Rev: WO 3 Meaningful Work & Job Satisfaction

Outline on the FOUR Factors & their sub factors which determine Job Satisfaction
1. Job tasks
2. Characteristics of organization
3. Individual differences
4. Individual expectations

Satisfaction means gratification, pleasure, contentment

Alienation as defined by Marx, is the separation or isolation of workers from the products of their labor

A contemporary definition is that alienation is the feelings or the experience of emotional distance, isolation, powerlessness, & loss of control

Most Americans are satisfied on the job

75 % of workers report "I am satisfied" or more and 40 % of workers would continue in their same line of work

Workers usually don't have a choice as to whether to change jobs, and their current position is "acceptable," therefore they register as being satisfied

Intrinsic satisfaction includes the rewards realized on the job such as freedom, co-workers

Extrinsic satisfaction includes the rewards realized off the job such as pay, benefits, & security

Workers now seem to desire both intrinsic & extrinsic satisfaction on the job

1. Job tasks

Job tasks, which are determined by the organization & structure of the economy, are one of the major factors that determine job satisfaction

1.1 Technology on the job impacts job satisfaction

Technology does not dictate the organization of work

Technology has been able to "clean-up" some jobs, but it has polluted others

Many managers & social scientists wrongly believe that technology dictates the organization of work

And it is true that once investments have been made, technology does dictate an organization of work, but technology can be designed & installed to increase or decrease worker control, satisfaction, etc.

Many social theorists believe that technology could bring an end to alienated labor

Technology can deskill or increase the skill required, routinize, or provide variety on the job

In Alienation and Freedom, 1964, Robert Blauner linked four dimensions of subjective alienation, i.e., powerlessness, meaninglessness, isolation, & self estrangement, to different types of work found in modern industry & claimed that production techniques were the major determinant of alienation

Blauner thought automation would increase job satisfaction & so abolish alienation

Link

The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

1.2 Organization of the industry impacts job satisfaction

Many qualities, such as the organization of the industry, are beyond the control of any firm or even any industry such as autos, computers, medicine, etc.

However, all factors of organization & technology are not beyond the control of any firm or the industry & thus most firms have wide latitude to shape such factors to increase worker satisfaction

There are SIX factors of the organization of the industry / economy that affect job satisfaction, including

i. the stage of development of the industry; i.e., is the industry new, in the growth stage, old, or in decline

ii. the state of the competition; i.e., low competition yielding big profits, or high competition yielding low profits

The range of competition may run from pure competition to high concentration to oligopoly to monopoly

iii. the technology used

iv. the level of innovation

v. the type of labor; i.e. skilled. unskilled, professional, technical, etc.

vi. others

1.3 The production of meaningful products impacts job satisfaction because there is an intrinsic reward in producing something of value

a. Mass production & self production

Is there similar satisfaction in producing for mass production ( work ) or for yourself (hobby / play / "work")?

Jolly Green Giant green beans & your own garden beans?

b. Good & Bad Products

Is there any absolute difference between producing "good & bad" products?

- Essential products        ( food, homes, clothes, medicine )
- Medical products         ( medicine, medical care, medical technology )
- Helping products          ( education, social services, recreation )
- Destructive products    ( guns, military industrial complex )
- Exploitative products   ( porn movies, alcohol, tobacco )
- Frivolous products       ( fads [ pet rocks, lava lamps ] fashions )
- Luxurious products       ( diamonds, zillion $ anything: homes, stereos )

c. High & Low Paid Jobs: One's level of pay affects job satisfaction

Is there any absolute difference in high & low paid jobs?

Are low paid jobs inherently unsatisfying?

In low paid jobs, satisfaction is affected by pay in that for adults, i.e., neither teens nor seniors, a minimum "living wage" is usually necessary, but other factors are equally important such as autonomy, respect, challenge, advancement, etc.

- Fast food      &      medicine?
- Janitor          &      lawyer?
- Laborer        &      engineer?
- Blue collar    &     white collar?

2. Characteristics of organization ( autonomy, responsibility, etc. )

2.1 Self Direction

Job autonomy is the extent to which the worker controls their own work and relations w/ others on the job

Job complexity allows greater self direction, more of an intellectual challenge on the job

Diversity of job tasks allows more flexibility and variety on the job

One may consider self direction factors on a range of job organization from the assembly line to pod production to autonomous work; from data entry to clerical work

2.2 Belongingness

One aspect of belongingness is that workers prefer interaction, friendship, & compatriots on the job

Safety & health are common concerns on the job that relate to belongingness since people cannot feel that they belong unless they feel safe

Belongingness was determined by Maslow to be a fundamental human need, & belongingness may be realized at a rewarding workplace

2.3 Pay

Most workers felt their income was adequate for their necessities

21 % of workers felt their income was inadequate for their necessities

55 % of workers felt they had inadequate fringe benefits

Minimum wage of $5.15 times 40 hrs. times 50 weeks = $10,900

Minimum wage of $10 times 40 hrs. times 50 weeks = $20,000

Studies have shown that pay above the level of the middle income often results in less job & life satisfaction; i.e. those w/ lower incomes have less stress & a higher quality of life

2.4 Size

Workers prefer small organizations

500 workers & mgt is considered to be an optimal size or organization giving the economies of scale in the workplace & the need for human interaction

2.5 Promotions

There are always less promotions available than desired by the workers

Increased status & responsibility in low & middle range jobs makes promotions less necessary

Eliminating supervision & administration, & flattening the hierarchy also increases job satisfaction in lieu of promotions

2.6 Unions

Less than 15 % of US workers belong to unions

The higher wages won by unions pull up regional wages

The grievance system has created due process at nearly all workplaces, unionized or not

Unionization allow some worker influence in company policy development

In general, workers are more satisfied in a unionized workplace

Link

Table on the Types of Workplaces

The Table on the Types of Workplaces indicates that there are many types of organizational structures varying along a dimension running from authoritarian to democratic

	3. Individual Differences, & how they are treated, are a major factor affecting job satisfaction
	3.1 Gender relations on the job impact job satisfaction
	Men & women have about equal job satisfaction, but they have different expectations for that satisfaction
	Women compare themselves to other women on the job
	Occupation job segregation reinforces blind comparisons
	Women want complexity, interesting work, congenial co-workers
	Men want authority, advancement, freedom
	Sexual discrimination is treating people unequally based on their sex
	Sexual harassment is giving unwanted sexual favors, or demanding sexual favors
	Both sexual discrimination & sexual harassment are major sources of alienation for women in the workplace today
	3.2 Race relations on the job impact job satisfaction
	Race relations create the largest satisfaction gap of any known social factor
	Minorities, like women, are often stuck in lower level jobs
	Minorities are more vocal about their dissatisfaction than women
	While women largely compare themselves only to other women, Blacks, Hispanics, Whites, et al do compare themselves to other racial & ethnic groups on the job
	There is a widespread belief in equality on the job, though there are pockets of prejudice
	On the job discrimination & harassment both still exist & are major sources of alienation
	3.3 Stage of development / personality: A person's stage of development or personality has an impact on their job satisfaction
	Business leaders & social theorists firmly believe that one should match their job w/ their own needs
	3.4 Age has an impact on one's job satisfaction since jobs & where one is at on the career ladder are often stratified by age
	Younger workers have higher expectations & are less satisfied than older workers
	Older workers may become dissatisfied if they feel: - they have reached an unsatisfactory job - they have reached a dead end job - younger workers are passing them by - younger workers are being more highly rewarded
	Younger workers may become dissatisfied if they feel that the workplace is overstaffed w/ older workers who prevent them from moving up
	3.5 Tenure, or length of service, impacts job satisfaction
	New workers who believe in the importance of the work
	Experienced workers who have autonomy on the job are more likely to be satisfied
	3.6 Handicapped workers are likely to be satisfied if they believe they are achieving / contributing appropriately
	Many people need special equipment, or arrangements at work, such as a big computer screen, short walking distances, etc.
	4. Expectations, & how they are treated, are a major factor affecting job satisfaction
	4.1 Job commitment impacts job satisfaction
	Willingness to retain long term membership on the job indicates job satisfaction
	Workers today seem to have lower commitment
	Companies today also have lower commitment to workers
	4.2 On the job ideologies impact job satisfaction
	Working class ideology generally fosters solidarity against the more powerful
	In contrast to a solidarity oriented view of the working class, white collar & bureaucratic workers are more likely to have an instrumental orientation & an individualistic view
	A wide range of ideologies may impact job satisfaction ranging from conservative, to moderate, to liberal
	4.3 Expectations about any of the factors above impact job satisfaction
	Expectations are one of greatest factors affecting job satisfaction
	Expectations are affected by one's social biography including one's unique socialization to culture & social structure
	Culture: KBVN
	Social Structure: 1. peers 2. family 3. religion 4. econ 5. govt 6. mil 7. charity 8. ed 9. media 10. leisure
	Culture & social structure interact on & off the job to construct relations & expectations on class, gender, race, education, etc.
	4.4 Generational expectations on the job impacts job satisfaction
	Generational expectations are one of greatest factors in job satisfaction
	Generational expectations are affected by one's social biography including one's unique socialization to culture & social structure, which are relatively unique to each generation
	Compare your generations work ethic & expectations of rewards to another, such as Gen X Baby Boomers WW2 Generation Depression Era Generation
	Behavioral responses to work vary widely
	The range of behavioral responses run from those who love work & will do anything for it to those who hate work & will do anything to avoid it
	Enthusiasm may be measured by one's willingness to work w/o pay, do lousy work, etc.
	Enthusiasm may be a quality of self actualizing work
	Passive resistance is often manifested by restricted output
	Passive resisters often focus on nonproductive aspects of work such as the interactions w/ peers
	Passive resisters often live destructive lives on & off the job
	Most of us live somewhere in btwn enthusiasts & passive resisters, and as Thoreau said, 'lives of quiet desperation'
	Turnover is an excellent measure of job satisfaction
	In the US, 15 % of workforce changes jobs each year
	The level of resistance & sabotage is an excellent measure of job satisfaction
	Resistance & sabotage allow workers to vent frustration
	Work slow downs allow workers to vent frustration
	Theft
	Theft is expected at some jobs & allows workers to vent frustration, & to receive greater rewards
	Job satisfaction & socialism
	Early after the USSR Revolution in 1917, the Soviet Union had high job satisfaction
	Stalinism destroyed this the job satisfaction of the workers
	Alienation did not end in USSR, or other communist countries
	Work had greater equality, but used western organizing principles
	Job Satisfaction can increase w/ informed policies & structures at work

Top

Outline on the FOUR Factors which determine Job Satisfaction & their sub factors
Satisfaction & Alienation are determined by
    1. Job tasks (determined by organization & structure of the economy)
    2. Characteristics of organization (autonomy, responsibility, etc.)
    3. Individual differences
    4. Individual expectations

   1. Job tasks (determined by organization & structure of the economy)
        1.1 Technology on the job
        1.2 Organization of the industry
        1.3 Meaningful products
   2. Characteristics of organization (autonomy, responsibility, etc.)
        2.1 Self direction
        2.2 Belongingness
        2.3 Pay
        2.4 Size
        2.5 Promotions
        2.6 Unions
        2.7 Types of workplaces
   3. Individual differences
        3.1 Gender
        3.2 Race
        3.3 Stage of development / personality
        3.4 Age
        3.5 Tenure
   4. Individual expectations
        4.1 Commitment
        4.2 Ideology
        4.3 Expectations about any of the factors above
        4.3 Gen expectations

Top

The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U-Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

                     | Machine                  *         Assembly
                     | Tending              *        *     Line
                     |                        *                *
                     |                  *                            *
                     |               *                                    *
Level of        | Craft   *                                          *       Continuous
Alienation     |         *                                                  *    Process
                     |     *                                                           *
                     | *                                                                    *
                     |*________________________________________*_
                      Printing      Textiles         Autos        Chemicals

Top

Table on the Types of Workplaces

Sole proprietorship	owner, admin / mgr., workers
Partnership	partners, non partners, workers
Corporation	major stockholders, minor stockholders, up mgt., mid mgt., workers
ESOPs	equal stockholders, up mgt., mid mgt., (all workers)
Cooperatives	coop members, non-members
Democratic Org's	workers / voters, mgrs. / candidates
The Table on the Types of Workplaces indicates that there are many types of organizational structures varying along a dimension running from authoritarian to democratic

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Definition of Alienation & Anomie

External
Links

ALIENATION IS THE RESULT OF BEING SEPARATED FROM THE PREDOMINANT CULTURE

Many theorist have contemplated the meaning of alienation

Hegel 1770 - 1831

Feuerbach 1804 - 1872

Marx 1818 - 1883

Blauner contemporary

Alienation is a state of being, a relationship ( mental & physical manifestations ) characterized by the separation or isolation from existing culture ( knowledge, beliefs, values, norms held in common ) caused by an estrangement from idealistic and/ or materialistic factors

While both Hegel & Feuerbach discussed the nature of alienation, Marx built upon these to develop his own dialectical- material view of alienation

Alienation, as defined by Marx, is the separation or isolation of workers from the products of their labor Contemporary definition: feelings or the experience of emotional distance, isolation, powerlessness, loss of control

ANOMIE IS THE RESULT OF A WEAKENED OR ABSENTCULTURE / MORALITY

For Durkheim, anomie is weakened or absent common morality; a condition of normlessness in society

Durkheim developed his concept of anomie to explain the condition in modern society where the old culture or common morality, break down, but have not yet been replaced by its modern form, in the form of organic solidarity as manifested in a societal div of labor

Anomie is a state of being, a relationship, with mental & physical manifestations, characterized by the lack of a controlling culture ( knowledge, beliefs, values, norms held in common ) caused by the destruction, ineffectiveness or rejection of culture

Anomie is the lack or weakness of the usual social or ethical standards in an individual or group

Link

Examples of alienation include: 'I am alienated if there is a strong culture, but I cannot become part of that culture' or 'I am anomic if culture has basically disintegrated or is ineffective'

Durkheim, taking the term from the Greek anomia which means lawlessness, argued that anomie could result from rapid social change

FOR MERTON, ALIENATION IS THE RESULT OF NOT BEING ABLE TO ACHIEVE THE NORMAL LIFE GOALS OF A SOCIETY

Some US sociologists, in particular Robert K. Merton (1910- ), have maintained that anomie can lead to deviance

For Merton, when an individual or group is prevented from achieving widely accepted goals, law-breaking may result

Both alienation & anomie exhibit any number of psychological & political manifestations
- depression                                  - thievery
- anger                                          - violence
- revolutionary political ideals    - deviance

While the concept anomie is similar to Marx's concept of alienation, there are significant differences btwn the two including the fact that anomie is a condition of a lack of, or a vacuum of common culture, while alienation is a condition where a person or group is separated from an existing common culture

For Hegel, alienation was only a phenomenon of mind caused by an estrangement from the dominating ideas of the time

FOR MARX, ALIENATION IS A COMMON CONDITION IN CAPITALIST SOCIETIES BECAUSE PEOPLE, RATHER THAN BEING ABLE TO MANIFEST THEIR CREATIVITY THROUGH WORK AS THEY SHOULD, ARE EXPLOITED AT WORK

For Marx, alienation is a condition in which a person's own powers appear to be controlled by independent forces or entities [ Marx & his contemporaries were called the young, or left Hegelians ]

Marx believed that people find their humanity through labor, not religion, not sex, not anything else

Marx believed that the failure to realize our human nature results in alienation

We are what we do

Our labor becomes objectified in our products

Craftsperson, or the primitive hunter gatherer produces, controls the products & either consumes it, or sells it themselves

See Also: Habermas

Regardless of whether one agrees w/ Marx, Mills, or Habermas, it is clear today that the nature of one's job can result in job satisfaction or job alienation, and these experiences always impact other spheres of life such as the family, recreation, etc.

The outcomes of alienation at work include the segmentation of life in which we work to earn money; after work we try to establish & preserve our humanity

“Each day men and women sell little pieces of themselves in order to try to buy them back each night and weekend with the coin of ‘fun.’”

C. Wright Mills

Studs Terkel, in Working ( 1972 ) and in other publications ethnographically catalogues many experiences of alienation at work

Le Masters in Blue Collar Aristocrats ( 1975 ) shows that skilled, blue collar workers who work under condition like those of independent artisans are more satisfied & have higher positive feelings & identity

But the skilled, blue collar jobs Le Masters describes in Blue Collar Aristocrats are the exception and are difficult to find

There is a positive relationship between alienation & position in the stratification system as seen in the fact that higher positions have less alienation because they offer more control, freedom, expression

Jencks et al, 1972, show that job satisfaction is positively related to occupational status, income, education & occupational category

Kalleberg & Griffin demonstrate that
a. occupational skill level shows a weak relation w/ job fulfillment
b. ownership shows a strong relation w/ job fulfillment
c. authority shows a strong relation w/ job fulfillment

Kohn found that occupational self direction was most strongly correlated to alienation as seen in the fact that employers, managers and workers are in a hierarchy of fulfillment

Japanese workers generally are less alienated than American workers because Japanese management techniques are designed to give workers more control

But there are many exceptions to greater Japanese wkplace control & lower alienation & mgt style can reduce alienation to some degree, but it is only one of many factors

Workers in Japanese corporations in America are less likely to vote for unions in part because of their satisfaction, but also because Japanese firms are known to be very anti union

The effects of alienation or satisfaction at work carries into other aspects of life including
a. family relations
b. overall self esteem
c. mental health
d. one's general outlook on life

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on an Intro to Abraham Maslow 1908 - 1970

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

Maslow is considered "Father of Humanistic Psychology"

Humanistic Psychology developed as an alternative to behaviorism & psychoanalytical psychology

Maslow stressed the necessity of studying well-adjusted people instead of only disturbed ones

Maslow believed people are controlled by their own values & choices, & neither by the environment nor by unconscious drives

Maslow holds that we have EIGHT Needs which are satisfied as we develop through Stages which pose opportunities & obstacles to satisfy them

The EIGHT Maslovian needs include
a. Physiological Needs
b. Safety Needs
c. Belongingness & Love Needs
d. Esteem Needs
e. Need to Know & Understand
f. Aesthetic Needs
g. Self-Actualization
h. Transcendence

Link

Chart on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

The Chart on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs demonstrates, as Freud believed, that the lower needs are the foundation upon which other needs are fulfilled, but unlike Freud, higher needs are primarily social in nature

Psychologists debate over whether each stage in the Hierarchy must be absolutely fulfilled before the next stage of development can occur, or whether a person can skip one stage, or accomplish them in another order

Job Satisfaction was originally linked only to the Physiological Needs such as the need to provide income, but after the Hawthorne Studies & the development of the Human Relations School of workplace studies, researchers recognized that workers respond to the higher, social needs

Today, many needs related to the workplace, the family, etc. are directly related to the Maslovian Hierarchy

Though it is not clear whether Maslow ever read Marx, the parallels btwn their works are significant

Maslow's Need of Self-Actualization is similar to Marx's conception of the fundamental human need to create in that we cannot be wholly human unless we realize ourselves through a creative life-project

Maslow believes that if the development of our needs is blocked, we cannot become fully human

Marx believes that if we cannot realize our species-being, we cannot become fully human

Top

Abraham Harold Maslow
1908 - 1970
b. NYC

Top

Major Works of Maslow
Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.
Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.
Maslow, A. (1962) Toward a Psychology of Being.

Top

Chart on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Douglas McGregor

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

Summary
Theory X
     1. workers dislike work
     2. workers will avoid work
     3. workers need to be forced/coerced to work
Theory Z
     1. workers like work
     2. workers seek/need work
     3. workers are inherently rewarded by work

McGregor advocated that orgs go 'Out w/ the old Human Relations School & in w/ the new Human Relations School'

McGregor held that most orgs functioned according to Human Relations developed prior to industrialization & orgs today needed a new set of Human Relations

McGregor called the old school of Human Relations Theory X

A Principle of Theory X is that:

- the individual dislikes work and seek to avoid it

- because individuals dislike work, they must be forced into work

- the average person prefers to be directed, avoid responsibility & has no ambition

- the average person wants security above all

McGregor called the new school of Human Relations Theory Y

A Principle of Theory Y is that:

- people do not dislike work

- work is as natural [as needed] as is play or rest

- control is not the only method to achieve org goals

- the best rewards are those which assist person in personal development

For McGregor, while it may have been true that Theory X worked well in its historical period, today Theory Y is a necessity for increasing job satisfaction

Top

McGregor
19 - 19

Top

Major Works of McGregor

Much of the thinking in the human relations school is contained in The Human Side of Enterprise, Douglas McGregor, 1960.

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Friderich Herzberg

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

- Project: Maintainers & Motivators

Link

For Herzberg, job satisfaction is a function of TWO factors which he calls hygiene or maintenance factors, & motivators

Herzberg noted that the causes of job satisfaction were different than the causes of job dissatisfaction

In 1959 Herzberg proposed the two factor theory of human motivation in the workplace which holds that people are influenced by two factors:

a. Satisfaction and psychological growth are a result of motivation factors.

b. Dissatisfaction is a result of a lack of hygiene factors

Hygiene factors, aka maintenance factors, aka dissatisfiers, are those factors that function to preserve satisfaction, but will not create satisfaction unless motivators are present, and whose absence causes dissatisfaction

Maintenance factors include salary, job security, working conditions, the quality of interpersonal relations, company policies, the quality of supervision, and status

Motivators are the primary cause of satisfaction

Motivators are the factors intrinsic to a job relating directly to the nature of the work done

Motivators are different for different people

Motivators include achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, the possibility of growth, & the work itself

Link

The Chart on Herzberg's Motivation / Hygiene Factors shows that job dissatisfiers include company policies, administration, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, status, job security, & salary

Link

The Chart on Herzberg's Motivation / Hygiene Factors shows that job satisfiers include achievement, recognition, advancement, the work itself, responsibility, personal growth

Link

The Chart on Herzberg's Two Factor Theory depicts that hygiene factors are a necessary precondition for motivation factors to be effecting in creating a strong workforce

Link

The Chart on Factors Affecting Job Attributes demonstrates that all factors have components of hygiene & motivation, but most factors can be attributed to one or the other. Only growth affects hygiene & motivation equally

Top

Friderich Herzberg

Herzberg (1923 - 2000) was an noted industrial psychologist who was an influential name in business mgt. Attended City College of NY, but left part way through his studies to enlist in the army. As a patrol sergeant, he was a 1st hand witness of the Dachau concentration camp. He believed that this experience, as well as the talks he had w/ other Germans living in the area was what triggered his interest in motivation. Herzberg graduated from City College in 1946 & moved to the U of Pittsburgh to undertake post-graduate studies in science & public health. He gained his PhD in electro shock therapy w/ a dissertation entitled "Prognostic variables for electroshock therapy". He started his research on the workplace while teaching as a professor of psychology at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland & later moved to the U of Utah where he held the position of professor of mgt in the college of business. (Feder 2000) (Widipedia)

Top

Major Works of Herzberg

Herzberg, Friederick. "One More Time, How Do You Motivate Employee?" Harvard Business Review. 1968. pp. 52-62

Top

Chart on

The Chart on Herzberg's Motivation / Hygiene Factors shows that job dissatisfiers include company policies, administration, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, supervision, status, job security, & salary

The Chart on Herzberg's Motivation / Hygiene Factors shows that job satisfiers include achievement, recognition, advancement, the work itself, responsibility, personal growth

Top

Chart on

The Chart on Herzberg's Two Factor Theory depicts that hygiene factors are a necessary precondition for motivation factors to be effecting in creating a strong workforce

Top

Chart on

The Chart on Factors Affecting Job Attributes demonstrates that all factors have components of hygiene & motivation, but most factors can be attributed to one or the other. Only growth affects hygiene & motivation equally

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Chris Argyris

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

Argyris believes that satisfaction is contingent on the development of human inquiry

For Argyris, a climate of openness, of exploration is fundamental for full personal development

Workers develop on the job from passivity to activity from dependence to independence

Argyris examined human personality development & its relation to the place of employment

An infant is dependent on others or need fulfillment, & reactive in behavior, whereas adults are ideally independent, autonomous, and proactive in behavior

Formal orgs, as they grow assume pyramidal structures in which info is centralized, work divided, & jobs specialized

Mgt. requires order giving, evaluation of performance, rewards & punishment, & efforts to ensure conformity, & the perpetuation of membership

As the org becomes larger & more formal, it prefers employees whose behavior is more consistent w/ infant characteristics of dependence, passivity, & reactivity

There is a conflict btwn the goals & capabilities of the healthy, striving adult & the needs of the org, since consistent behavior patterns are required at some levels of the org & humans' behavior is typically both consistent & inconsistent depending on needs & circumstances

The lower an employee in the org hierarchy, the less control he or she has over working conditions, & the less likely it is that he or she will be able to fully employ his or her abilities

The more directive the leadership, the more dependent the employee becomes; & it is likely that the frustration-reducing responses by the worker will increase

Some workers will fight the org for more control, some will join a union, some will leave psychologically by becoming apathetic & indifferent, & some will downgrade the importance of the job & substitute higher pay as a reward for meaningless work

Argyris' model is valid cross culturally, at different org levels, & within different types of orgs

For Argyris, "Formal structures, alas, are unintentionally designed to discourage the autonomous & involved worker"

Argyris' solutions for the infantizing org include job enrichment, job redesign, & the better integration of the individual into the org, moving the locus of control from the org to the individual, & reducing authoritarianism & dogmatism

The locus of control is the extent to which individuals believe that events are, or are not, under their control

A person w/ a high locus of control believes that he or she can influence the org

Internal & external locus's of control refer to whether one is controlled by one's self or by factors external to one's self

If one believes one has an internal locus of control, then one believes that one has control in one's own environment such as the workplace or the family

If one believes one has an external locus of control, then one believes that one has no control in one's own environment such as the workplace or the family & instead one is controlled by factors outside of one's self or one's influence

Some people believe they have no control in the workplace & so they do not participate, but are very active in community affairs

Some people believe they have no control over world events, politics, etc. & so they do not participate, but are very active in the workplace

An individual's own personality characteristics impact their internal or external locus of control may affect their behavior & satisfaction in the workplace

Argyris developed the concepts of theories in use & expoused theories

Theories in use represent the prevailing theories of action of an individual or org

Espoused theories represent the theories which an individual or org believe are in practice

In a healthy org, , i.e. an org w/ high satisfaction & low alienation, the theories-in-use are the same as or similar to the espoused theories

Argyris develops methods for individuals & orgs to determine the nature of their theories-in-use & their espoused theories

Argyris' concept of action science adovcates for an approach to research that focuses on generating knowledge that is useful in solving practical problems

Other key concepts developed by Argyris include: the ladder of inference, double loop learning, theory of action / espoused theory v. theory in use, high advocacy / high inquiry dialogue

Top

Chris Argyris
1923 -
Chris Argyris (born July 16, 1923) in Newark, New Jersey, a Professor Emeritus at Harvard Business School.

Arygris grew up in Irvington, New Jersey and during the Second World War he joined the Signal Corps in the U.S. Army eventually becoming a Second Lieutenant (Elkjaer 2000). He went to university at Clark, where he came into contact with Kurt Lewin (Lewin had begun the Research Center for Group Dynamics at M.I.T.). He graduated with a degree in Psychology (1947). He went on to gain an MA in Psychology and Economics from Kansas University (1949), and a Ph.D. in Organizational Behavior from Cornell University (he was supervised by William F. Whyte) in 1951. In a distinguished career Chris Argyris has been a faculty member at Yale University (1951-1971) where he served as the Beach Professor of Administrative Science and Chairperson of the department; and the James Bryant Conant Professor of Education and Organizational Behavior at Harvard University (1971- ). Argyris is currently a director of the Monitor Company in Cambridge, Massachusetts. (Infed)

Received an Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Toronto at the convocation ceremony (MBA & BComm) on June 13, 2006 (Wikipedia)

Chris Argyris was born in Newark, New Jersey on July 16, 1923

Top

Major Works of Argyris

Argyris, Chris and Donald A. Schon. Theory in Practice: Increasing Professional Effectiveness. 1974. Jossey-Bass Publ. San Francisco.

Argyris, C., Putnam, R. and Smith, D. M. (1985) Action Science: Concepts, Methods and Skills for Research and Intervention. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0875896650

Argyris is ommonly known for seminal work in the area of Learning Organizations which was later developed in the best selling The Fifth Discipline by Peter M. Senge. The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook is now a well-regarded resource for tools to implement and implant learning systems

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Ideology

External
Links

AN IDEOLOGY IS A WAY OF THINKING, A WORLDVIEW

An ideology is a particular system of ideas a characteristic way of thinking of a people, a group or a person especially on social & political topics

An ideology is a system of thought based on related assumptions, beliefs, & explanations of social movements or policies

Ideologies are mental systems of beliefs about reality

An ideology may be understood as a "world view"

Ideology & culture are very similar in meaning. The definition for ideology asserts that the knowledge, beliefs, & values shared by a society give legitimacy to the social structure

An ideology is a system of ideas that is pre conscious that often embodies a rationalization of motivations

IDEOLOGIES COMBINE ALL FACETS OF SOCIAL EXISTENCE

An ideology's content may be economic, political, philosophical, or religious

Some ideologies, such as communism & socialism, refer to econ & political systems

Other ideologies are capitalism, democracy, fascism, feminism, Protestantism, racism, Roman Catholicism, totalitarianism, & more

Ideologies do not rely equally on factual info in supporting their beliefs

People who accept an entire thought system usually reject all other systems concerned w/ the same content

To such people, only conclusions based on their ideology seem logical & correct

people strongly committed to an ideology have difficulty understanding & communicating w/ supporters of a conflicting ideology

Conflicting ideologies held by various nations, social classes, or religious groups have led to the world's greatest & most dangerous controversies.

For example, World War 2 was largely a struggle btwn democratic & totalitarian nations

IDEOLOGIES HAVE SOCIAL POSITIONS, I.E. EXIST IN A HISTL CONTEXT

Ideologies have a "social position" in that they often support or justify a part class or group

Ideology & contextual knowledge: Because we all have an ideology, & our own personal historical context true knowledge is impossible

Epistemology is the sociology of knowledge or how knowledge is socially created

Conflict theorists, Marxists, etc. believe that, narrowly speaking, consciousness, or broadly speaking, ideology, is shaped by the interaction of material ( working ) conditions & the dominant culture in which one finds oneself

A major focus of conflict theory is the examination of ideology which is a world view, including knowledge, opinions, etc.

For conflict theorists, our ideology is that part of our culture of which we are generally, but not specifically aware

Ideology is important to conflict theorists because they seek an end to class domination, & to achieve that end, people must first understand that they are exploited, & desire to end that exploitation

Social scientists know that their is an interaction of ideology & social position, but they do not agree on how that interaction operates

The materialists believe that one's social position determines ideology

The idealists believe that one's ideology determines social position

The conflict theorist / Marxist view is that social position determines one's view of society, i.e., one's world view or ideology

Montesquieu first developed the concept of the "contextualization" of knowledge as seen in many contemporary theories of ideology

MARX: CLASS DETERMINES CONSCIOUSNESS

Marx developed an analysis which held that class determines consciousness through a process that follows FOUR steps

a. labor determines class

b. labor & class determine consciousness

c. what you do, determines how you think

d. you are what you do

Marx developed an analysis which held that through the creative process of our labor, we develop an ideology which embodies the adage that "you are what you do"

CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS IS AN UNDERSTANDING OF YOUR OWN BEST INTEREST

Class consciousness occurs when a group of people w/ a common self interest correctly perceive that interest & develop beliefs, values, & norms consistent w/ advancing that interest

Class consciousness occurs when subordinate groups do not accept ideology of the dominant group, but accept ideology relevant to their own interests

THE DOMINANT CLASS' IDEOLOGY USUALLY DOMINANTS

The ideology of the dominant group or class is often the most prominent ideology

People accept the ideology of the dominant groups in society & so accept their values & do not pursue their own self interest

Much of social analysis concerns
a. the nature of the dominant group's ideology
b. why people accept the dominant group's ideology
c. how the dominant group's ideology is disseminated

STRUGGLES OCCUR OVER IDEOLOGY & MATERIAL RESOURCES

For many social theorists, culture, ideology, etc. cause conflict

For many social theorists, cultural belief systems, ideology, ethnicity & religion, can cause a lot of conflict

Ideological struggle has gone by various names such as:
a. the culture wars
b. the struggle for the hearts & minds
c. religious wars

When analyzing these ideological struggles, one must also examine material / economic struggles

Link

Examples of ideological & material struggles

Top

Examples of ideological & material struggles
Israeli - Arab conflict: religion & land
Black - White conflict: some amorphous ideology of race/culture & equal opportunity rights
Catholics & Protestants in No Ireland: religion & land & equal opportunity rights

The End

Top