noble's view, the selection of tech reflects & reinforces the unequal distribution of economic & social power

Cooley, 1980, finds that tech may reduce wkrs skills & motivation

Computers & other tech may have a negative effect on the experience of work esp when control is removed from wkrs & place in tech

When control is taken from wkrs the work may become less diverse & less rewarding

When control is taken from wkrs, efficiency & quality may decrease because hi quality requires skilled human input

Bright, 1966, found that automation increases levels of responsibility for some wkrs, but overall it creates a tendency toward declining skill requirements

For Bright, tech often increases some skills at first giving way to a progressive loss of skill resulting in an inverted U-Shaped skill curve

Bright found that the growing demand for trained techs to operate automated tech is more a from of credential inflation rather than a true upgrading of skills

In credential inflation, degrees & other credentials are required because wkrs have them, not because the skills are actually required on the job

Boldy & Buchanan, 1981 found that in printing, copy typists were deskilled, having their jobs eventually folded into that of the printer

W/ new tech in printing, the copy typists had less need to type correctly, & the printer took over their job of correctly positioning the copy

But the printers had to master some new skills such as mastering word processors, & their job required more concentration

In the automation of bakery mixing equip, the doughman was transformed into a mixer operator as a result of a loss of craft skills

Skilled maintenance positions at the bakery factor also decline as repair wk became a matter of testing & replacing parts

As baking became more automated, no new skills were required for the doughman or the maintenance people negating the possibility of promotion or growth

In the automated baking factor, wkrs became bored, apathetic, careless, & rejected responsibility for breakdowns of the new system

In the insurance ind, Appelbaum, 1984, found that deskilling occurred in insurance underwriting

In insurance underwriting, agents enter the data & the computers make most of the decisions

Mowshowitz, 1997, found that office wkrs' skills have declined w/ new tech

In the office computers make the wk more standard & formally defined, resulting in less autonomy for the wkrs & more decisions made higher in the orgl hierarchy

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Outline on the Technology: The Mixed Effects Thesis

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- Project: The Impact of Technology on Labor

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Because both the skill upgrading thesis, & the deskilling thesis have some validity, most social scientists believe that the relationship btwn tech & workplace skills is dynamic in that some skills are increase while others are reduced

Milkman & Pullman, 1991, hold that robotics & other automation produce both skill upgrading & deskilling in that mfr the tech & maintaining the tech requires skill upgrading while skills & jobs are lost by both the mechanization of jobs, as well as by replacing labor w/ machine through larger, more efficient machines

Tech has inherent limits that necessitate the continuation of skilled positions including both operation & maintenance which is to say that the self constructing, self operating, self maintaining robotic factory is still merely a scientific vision of the future

However, vast numbers of jobs & skills are lost to automation & mechanization every year

Shaiken, 1997, found that hi tech jobs require skilled wkrs to make the tech work up to it's capacity

Hirschhorn, 1997, found that computer driven, automated, & robotic systems are so fragile & vulnerable to disruption that they require a skilled craft wkr or tech to keep them running

Computerized engineering, where all engineering is done on a computer rather than utilizing real life models as had been done in the past, eliminated "mulling time" where engineers had time to survey & comprehend both their individual project & the broader goals of the project

Baran & Teegarden, 1984, found that in the insurance ind, as underwriter positions were computerized, relegating the actual decisions to computer analysis, the task of underwriting was then assigned to less skilled & lower paid wkrs

Baran & Teegarden found, due to new tech, a shrinking grp of professionals at the top of the orgl hierarchy where data entry clerks performed more high volume standardized duties at the bottom of the orgl hierarchy

Spenner, 1990, & Keefe, 1999, believe that the effect of tech on skills is dynamic because skill is very difficult to define

The concept of skill changes as tech changes

For Spenner, 1985, "Skill changes have been uneven, offsetting, & are not attributable to any one single cause including tech"

The stability or change in skills is a result of the interaction of tech w/ other factors which are usually under the control of mgt

Upgrading skills occurs through the creation of jobs that require more training, & deskilling occurs through the downgrading or elimination of jobs or job content

VARIABILITY IN HI TECH EFFECTS

In skill upgrading, wkrs may:
- need new skills to mfr tech equip
- earn new skills to monitor & operated equip,
- have their responsibility & autonomy increased
- need more skills to maintain tech

In deskilling, wkrs may:
- out & out lose their jobs to tech
- have their skill become obsolete
- have their responsibility & autonomy decreased
- have their jobs standardized & shifted to other less skilled wkrs

The effects of tech do not occur equally across the wkforce in that older wkrs w/ vintage skills are laid off & younger wkrs w/ newer training are hired

Mgt often chooses to hire new wkrs to avoid in house training costs

This leaves middle age wkrs w/o jobs & w/ few skills for new employment options

The Am sys operates in such a manner that the costs of skill upgrading are externalized from the firm to the labor force

Many firms are hiring tech trained immigrants from other nations w/ lower wage structures, esp Ireland & India

Many firms subcontract wk such as software production to offshore sites w/ cheap labor

Skills increase where wkrs have the power to insist that new tech be introduced in a manner that upgrades wkrs' skills

Wkrs' power to demand skill upgrading rests on their participation in unions or professional orgs

Skills increase when mgrs believe that deskilling is counterproductive because of the complexity of the production process

Skills decrease when wkrs have little power & when mgt decides to pursue a deskilling strat

Skill upgrading or degrading is not the result of simple tech imperatives, rather it is determined by the social context in which tech is introduced & by the relative power of the actors involved

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Outline on Training for Changing Skill Requirements

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In the post industrial econ, there is less demand for manual dexterity, physical strength, & for traditional craftsmanship & there is more demand for formal knowledge, precision, & perceptual aptitudes

Some social scientists maintain that existing wkrs can be retrained to fill the newer, more technical jobs

But today retraining existing wkrs is not common because firms do not want to pay for time off for wkrs to learn a new skill in mid career because they would rather hire new, young wkrs w/ up to date education

Retraining the welders who are displaced by robots to take new jobs in robotics is not realistic because substantial training is required to teach an assembly line welder to repair & maintain the welding robots that will be doing the welder's job in the future

But retraining skilled plant maintenance wkrs to maintain indl robots is possible

CONTINUING EDUCATION

Some social scientists hold that continuing ed programs & on the job training ( OJT ) are preferable to hiring young wkrs w/ up to date skills because new tech changes so rapidly that it often requires highly specific training which can most effectively be acquired on the job or through continuing ed

Training for hi tech jobs in the post ind econ requires a lifelong commitment to updating training as new tech emerges

LIBERAL ARTS ED

The strength of a LA ed is that it teaches the student how to think, research, & learn & thus prepares him or her for a lifetime of learning

Much of the skill upgrading associated w/ new tech involves cognitive & interactive skills, exactly the kind of skills taught in traditional LA programs

TRAINING OPTIONS

One option for training for hi tech jobs is formal, degree training programs

In 2000 there were 27 degree training programs in robotics in the US

In 2000 there were 343 robotics courses taught at various other institutions in the US

Non degree programs provide extra flexibility to wkrs because they can be combined w/ other degrees to meeting rapidly changing needs & because they can be changed more rapidly

The union called the Communication Wkrs of Am ( CWA ) bargained for training programs to upgrade members' skills in working w/ telecommunications equip

Today, the CWA & the regional phone firms run a wide range of training programs & courses to meet & anticipate skill needs in telecom

Formal ed requirements are increasing & this ed is becoming less general & more specific

Advanced ed can be both formal & narrow in that it teaches wkrs a specific skill as well as the liberal arts skills of thinking, researching, & learning

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Outline on the Transformation of Occupations

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THE COMBINATION OF THE POST INDL ECON & TECHNOLOGY IS TRANSFORMING BOTH THE ECON & THE OCCUPATION IN THAT ECON

Technology & other features of the post industrial econ have transformed occupations & changed the mix of occupations that make up the economy

Changes in the distribution of occupations has occurred since the 1980s

Since 1980:
- professional jobs have increased from 15.6 & to 19.8% of total employment
- craftwork has increased from 13.3 to 15.0% of total employment
- machinist work has increased from 15.7 to 16.5% of total employment
- service work has increased from 12.4 to 14.7% of total employment
- mgt wk has decreased from 9.5 to 7.2% of total employment
- clerical wk has decreased from 17.8 to 11.4% of total employment
- sales wk & laborers have maintained their relative share of total employment

The changes in total employment since 1980 demonstrate that while hi tech wk is an imp part of the total employment, it is not a large share

Hi tech wk is not the largest share of total employment, but it is one of the faster growing sectors of the econ

In the first decade of the 2000s, occupations w/ a 50% or more growth rate include database mgrs, systems analysts, & computer engineers

Even w/ a 50% or more growth rate, the total number of jobs in database mgt, systems analysis, & computer engineering will be fewer than the number of new jobs for cashiers, home care aides, truck drivers, or teachers

Large numbers of new jobs will not be created in the hi tech industries, but tech will transform nearly all occupations

Occupations that are expected to have major techl transformations include engineering, assembly wk, machine operation, machine maintenance, service wk, clerical wk, mgt, tech wk, & wk in the home

IN THE POST INDL ECON THERE IS BOTH JOB DISPLACEMENT & JOB CREATION

Tech results in the creation of new jobs, the elimination of old jobs, & the transformation of many other job

To understand the impact of tech on employment & the econ, it is necessary to determine which change is greater: job creation, elimination or transformation

Tech also results in the creation of a two tiered, or dual, occupational structure by eliminating mid range jobs & expanding jobs at the top & bottom of the job dist

The effects of tech on employment & the econ include job growth, job displacement, the transformation of jobs, & the multiplier or indirect effect from increases in productivity & demand

IN THE POST INDL ECON ELECTRONIC TECH & CONTINUOUS PROCESSING TECH IS SUPPLANTING ASSEMBLY MFR

Economies have experienced the costs & benefits of techl change for centuries

The last major wave of techl change in the US occurred in the 1950s & 60s & was impelled by the development of continuous processing tech whereby factories developed systems that eliminated the segmentation of production by creating a system that manufactured products in one process from beginning to end, & that could be run indefinitely

Researchers believe that electronic tech may amplify the current negative effects of tech on employment

Because it has the ability to process information the way people do (i.e. take in info, & make decisions) the micro chip has radically changed all of production & will continue to do so

In the post industrial era, econs can no longer assume that growth is certain

Computers & the microchip impact both white collar & blue collar jobs whereas continuous processing tech affected mostly only blue collar jobs

JOB CREATION IS OCCURRING IN SERVICE, FINANCE, & HI TECH INDUSTRIES

Increased productivity due to new tech has lead to a growing econ & increased employment opportunities for many wkrs (Gore, 1993)

Many researchers argue that few wkrs are laid off as a direct result of tech changes

Displacement is moderated by giving notice to those to be laid off, allowing them time to find new jobs

Displacement is moderated by retraining, reassignments, early retirement, buy outs, etc.

Computer tech has created new jobs such as systems analyst, programmer, data entry clear, we master, & more

Expanded job opportunities are occurring for engineers, & R & D scientists

Displacement problems results from limits in adjustment, retraining, & relocation programs for wkrs

Tech creates new products & industries

Tech creates new demand by providing cheaper, better products & econ growth may occur through increase investment in new tech

Tech creates demand for machine maintenance

In the 2000s, tech demonstrates its strength via the expansion of the internet which is now used as a mkting too as well as creating such jobs as internet construction, maintenance, web master, etc.

In 2000, the internet econ directly employed 2.5 mm people, more than many odder industries such as insurance, commo, or public utilities

JOB DISPLACEMENT IS OCCURRING IN ASSEMBLY MFR & EXTRACTION INDUSTRIES

The declining growth rate in clerical occupation because of word processing was not anticipated prior to the expansion of personal computers (Gore, 1993)

Many researchers believe there has been a net displacement of jobs resulting from new tech, esp microprocessor based tech & robotics

Technological displacement is the elimination of jobs resulting from the intro of new tech which is a contemporary concern because of the widespread application of microprocessors & robotic tech

Clerical wkrs, esp typists, stenographers, & office machine operators are often identified as the grp most affected

Robotics make a wide variety of indl labor redundant

There is a displacement of of machinists, tool & die makers, & metalworker

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Outline on Engineering

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Engineering is the design, construction, management, & maintenance of any objects, structures or works requiring special knowledge & application of the principles of mechanics

Engineering is used in any of the various branches of engineering, as a military engineer, a mechanical engineer; an electrical engineer; a mining engineer; a structural engineer; a robotics engineer; etc.

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so have formal designations such as Professional Engineer or Chartered Engineer

Historically, engineering emerged primarily in the military in the form of a military engineer

Today the Army Corps of Engineers continues the work of the design & construction of military works, of roads, bridges, canals, etc.

Engineering is considered to be a high status job in the technological wkplace

Engineers use imagination, judgment, & reasoning to apply science, tech, math, & practical experience

The result of engineering is the design, production, & operation of useful objects or processes

The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of specialized sub disciplines that focus on the issues associated w/ developing a specific kind of product, or using a specific type of tech

For engineers one of the most important motivators at wk is the challenge inherent in many engineer projects

It is believed that the creative aspects of engineering can never be automated away

Engineers make up 10% to 15% of the wkforce in electronics, compared w/ about 3.5% in the US econ as a whole

In robotics mfr, there are as many as 23.7%, w/ an additional 15.7% of the wkforce employed as engineering technicians

Well over 50% of the jobs in robotics require two or more yrs of college training, compared w/ fewer than 20% in the rest of mfr

Given the techl wkplace, the job outlook for many engineering specialties looks positive

Employment in engineering will tend to factor the already privileged grps & college educated immigrants, thus furthering existing class & racial divisions in the econ

METHODOLOGY

The crucial & unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, & interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result

It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements

Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or tech limitations, flexibility for future modifications & additions, & other factors, such as requirements for cost, marketability, producibility, & serviceability

By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated

PROBLEM SOLVING

Engineers use their knowledge of science, math, & appropriate experience to find suitable solutions to a problem

Creating an appropriate math model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), & to test potential solutions

Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits & choose the solution that best meets their requirements

Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem

Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full scale production

Engineers use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, & stress tests

Testing ensures that products will perform as expected

Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce designs that will perform as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large

Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure

However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be

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Outline on Manufacturing

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Manufacturing produces the wealth of goods & services characteristic of the modern world

Mfr is the production of goods & services through industrial organization

Production is the transformation of resources into goods or services that people want

In the modern era, production has dramatically increased its quality, efficiency, & speed, & also achieved lower cost

At the core of production is the conversion process, the sequence of events in which resources are converted into products

Conversion occurs in both the production of tangible goods as well as intangible services

An example of production of an intangible service is a consultant's knowledge about a firm & the ability to communicate, the input, is transformed through analysis into specific advice about running a company, the output

Two basic types of mfr conversion are analytic systems & synthetic systems

Analytic systems breaks raw materials into one or more distinct products, which may or may not resemble the original material in for & function

An example of an analytic system is meat packing

A synthetic systems combines two or more materials to form a single product

An example of a synthetic system is steel making

Scholars of mfr now view industry as transitioning through two industrial revolutions w/ the first beginning in the 1600s & the second beginning in the 1960s

The First Industrial Revolution is characterized by the mechanization, standardization, the assembly line, automation, mass production, & powering all of these processes by non human, non animal sources of power

Mechanization is the use of machines to do work previously done by people

Standardization is the establishment of uniformity in goods or parts, making them interchangeable

The assembly line is a process where a series of work stations at which each worker performs a specific task in the production process

Automation is the process of performing a mechanical operation w/ the absolute minimum of human intervention

Mass production is the mfr of uniform products in great quantities

The Second Industrial Revolution occurred because recent advances in production tech & processes are dramatically increasing efficiency & the flexibility of the structure & process of mfr in process design, materials mgt, quality assurance & improved human relations, & operations effectiveness

The advances in production tech from the Second Industrial Revolution include computer aided design, computer aided mfr, & computer integrated mfr. flexible mfr, & focused mfr

Computer aided design (CAD) is the use of computer graphics in the development of products or processes

Computer aided engineering is the use of computers for engineering & drafting

Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computers to control production machines

Computer integrated manufacturing uses computer based systems that coordinate & control all the elements of design & production, including CAD & CAM

Flexible manufacturing replaces hard manufacturing & repetitive manufacturing

Hard manufacturing is the use of specialized production equipment that cannot readily be moved or changed, because of high set-up costs, to produce a new or different product

Repetitive manufacturing is the repeated, steady production of identical goods or services

Flexible manufacturing, aka Soft Mfr, is production using computer controlled machines that can adapt to various versions of the same operation

The focused factory is a mfr facility that deals w/ only one narrow set of products

Mfr requires a wide variety of occupations & services

Mfr workers are broadly classified as craft workers, who are highly skilled, machine operators, assemblers who are considered to be semiskilled, & laborers, who are considered to be unskilled

There are four major mfr industries including autos, steel, textiles, & chemicals

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Outline on Assembly Jobs

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IN THE POST INDL ERA, ASSEMBLY JOBS ARE MOVING FROM CORE NATIONS TO SEMI PERIPHERAL & PERIPHERAL NATIONS

Assembly is the labor process w/in the mfr process wherein components that have been manufactured are put together into the final product

While mfr jobs often require high levels of training & expertise as well as a college education, assembly jobs do not & thus are often dull, repetitive, poorly paying, & hazardous

In many types of assembly, such as electronics, components & even the final products are relatively small & thus easily exported by jet

Because the components & final products of assembly are small, they are easily subject to globalized mfr, i.e. are easy to export/import by jet, or even ship

Because of the globalization of assembly mfr, No Am, Euro, & Jap wkrs are placed in direct competition w/ lower paid wkrs around the world

Wking conditions in electronics are not as bad as those in the 3rd World, but the availability of cheap labor places downward pressure on the wages & conditions of electronic assembly wkrs in the indlly advanced nations

THIRD WORLD ASSEMBLY JOBS ARE USUALLY WELCOMED BY SEMI PERIPHERAL & PERIPHERAL NATIONS DESPITE LABOR & ENVL EXPLOITATION

In the 2nd & 3rd Worlds there are large pools of labor willing to wk for what is a sub minimum wage in No Am, Euro, & Jap

In electronics, over 200 K Asian wkrs wk in semi conductor plants along the eastern rim of Asia

More than 90% of the wkrs in assembly jobs along the Asian rim are young women

The mfr's prefer to hire young women because they can pay them poverty level wages, even for 3rd World nations, because:

- young women don't have families to support

- if the young women are contributing to their family of origin, it is interpreted by the patriarch as supplemental income

- mfr's don't have to pay maternity or women's health benefits because they are expected to drop out of the labor force to get married at 25 or so

The fact that young women around the world are often paid poverty level wages, have no maternity or health benefits, & are considered disposable wkrs has lead social scientists to label this wkplace relationship as the feminization of poverty

Young women in assembly often work 8 or more hrs a day, 6 days a week, w/ just one 45 min break

Assembly wkrs around the world experience dangerously poor wking conditions, though conditions are noticeably better in 1st world nations

In electronics assembly the young female wkrs experience chronic conjunctivitis, eye inflammation, caused by toxic gases & dust in the factories

ROBOTICS ARE REDUCING THE DEMAND FOR ASSEMBLY WKRS BUT THOSE THAT REMAIN REQUIRE INCREASED SKILLS RELATED TO COMPUTERS, ENGINEERING, ETC.

All assembly production is being affected by automation w/ the ultimate of automation be robotics

Robots are replacing wkrs ending their exposure to endlessly repetitive or dangerous tasks

The term robot is derived from the Czech word robota, meaning "servitude, drudgery, or work"

There have been 5 generations of robots on a scale of increasing complexity, including:
a. compressed air control which was utilized heavily in Euro in the 1980s
b. drum can control
c. pin control
d. numeric control
e. microprocessor control

Micro computer control robots are flexible enough that their cost can now be justified across a potentially wide range of production operations

The intro of fully automated systems can create problems for wkrs

If there is a malfunction of the robot, the system is designed so that the mechanical arm can be pulled off the line & a human wkrs is 'inserted' in its place

The human is then doing the job designed & paced for a robot while the robot is being repaired (Shaiken, 1984)

Many human - robot systems restrict freedom of movement & regiments the pace of work to a greater extent than even the more arduous of today's assembly lines

Most wkrs have an ambivalent, though generally positive attitude toward robots

87% of wkrs interviewed before the intro of robots believed they would make their firm more competitive, but 50% believed that the robots would displace wkrs

After the intro of robots attitudes toward wkrs were less positive than before the intro of robots in that they believed: robots had
a. increased costs
b. increased accidents
c. lowered the quality of the product
d. not increased productivity

(Argote, 1999)

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Outline on Machine Work

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NATURE OF THE WORK

Machinists use machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, and machining centers, to produce precision metal parts

Although they may produce large quantities of one part, precision machinists often produce small batches or one of a kind items

They use their knowledge of the working properties of metals and their skill with machine tools to plan and carry out the operations needed to make machined products that meet precise specifications

Machine wk is particularly important to the mod indl econ because in many ways machines & machine work are the foundation of the econ because they are the machines that make the machines

Machine wk makes the machines in that they make the tools & dies that are used to make fundamental components of other machines from rivets, nuts, and bolts to the small pieces that make up other machines such as arms & other pieces that essentially must be carved out of metal

The work of skilled craft wkrs, such as machinists, is also being affected by computer tech

Skilled machinists make the tools, patterns, molds, & machine parts that make modern industrial production possible

Today, machine jobs are being transformed by the introduction of numeric control (NC) & computer aided numeric control (CNC)

Under NC & CNC systems, the metal working lathes, drills, & cutting tools operate automatically & the machinist is left w/ the residual job of feeding & unloading the machine while the computer controls the cutting tools, their speed, & their depths

Because the tech of machining is changing rapidly, machinists must learn to operate a wide range of machines

Along w/ operating machines that use metal cutting tools to shape work pieces, machinists operate machines that cut with lasers, water jets, or electrified wires

While some of the computer controls may be similar, machinists must understand the unique cutting properties of these different machines

As engineers create new types of machine tools & new materials to machine, machinists must constantly learn new machining properties and techniques

In NC & CNC production systems the right to program the control device becomes a central issue

The controversy over control in machine wk is whether machinists should learn programming & control machine wk, or whether programmers should learn machine wk & control machine wk

Shaiken, 1977, found that the best programmers are machinists because the programming software is "user friendly" & not hard to learn, & the machinists' skills; however, are very complex, requiring a long training period & much experience to master

TRAINING

Machinists learn in apprenticeship programs, informally on the job, & in vocational schools or community or tech colleges

Many entrants previously have worked as machine setters, operators, or tenders

Persons interested in becoming machinists should be mechanically inclined, have good problem solving abilities, be able to work independently, & be able to do highly accurate work (tolerances may reach 1 / 10,000 th of an inch) that requires concentration & physical effort

High school or vocational school courses in math (especially trigonometry), blueprint reading, metalworking, & drafting are highly recommended.

Apprenticeship programs consist of shop training & related classroom instruction lasting up to 4 yrs

In shop training, apprentices work almost full time, and are supervised by an experienced machinist while learning to operate various machine tools.

To boost the skill level of machinists & to create a more uniform standard of competency, a number of training facilities & colleges are implementing curriculums that incorporate national skills standards developed by the National Institute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS)

EMPLOYMENT

Machinists held about 370,000 jobs in 2004

Most machinists work in small machining shops or in manufacturing industries, such as machinery mfr & transportation equip mfr, esp in motor vehicle parts & aerospace products & parts

Maintenance machinists work in most industries that use production machinery

Median hourly earnings of machinists were $16.33 in May 2004 which is about $34 k per yr w/o overtime

The middle 50 % of machinists earned btwn $12.84 & $20.33. The lowest 10 % earned less than $10.08, while the top 10 % earned more than $24.34 thus ranging from $20 k to $49 k per yr

Median hourly earnings in the manufacturing industries employing the largest number of machinists in May 2004 were:
Aerospace product & parts mfr   $ 17.78
Motor vehicle parts mfr               $ 17.46
Metalworking machinery mfr       $ 17.06
Machine shops; turned product; % screw, nut, & bolt mfr   $ 15.87
Employment services                  $ 11.09

Apprentices earn much less than machinists, but earnings increase quickly as they improve their skills & most employers pay for apprentices’ training classes

MACHINISTS UNION

Many machinists are represented by the International Assoc of Machinists ( IAM )

Go IAM website: http://www.goiam.org/

Link

Some of the goals of the IAM include:

- establishing cost of living raises so that wages rates rise w/ living costs

- increase members' purchasing power to provide a higher standard of living

- establishing joint apprentice training and retraining on the job

Important issues for the IAM include lobbying for:

- an econ policy which fights stagnant wages, soaring health care costs, disappearing pensions, rising fuel prices, etc.

- fair trade to help devastated families as solid, good paying jobs are sent overseas

- policies that protect the indl base of Am in its ability to build a strong military

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Outline on Skilled Maintenance Work

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Skilled maintenance work has always been one of the best paid & highest status blue collar jobs

Skilled mtn wk is hi paid & hi status because of the interdependency of mechanized systems; if one part of the system goes down, it may effect an entire plant

It is the responsibility of skilled mtn wkrs to minimized downtime for a system

Often factories have a clock that starts running the second the system goes down, emphasizing to the wkrs the 10s or 100s of thousands of $$ that may be lost each minute the line is stopped

Thus hi tech has influenced the wk of those who maintain & repair machines & because of the rapid pace of techl change, mtn wkrs will no longer be able to specialize in one narrow craft or type of application

Cross noted back in 1985 that "The single disciplined craftsman has no foreseeable future in most front line maintenance situations"

The trend for skilled mtn wk is toward the multirole, multidisciplinary craft wkr who is simultaneously machinist, electrician, & computer programmer

Duties of a typical skilled mtn wkr might include:

- the repair, maintenance, & fixing breakdowns on all plant machinery

- working on packaging machinery, conveyors, flow wrappers, ac/dc, single phase, three phase, pneumatics & hydraulics

Typical skills of a skilled mtn wkr might include:
- apprenticed, electrical qualifications
- background in manufacturing
- knowledge of computer systems
- able to perform in team environment

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Outline on Clerical Work

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Some of the most dramatic effects of hi tech are felt in clerical wk because nearly every aspect of the job is touched by tech

The basic task of handling info is the task for which computers are most suited

The intro of word processing is estimated to reduce the cost of producing a letter by a secretary from $7 to $2

In the 1st stage of office automation individual workstations are automated through the intro of PCs

The intro of office PCs increases individual productivity

In the 2nd stage of office automation, individual workstations are eliminated, & the entire info & accting systems becomes fully automated

With the automation of info & accting systems, jobs become more highly skilled, but they are mostly programming & machine maintenance rather than clerical

Because the automation of info & accting systems jobs are mostly programming & machine maintenance, there is expected to be even a more dramatic loss of clerical jobs in the future

Capital outlay per wkr will increase w/ the automated office

Office wk has traditionally been undercapitalized, but in the automated office investment rises fivefold

Office automation intensifies the pace of clerical wk & may increase alienation among wkrs

Like much automation, office automation allows for precise tracking of the wk done, which is known to increase stress on wkrs

An example of stress on office wkrs can be seen at Citibank where check sorters are paid for each check they sort, which averages about 900 checks per hour (one every 4 seconds), w/ a high of one check per 1.8 seconds

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Outline on Middle Management

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MID LEVEL MGRS OPERATE AT A RANGE OF LEVELS BELOW UP MGT & PERFORM VERY VARIED TASKS

Traditionally the job of middle mgrs has been to search out, compile, & digest production & mking info & then pass this info on to top mgt

If there are no supervisors in the org, then mid mgt's task is also to supervise lower level wkrs

Mid mgt includes mgrs below the rank of vice president but above the supervisors

Some orgs include 2 or 3 mid mgt levels

Whether labeled by geographic region or grp function (such as mkting or production), mid mgrs implement top mgt's objectives & policies

The subordinates of mid mgt are other mgrs

Typically, planning & sales mgrs are mid mgrs

MID MGT'S ROLE IS BEING SUPPLEMENTED & SUPPLANTED BY TECHNOLOGY

Mid mgt is also being affect by tech in that both info processing & surveillance & other forms of supervision can be automated

Where computerized accting systems are used, mid mgrs may face displacement & more pressured wking conditions because they are in direct competition w/ the more cost effective systems

Mgt info systems (MISs) allow closer monitoring, not only of wkrs, but also of middle mgrs, thus eroding important aspects of their traditional power & autonomy

There is increasing resistance to automated production systems among some md mgrs, a grp normally identified w/ willing compliance to orgl goals

THE ROLES OF MID MGT ARE TO OVERSEE IMPLEMENTATION, SECURE PROFITABILITY, ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION, OVERSEE SUPERVISORS, MONITOR OUTCOMES, & ADMIN

Mid mgrs develop strats to implement top mgt's broad concepts

The mid mgrs decide how to attain a desired profit level; whether to pursue new products, customers, or territories; & whether to lower prices to increase mkt share

Organizing production at this level means fine tuning the structure & allocation the resources acquired by top mgt

Mid mgt typically directs other mid & supervisory mgrs by providing leadership & support for lower level mgt

Mid mgt typically directs other mid & supervisory mgrs through controls consisting of the monitoring of results of plans for specific products, regions, & sub units & refining ops to ensure attainment of objectives

Mid mgt typically performs admin by overseeing staffing, which focuses on:
- implementing equal opportunity policies
- implementing wkr development programs
- negotiating labor contracts
- selecting health care systems

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Outline on Technical Workers

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While tech is impacting existing occupations, new tech is creating entirely new occupations & greatly expanding others

The new tech oriented occupations include computer programmers, health techs, engineering techs, & science techs

Most of these new occupations require at least a 2 yr college ed

New techl occupations are some of the fastest growing profl & semi profl occupations

Chem & biological techs wk in labs evaluating med & scientific specimens for the rapidly growing med & biotechnical industries

Some tech wkrs provide tech support functions to more traditional professions that have experienced rapid techl transformations

Nurse anesthetist, radiologists, dental hygienists, & biological & chem lab techs are some of the rapidly growing tech support occupations

DEMAND FOR TECH WKRS

Demand continues to grow for skilled information technology (IT) professionals

Demand grows for technology wkrs because their products & services, & the wkrs who provide them, are found throughout the econ

The largest group of tech wkrs are employed in computer services firms, but large fractions also work in mfr, financial industries, govt, and retail & wholesale trade

High turnover, as well as growing demand, contributes to employers’ ongoing scramble to fill tech vacancies

It is increasingly clear that tech wkrs play a significant role in increasing productivity & sustaining econ growth

Some observers argue that the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projection that the number of jobs for computer systems analysts & computer engineers & scientists would double between 1998 & 2008 is too low

According to BLS projections, computer programming jobs will grow at a more moderate pace, increasing by about 29 % over the same 10 yr period.

Those projections suggest tech jobs will grow slightly more than 7 % per year over the decade, far more quickly than the 1.4 & average across all jobs

Moreover, the ratio of annual job openings due to growth & net replacement needs is about twice that for all occupations

The number of new domestic entrants to the occupation, an appropriate measure of minimum training requirements, is low relative to the rapidly growing number of available job openings

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Outline on Telecommuting

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Telecommuting is the workplace relationship where wkrs do info processing & other work at home on a personal computer or remote terminal

Telecommuting, e-commuting, e-work, telework, or wking from home (WFH) is a wk arrangement in which wkrs enjoy limited flexibility in wking location & hours

W/ telecommuting, the daily commute to a central place of wk is replaced by telecommunication links

Telework is a broader term, referring to substituting telecommunications for any form of wk related travel, thereby eliminating the distance restrictions of telecommuting

All telecommuters are teleworkers but not all teleworkers are telecommuters

A frequently repeated motto of teleworkers is that "work is something you do, not something you travel to"

A successful telecommuting program requires a mgt style which is based on results & not on close scrutiny of individual wkrs

Mging telewkrs based on results, & not surveillance, is referred to as 'managing by objective' (MBO) as opposed to 'managing by observation'.

The terms 'telecommuting' & 'telework' were coined by American Jack Nilles in 1973

Long distance telework is facilitated by such tools as virtual private networks, videoconferencing, & Voice over IP

Telework can be efficient & useful for companies as it allows staff & wkrs to communicate over a large distance, saving significant amounts of travel time & cost

As broadband internet connections become more commonplace, more & more wkrs have enough bandwidth at home to use these tools to link their home office to their corporate intranet & internal phone networks

Because of the falling costs of personal computers, it has become economically feasible for wkrs to do more info processing wk away from the office

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The Table on Telecommuting Statistics shows that telecommuting of all types is increasing dramatically, growing over 7 times in a decade

The US Dept of Transportation (DOT) estimates of the future level & impacts of telecommuting are highly uncertain

Telecommuting has the potential to provide significant transportation related public benefits

The actual amount & impact of telecommuting in any particular region will depend strongly on the local transportation env & travel demand measures

The congestion and air quality improvements potentially attainable through telecommuting could be substantially diminished if telecommuters removed from the highways are replaced by the emergence of latent travel demand

Direct energy, air quality, safety, and time benefits of telecommuting will be increased as the degree of congestion is reduced

Telecommuting could stimulate urban sprawl and have other adverse impacts on land use and public transportation

Factors which will impact the rate of growth of telecommuting include uncertainty of benefits for employers and the considerable time and effort inherently required to bring about major changes in workstyles and ways of doing business

Telecommunication services and equipment are adequate for most current telecommuting, but high bandwidth capabilities will be needed in the future and would be beneficial now

Government agencies can play a significant role in facilitating and encouraging telecommuting

Telecommuting can be an effective tool for travel demand management, but cannot be mandated

Continuing research is needed to clarify telecommuting costs, benefits, and future impacts

NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF TELECOMMUTING

The negative consequences of telework include:

- reduced personal contact w/ co wkrs & clients

- exclusion from informal sources of feedback that may be essential for doing a job correctly & efficiently

- isolation & diminished visibility reduce opportunities for making contacts essential for promotion & upward mobility

- conflicts btwn home work & caring for the home increase

Blue Cross Blue Shield pays home teleworkers a piece rate, no vacation, health or other benefits, charges them for equip rental, expects them to process 200 claims a day, netting them about $100 / wk (1984)

The difficulties of caring for children are compounded by working at home

For clerical wkrs who telecommute, working at home becomes characteristic of 'women's work' in the new female ghetto exacerbating the feminization of poverty

Because telewkrs are isolated, it is more difficult for them to see the commonality of their situation w/ other wkrs

Because of the isolation of telewkrs, it is more difficult for wkrs to organize to improve wages, benefits, & wking conditions, thus under current conditions it appears that telewkrs are more easily exploited

BENEFITS OF TELECOMMUTING

The positive consequences of telework include:

- increased flexibility of wking hrs & reduced commuting time

Prof & other wkrs do portions of their wk at home during the evenings or on weekends

- the ability for disabled wkrs to more easily participate in the wkforce

- telewk actually saves employees time by avoiding a commute, which is on average 40 min / wkr, & may be as long as several hrs

- telemeetings can save wkrs & the firms they wk for weeks or even months worth of travel / yr

OFF SHORE TELECOMMUTING

Off shore telecommuting is an ominous trend for the No Am, Euro, & Jap labor force because jobs can more easily be moved to cheap, foreign labor mkts via telecommuting than by the traditional method of factory location

The off shore telecommuters now include keypunching, subscriptions, airline & hotel reservations, surveys, preparing manuscripts for typesetting, catalogue/phone shopping orders, phone advice on computers & other appliances, & much more

Data can be electronically transmitted btwn nations even more easily than assembly parts

LABOR RESPONSE

Because of the threats to the jobs & wking conditions of the wkforce as a result of off shore telecommuting & off shoring in general, the AFL CIO has made the recommendation that:

- telewkrs should be organized

- pay & benefits should be equivalent to office wkrs doing comparable wk

- telewkrs should be considered part of a firm's wkforce in that if the 'at wk' wkforce is unionized, then the telewkrs should be considered part of that unionized wkforce

- there should be restrictions on the import of clerical wk & data processing wk done overseas for domestic firms

- off shore wkrs should be paid comparably & have similar wking conditions & benefits to on shore wkrs, adjusting for the differential in the cost of living

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Table on Telecommuting Statistics

Year -->

1992

1997

2002

Number of Telecommuters (in millions)

2.0

3.1 - 6.2

7.5 - 15.0

Percent of Labor Force

1.6 %

2.3 - 4.6 %

5.2 % - 10.4 %

Percent of Telecommuters Working at Home

99 %

74.3 %

49.7 %

Percent of Telecommuters Working at Telework Centers

1.0 %

25.7 %

50.3 %

Average Days per Week

1 - 2

2 - 3

3 - 4

The Table on Telecommuting Statistics shows that telecommuting of all types is increasing dramatically, growing over 7 times in a decade

US DOT

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Outline on Globalization

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- Project: Globalization & the Standardization of Culture

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GLOBALIZATION IS THE INTERCONNECTEDNESS OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD THROUGH ECONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL, POLITICAL, CULTURAL, ETC. CONVERGENCE ( CHANGE )

Globalization is a trend whereby production, competition, & economic exchange increasingly occur on a worldwide scale

Given the impact of globalization, there is almost no remote place on Earth

The effects of globalization include the growth of multinational corps., an increase in international trade, the creation & mystification of global content, the internationalization of capital markets, the creation of nascent world govt. & global regulatory agencies, the homogenization of culture, creating a global western culture, and the polarization of culture, creating a clash of cultures aka, cultural wars