Rev: Functionalism & Neofunctionalism

Like an organism, society exemplifies the FIVE characteristics of life:
- has needs (need inputs)
- has ways to reproduce
- competes
- cooperates
- needs order or it is "sick" or has "cancer"

THE QUALITIES OF SOCIETY ARE THAT IT HAS PARTS CALLED SOCIAL STRUCTURES, THAT ARE INTERDEPENDENT, & THEY FUNCTION TO PRODUCE CONSENSUS & STABILITY

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Functionalism views society as having FOUR qualities:
Society has
- parts                                    ( social structures ) ( PF REG M CEML )
- that are interdependent         ( mutual interrelations )
- that function to produce       ( functional requisites )
- consensus & stability           ( society is in equilibrium )

FUNCTIONALISM IS A MACRO PARADIGM

Functionalism is a macro paradigm / perspective (set of theories)

Functionalism is a paradigm & is therefore contains many theories such as:
- order perspective - systems theory
- structural functionalism - neo-functionalism
- consensus theory

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4. Society is made up of interdependent parts:
The parts / components of society are termed Social Structures

1. Peers	6. Military
2. Family	7. Charity
3. Religion	8. Education
4. Work (economy)	9. Media
5. Government	10. Recreation/leisure
PF REG M CEML

Internal
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Outline on the Principles of Functionalism

External
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- Project: The American Dream

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THE EIGHT PRINCIPLES OF FUNCTIONALISM

The EIGHT principles of functionalism include:

1. consensus
2. equilibrium
3. interdependence
4. social structures

5. functional imperatives
6. dysfunctions
7. needs or goals
8. culture

1. CONSENSUS: THERE IS A GENERAL CONSENSUS ON THE MAKE UP OF CULTURE & SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Functionalists agree that there is a general consensus of culture & social structure which is embodied in the American Dream & how we achieve it

There is a normative consensus: i.e. agreement on values, norms, etc.

Functionalists focus on the social order as based on tacit agreement

Change is slow & orderly

What are some examples of consensus in society?

Link

What makes up "The American Dream?"

2. EQUILIBRIUM: ONCE SOCIETY ACHIEVES THE FORM BEST ADAPTED TO THE ENV, IT IS IN EQUILIBRIUM

Social change will occur only when the society needs to adapt to a new situation

Note: Functionalism is considered to have a weak theoretical explanation of social change

3. INTERDEPENDENCE: THE PARTS OF SOCIETY ARE HEAVILY INTERDEPENDENT & INTEGRATED

Early social thinkers likened the operation of society to that of a living organism, such as the human body

The functioning of the body depends on the heart, brain, lungs, & other vital organs

A malfunction in any one interdependent part of society / the part can affect the entire body

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4. SOCIAL STRUCTURES (AKA SOCIAL INSTITS) ARE THE ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY

Social structures are groups of organizations that perform the basic functions of society, supports society's culture, & are accepted as an essential element in society, i.e. they are taken for granted

5. FUNCTIONS: SOCIETY FUNCTIONS TO FULFILL ITS NEEDS ( i.e. the American Dream )

According to the functionalist perspective, characteristics of any society developed because they met the needs of that society

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A Chart on Parsons' Functional Imperatives: AGIM

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A Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures

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A Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives, Social Structures, Manifest & Latent Functions, & System of Manifest Functions

Manifest functions are societal functions that are obvious & open

Latent functions are functions that are not obvious or openly acknowledged

6. DYSFUNCTIONS: MERTON MODIFIED FUNCTIONALISM TO SHOW THAT SOCIETY BOTH FUNCTIONS & DYSFUNCTIONS

Society can embody structures, processes, goals, etc. which ultimately hinder or even destroy society

7. NEEDS OR GOALS: SOCIETY CREATES & THEN PURSUES ITS NEEDS / GOALS

The concept of "function" denotes that the characteristics of any society developed because they met the needs /goals of that society

Note that critics of functionalism hold that goal creation by society is anthropomorphizing a thing & is teleological

8. CULTURE IS THE SHARED KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES, & NORMS BY WHICH A SOCIETY DEFINES ITSELF

Culture is equally important as social structure as a determinant of social action of individuals

FUNCTIONALISM IS A PARADIGM THAT IS CONSERVATIVE, ESCHEWS ACTIVISM, & COMPETES W/ CREATIONISM & CONFLICT THEORY

Functionalism has a conservative outlook
Functionalism was influenced by European sociology, but not Marx, & was more abstract

As Functionalism rose in prominence in sociology, the activism of the Chicago School was lost

Competing perspectives
- Creationism & evolution
- Expanding universe & collapsing universe

Functionalism & conflict theory are competing paradigms

MERTON'S ACCEPTANCE OF DYSFUNCTION IS AN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF CONFLICT THEORY

Merton's Functionalism parallels conflict theory in the belief that
- there is dominance over some social groups by other other social groups
- subordinate groups conflict/struggle w/ dominant groups
- order is based on manipulation & dominance
- change is rapid & disorderly

Symbolic interactionism does not directly compete w/ functionalism or conflict theory

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Norms & values & physical characteristics of "The American Dream:"

Cultural Components
Live free                            fairness, justice, meritocracy
work hard                           religion
be honest                            democracy
get ahead                            travel
scientific outlook               respect others...
home                                  family/friends

Social Structure: How we achieve the American Dream:
Peers, Family religion, Work, govt, Military, charity, Education, Media, Leisure / Recreation

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Chart of Parson's Functional Imperatives: AGIM

1. Adaptation

Adapt to the environment (social & physical)

2. Goal setting

Set Goals for social & sub-systems of society & people

3. Integration

Integrate in new systems, procedures, people, etc.

4. Maintaining

Maintain old systems, procedures, people, etc.

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Link

Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures

Social
Institution

Manifest
Function

Peers

Integration

Family

Maintenance

Religion

Maintenance

Work (The Economy)

Adaptive

Govt (Politics)

Goal Setting

Military

Adaptive

Charity

Integration

Education

Adaptive

Media

Integration

10.

Recreation / Leisure

Maintenance

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Link

Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives, Social Structures, Manifest & Latent Functions, & System of Manifest Functions

Social
Institutions

Manifest
Function

Latent
Function

System of
Manifest Function

Peers

Integration

Maintenance

Social

Family

Maintenance

Integration

Cultural

Religion

Maintenance

Integration

Cultural

Work (The Economy)

Adaptive

Integration

Behavioral

Govt (Politics)

Goal Setting

Integration

Personality

Military

Adaptive

Integration

Behavioral

Charity

Integration

Maintenance

Social

Education

Adaptive

Integration

Behavioral

Media

Integration

Goal Setting

Social

10.

Recreation / Leisure

Maintenance

Integration

Cultural

Note, the manifest/latent functions may change over time

Internal
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Outline on an Intro to Davis & Moore on Stratification

External
Links

STRATIFICATION IS THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL POSITIONS

Stratification is the structured process by which social groups are assigned a social position, resulting in a hierarchy & a pattern whereby scarce "resources" are distributed unequally to these social positions

FOR DAVIS & MOORE, SOCIETY HAS ALWAYS HAD STRAT & MUST HAVE STRAT TO FUNCTION

Davis & Moore hold that stratification is universal

STRAT MOTIVATES PEOPLE BY REWARDING THEM FOR DOING DIFFICULT JOBS

Davis & Moore hold that poverty, stratification, & inequality exist because they meet society's needs for productivity by motivating people

For Davis & Moore, the jobs that are the most critical to society, e.g. corporate mgrs., doctors., lawyers, etc., require longer & more difficult training than other jobs

The jobs that are the most critical to society also carry greater responsibility, are stressful, have long hours, & should have high pay

In order to induce highly capable people to take these critical jobs, society must offer them greater rewards in exchange for the difficulty in getting the job & the stress incurred on the job

W/o the motivation of higher pay, people would be unlikely to sacrifice current income in order to get the years of arduous training that critical jobs require

W/o higher pay, everyone would choose jobs that require no training, have little stress, & run only 8 to 5

Internal
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Outline on the Critiques of Davis & Moore

External
Links

- Project: What influences career choice?

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CONTRARY TO DAVIS & MOORE, MANY LOW PAYING JOBS ARE CRITICAL FOR THE FUNCTIONING OF SOCIETY

Melvin Tumin, 1953, 1970, holds that

- the jobs that Davis & Moore believed were so critical may not be as important as common low level jobs

Historical demographers have demonstrated that garbage collectors & sewage maintenance workers are more critical for public health that are doctors

Critics of Davis & Moore note that workers are just as necessary as managers

It is difficult to rate jobs on pleasantness & importance of jobs & Davis & Moore make many assumptions in this regard

According to Davis & Moore, occupations that are unpleasant should be important

But most people would agree that the occupation of a doctor or lawyer is pleasant & important

But most people would agree that the occupation of a janitor or garbage collector is unpleasant & unimportant

THE LARGEST DETERMINANT OF STRAT IS INHERITANCE, WHICH DOES NOT MOTIVATE PEOPLE

Critics of Davis & Moore note that it is difficult to see how inherited wealth could motivate people

Wealth is more unequally distributed than income & a large share of wealth is inherited rather than earned

In 1989, about half of the wealthiest 400 US people inherited, or invested inherited wealth to become wealthy

EDUCATION IS THE GREAT EQUALIZER, I.E. IT ELIMINATES HI STRAT, BUT THE ED OF A CLASS IS DETERMINED NOT BY MOTIVATION BUT BY PARENTAL WEALTH

Parental income impacts a person's ability to obtain an education

If Davis & Moore were correct, poverty, stratification, & inequality would be the main factors determining one's ability to get an education, & not parental wealth

Even middle class wealth is important for the parent's ability to give an education to their children

- the training required to get critical, better paying jobs is far from unpleasant, in that many people enjoy education

Contrary to what Davis & Moore hold, the process of training & education gives one prestige

- the critical, better paying jobs have considerable non material rewards such as autonomy, a sense of accomplishment, prestige, etc.

THE FACT THAT ED & STRAT ARE NOT PERFECTLY CORRELATED DEMONSTRATES THAT OTHER FACTORS, SUCH AS INHERITANCE, IMPACT STRAT LEVELS

Contrary to what Davis & Moore hold, many jobs require high levels of training but pay relatively little

Critics of Davis & Moore note that social workers, professors, teachers require more training but pay less than many jobs available w/ a high school education

	EXTERNAL RESTRAINTS SHAPE STRAT LEVELS MORE THAN MOTIVATION
	External restraints on workers & the workforce are not considered by Davis & Moore
	Critics of Davis & Moore on stratification note that workers in low positions are blocked from gaining high positions because
	a. gaining skills takes money, power, or influence
	Davis & Moore neglect restraints on acquiring skills
	b. access to the best education via prepatory schools ivy league colleges & many professions is influenced by family ties
	Davis & Moore admitted only a weak "family" influence in gaining an education, a job, or a career
	c. not everyone is capable of performing some tasks which means that society must deal w/ or accommodate all people, those w/ extraordinary skills as well as those w/ normal skills, those w/ below average skills, & those who perhaps do not have even enough skills to take care of themselves
	Davis & Moore ignored the stratification of abilities in the population
	ORGANIZATIONAL / INTERNAL RESTRAINTS SHAPE STRAT LEVELS MORE THAN MOTIVATIONS
	Internal restraints on job markets, such as those restraints created by people in high positions such as lawyers & Drs., have vested interest in status quo
	The importance of various jobs is NOT totally determined by the mkt
	People in power determine the worth of jobs
	The AMA restricts the numbers of Drs.
	Unions find it difficult or impossible to restrict the number of low status wkrs
	INTL STUDIES SHOW THAT INEQUALITY / STRAT IS HIGHER THAN NEEDED TO MOTIVATE PEOPLE TO SACRIFICE
	The level of inequality is higher than needed to induce sacrifice
	The US has the highest inequality of industrialized countries
	Japan has the lowest inequality of the major industrialized nations
	The level of inequality btwn the US & Japan is very different & yet both are "successful countries"
	Davis & Moore assume that the present system must continue

Internal
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An Overview of Talcott Parsons 1902 - 1979

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

PARSONS DEVELOPED A NATIVIST FUNCTIONAL THEORY WHICH VIEWS SOCIETY AS A COMPLEX MECHANISM OF INTER-RELATED SOCIAL PROCESSES ORGANIZED BY SOCIAL STRUCTURES

Parsons was responsible for making the Harvard School the dominant school of American sociology from the 1930s & into the 1960s

In 1937 Parsons wrote the Structure of Social Action which introduced many American sociologists to Durkheim, Weber, Pareto, & other European sociologists

Parsons elevated theory to a position above social reform & activism, reversing the activist trend of the Chicago School

Parsons' body of theory grew to have profound influence on American sociology

Parsons' structural functionalism & structural functionalism in general examined relationships among large scale social structure and institutions

Because of the nearly exclusive focus on large scale social structure and institutions, Parsons' structural functionalism was unable to explain social change & behavior at the individual level

Parsons was concerned w/ how order was maintained in & by the various elements of society

Change was seen as an orderly process

Parsons examined social systems as well as how these systems interacted w/ cultural & personality systems

Cultural & personality systems operated in the same manner as the social system in that they are defined by cohesion, consensus, and order

Cohesion, consensus, and order are maintained in any system because of the functions that any system must carry out

Most writers now recognized that Parsons' interpretation of European sociologist reflected his own orientation & omitted much that contradicted his orientation, totally ignoring such theorists as Marx

Like many other sociologists he attempted to combine human agency and structure in one theory and was not confined to functionalism

Parsons had a vision of an integrated social science, he produced a general theoretical system for the analysis of society

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Talcott Parsons 1902 - 1979

Talcott Parsons was for many years the best known sociologist in the United States, and indeed one of the best known in the world. His work was very influential through the 1950s and well into the 1960s, particularly in America, but fell gradually out of favor from that time on. The most prominent attempt to revive Parsonian thinking, under the rubric "neofunctionalism," has been made by the sociologist Jeffrey Alexander, now at Yale University.

Parsons served on the faculty of Harvard University from 1927-1973. A central figure first in Harvard's Department of Sociology, and then in its Department of Social Relations (created by Parsons to reflect his .

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talcott_Parsons

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Major Works of Parsons

The Structure of Social Action (1937)
The Social System (1951)
Economy and Society (with N. Smelser) (1956)
Structure and Process in Modern Societies (1960)
Sociological Theory and Modern Society (1968)
Politics and Social Structure (1969)
The American University (with G. Platt) (1973))
Social Systems and the Evolution of Action Theory (1977)
Action Theory and the Human Condition (1978)

External
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An Outline on Parsons' Structural Functionalism

External
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THE FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES MEET SOCIETAL NEEDS FOR ADAPTATION, GOAL SETTING, INTEGRATION, & MAINTENANCE

Parsons viewed society as a stable, though complex, system of interdependent parts each serving a function

A function is a complex of activities trying to meet needs of a system

A function is a consequence of a social arrangement that is in some way useful for the system

FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES ARE THE PROBLEMS OR NEEDS THAT A SYSTEM MUST SOLVE OR MEET

Functional imperatives are the problems or needs that a system must solve or meet
According to Parsons:
1. society has indispensable needs: functional imperatives
2. society functions to meet these functional imperatives
These are requirements by the nature of things

Parsonian Functionalism parallels Darwin's Evolutionary Theory

- Society functions under the evolutionary imperative of the survival of the fittest

- Society takes its particular form because that form works well for the people & institutions of society

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A Chart of Parsons' Functional Imperatives: AGIM

1. ADAPTATION: SOCIETY ADAPTS TO THE SOCIAL & PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

In order to achieve the functional imperative of adaptation, a system must obtain resources or facilities from the system's external env, & distribute them throughout the system

Adaptation is adjustment to the environment

The economy / business, the military, & education are the primary social structures of adaptation in society today

2. GOAL ATTAINMENT: SOCIETY SETS GOALS FOR SOCIAL SYSTEMS & SUB SYSTEMS OF SOCIETY & PEOPLE

Because goals are often set by the govt, though this is changing, when goals are set for society & people, in practice this is setting goals for the govt & the polity ( the people )

3. INTEGRATION: SOCIETY ENCOUNTERS NEW SYSTEMS, PROCESSES, GROUPS, ETC., & MUST INTEGRATE THEM INTO THE WHOLE

Society Integrate in new systems, procedures, people, etc. harmonizes people, social groups, & structures

Integration involves elements which establish control

The social structures whose manifest function is integration include peers, charity, & the media

4. MAINTENANCE: THROUGH THE FUNCTION OF MAINTENANCE, SOCIETY PASSES ON ITS CULTURE & SOC STRUCTURE WHEN IT PASSES ON TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS, ALL SOCIAL PRACTICES, ETC.

Society Maintains or sustains old systems, procedures, people, history/social patterns, etc.

Society preserves coherence & solidarity in society

Maintains & coordinates subsystems & prevents major disruption

The social structures whose manifest function is maintenance include the family, religion, & recreation / leisure

Note: In Parsons' Structural Functionalism, the functional imperatives of maintenance & integration may conflict

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Chart of Parson's Functional Imperatives: AGIM

1. Adaptation

Adapt to the environment (social & physical)

2. Goal setting

Set Goals for social & sub-systems of society & people

3. Integration

Integrate in new systems, procedures, people, etc.

4. Maintaining

Maintain old systems, procedures, people, etc.

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Table of Parsons' Functional Imperatives & Social Structures

Social
Institutions

Manifest
Function

Peers

Integration

Family

Maintenance

Religion

Maintenance

Work (The Economy)

Adaptive

Govt (Politics)

Goal Attainment

Military

Adaptive

Charity

Integration

Education

Adaptive

Media

Integration

10.

Recreation / Leisure

Maintenance

External
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An Outline on Talcott Parsons on Structural Functionalism -- Advanced

External
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THE RELATIONSHIP BTWN AGIM & SYSTEMS IS ONE OF FUNCTION & FORM, OF PROCESS & STRUCTURE, OF MIND & BODY

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Chart of AGIM & Systems

The Chart of AGIM & Systems demonstrates the complex interaction btwn functional imperatives & the social systems which both constitute them & construct them

The Chart of AGIM & Systems demonstrates how the:

a. behavioral system's functional imperative is adaptation

b. personality system's functional imperative is goal attainment

c. social system's functional imperative is integration

d. cultural system's functional imperative is maintenance

THE RELATIONSHIP BTWN AGENCY & STRUCTURE DEPICTS HOW INDIVIDUALS CONSTRUCT SOCIETY & HOW SOCIETY CONSTRUCTS INDIVIDUALS

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The Chart of Agency & Structure

The Chart of Agency & Structure demonstrates Parsons' understanding of a hierarchy of action & spheres of life demonstrating that individual reality occurs at the individual level, being based on physical conditions, while ultimate reality occurs at the cultural level, being based on info

The Chart of Agency & Structure indicates that motivational energy is created & stored at the level of Individual Reality & distributed to the system to create Ultimate Reality

The Chart of Agency & Structure involves two inter linked problems:

a. The cultural system must maintain supply of symbols, ideas, tastes & judgments throughout the system

b. The social system must engage in tension management throughout the system

THE RELATIONSHIP BTWN SYSTEMS & AGIM DEMONSTRATES HOW EACH SYSTEM HAS A GOAL / FUNCTIONS TO MEET SOCIETY'S NEEDS

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Chart on the Systems & the Functional Imperatives
             B - A
             P - G
             S - I
             C - M
    BPSC     AGIM

The Chart on the Systems & the Functional Imperatives indicates the essential function of each system w/ the higher level, e.g. culture, maintaining reality, while the lower level, the behavioral organism, adjusting to the physical env

SYSTEMS HAVE PARTICULAR QUALITIES INCLUDING ORDER, PARTS, MAINTENANCE, STASIS / CHANGE, STRUCTURES, FUNCTIONS, BOUNDARIES, ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES, INTEGRATION, CONTROL

Parsons, following a biological / cybernetic model, believes that all systems, whether they be physical, living, social:

1. have order

2. have interdependent parts

3. are self maintaining

4. may be static or changing

5. have structures

6. act through functions / processes

7. maintain boundaries

8. allocate resources & integrate

9. integrate new systems, goals, groups, etc.

10. attempt control of the environment, & attempt to control change

Parsons' early focus was on stability & he never managed to explain change to his critic's satisfaction

Recall that Parsons' model is one of nested systems, i.e. systems w/in systems

EACH SUBSYSTEM (BPSC) SPECIALIZES IN ONE OF THE FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES ( AGIM )

THE BEHAVIORAL ORGANISM'S MANIFEST / PRIMARY FUNCTION IS ADAPTATION

Link

The Chart on the Subsystems of the Behavioral Organism demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is adaptation, but it still functions in the other realms of goal attainment, integration & maintenance

The behavioral organism operates at the physical level including genetics, physical environment, etc. factors

The behavioral organism is the source of energy for all other systems & the "drives" originate here

Drives or 'instincts' arise from the behavioral organism

THE PERSONALITY'S MANIFEST / PRIMARY FUNCTION IS GOAL ATTAINMENT

Link

The Chart on the Subsystems of the Personality System demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is goal attainment, but it still functions in the other realms

The personality system operates at the small group level of the family, peers, and others in primary and secondary groups

Parsons indicates that he views personality as socially created

The personality system is controlled by the SS & the CS

Personality is a system of orientation & motivation of individual

Our needs disposition is the socially & culturally induced part of personality in that, following Durkheim, internalization of family & societal values creates the collective consciousness, also known by Freud at the superego/conscience

In general, people in a society have a similar needs disposition w/ regard for

1. the need for love, approval, etc. in social relationships

2. the need to observe internalized values & cultural standards

3. the need to follow leaders & societal expectations

Parsons' view of the Personality is that it is very passive, in that it is subject to control by the Social System & Culture, and an actor can (w/ therapy?) creatively modify it

Parsons also sees the personality as being "very social" in that:

1. actors learn to fit into their place in society

2. role expectations are attached to roles, and roles are created by society, not the individual

3. actors learn self discipline, internalization, & identification

THE SOCIAL SYSTEM'S MANIFEST / PRIMARY FUNCTION IS INTEGRATION

Link

The Chart on the Subsystems of the Social System demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is integration, but it still functions in the other realms

The Social System operates at the large group / community level of government, businesses, education, etc.

The Social System must build a sense of both trust & responsibility in its members or it will not be able to function to integrate new actors (individual & collective) into the system

Parsons see the manifest function of the Social System as integration

In the Social System, actors have a status role complex which encompasses their position in society & their activity in society

Functional Prerequisites of the Social Structure:

1. compatibility w/ other systems

2. support from other systems

3. meet needs of actors

4. elicit participation

5. control of actors

6. language

The Social System must socialize & control

Socialization to dominant values & norms of Social Structure

Control was a last resort

THE CULTURE'S MANIFEST / PRIMARY FUNCTION IS MAINTENANCE

Link

The Chart on the Subsystems of the Cultural System demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is maintenance, but it still functions in the other realms

The Cultural System operates pervasively (everywhere) throughout the entire system (society)

The Cultural System, through the use of a shared perception of reality (i.e., the American Dream), as represented in cultural symbols, icons, rituals, practices, etc. maintains that shared perception of reality

Groups interacting in the environment who are motivated to seek gratification (via the personality system), are mediated by the Cultural System

The Cultural System creates a patterned system of objectified symbols, institutionalized by the Social Structure & internalized by the Personal System

The Cultural System is a subjective creation of social knowledge, symbols, & ideas

The Cultural System is major force binding the world together

The Cultural System has the ability to become part of other systems

Parsons claims his system is integrated, but most of the power lies in the Cultural System

The cultural system is diffused from person to person as structured by Social Structure through learning & socialization

CHANGE / SOCIAL EVOLUTION COMES ABOUT VIA THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BPSC & AGIM & THEIR INTERACTION W/ THE ENV

Parsons' view on social change & social evolution is strongly influenced by biology

Society is made up of subsystems w/in system

All differentiate, i.e., specialized to become more adaptive

People seem to have no choice in the mechanism of change therefore the mechanism of change often to occur randomly

Parsons has no explanation on which changes are adaptive and which are not adaptive

Each new adaptation posses new problems of integration

As system differentiate, values (in CS) must differentiate & thus values are becoming more varied & general

Parsons' model of social change is not a unilinear model

Some societies foster change, some do not

Parsons see THREE levels of social evolution, including:
1. primitive
2. intermediate
3. modern

THE GENERAL MEDIA OF INTERCHANGE IS THE ENERGY / RESOURCES / INFO / ETC. THAT SYSTEMS EXCHANGE W/ THE ENV & W/ OTHER SYSTEMS

Money is a material

Power, influence, value commitments are symbolic & more important General Medias of Interchange

Like money there are GMOI entrepreneurs who create, use & control this media

The more GMOI is utilized in structural functional theory, the dynamic it becomes

Others theorists have taken GMOI & applied it to other spheres of life

All social relationships are exchanges

What is exchanged in each social institution?
$ ?
Power ?
Other forms of them?
Other GMOI?

IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY THE FUNCTIONAL IMPERATIVES & SOCIAL SYSTEMS HAVE DEVELOPED INTO 10 SOCIAL STRUCTURES

Social structures include: ( not from Parsons ) PF REG M CEML

1. Peers
2. Family
3. Religion
4. Economy (& the workplace)
5. Govt

6. Military
7. Charity
8. Education
9. Medial
10. Leisure / Recreation

Table of Parsons' Social Institutions, Functional Imperatives, & Social Systems indicates the functional imperative (AGIM) & social system (BPSC) of each soc instit (PF REG M CEML)

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Chart on Organization Types based on Functional Imperatives ( Needs ) of Society

The Chart on Org Types based on Functional Imperatives (Needs) of Society indicates that society fulfills its needs through organizations such as businesses, political parties, houses of worship, & schools

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AGIM & Systems Chart

Maintenance
- family
- religion
- recreation / leisure

Culture
maintains society

Social System
integrates new people, practices, structures, etc.

Integration
- peers
- religion
- charity
- media

Adaptation
- econ
- business
- military
- ed

Behavioral System
is physical adaptation

Personality
system sets goals

Goal Attainment
- govt
- polity

The Chart of AGIM & Systems demonstrates the complex interaction btwn functional imperatives & the social systems which both constitute them & construct them

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Chart on Agency & Structure:
A Hierarchy of Action & Spheres of Life

Hi Information
       /\                      1. Environment of action (ultimate reality)
        |                       2. Cultural System
Hierarchy                3. Social System
      of                      4.   Personality System
conditions                5.   Behavioral Organism
        |                       6. Environment of action (individual reality)
       \/
Hi Energy Conditions

The Chart of Parsons' Agency & Structure demonstrates Parsons' understanding of a hierarchy of action & spheres of life demonstrating that individual reality occurs at the individual level, being based on physical conditions, while ultimate reality occurs at the cultural level, being based on info

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Chart on the Systems & the Functional Imperatives

Systems

Functional Imperatives

Cultural System

Maintenance

Social System

Integration

Personality System

Goal Attainment

Behavioral Organism

Adaptation

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Chart of the Four Sub-Systems of the Behavioral Organism

Latency (maintenance.)

Integration

Physical Level

Individually, Genetically created Level

Adaptation

Goal Attainment

The Chart of the Subsystems of the Behavioral Organism demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is adaptation, but it still functions in the other realms of goal attainment, integration & maintenance

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Chart of the Four Sub-Systems of the Personality System

Latency (maintenance.)

Integration

Family & Peers

Socially Created Personality Level

Adaptation

Goal Attainment

The Chart on the Subsystems of the Personality System demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is goal attainment, but it still functions in the other realms

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Chart of the Four Sub-Systems of the Social System

Latency

Integration

Fiduciary System (trust)

Societal Community

Economy

Polity

Adaptation

Goal Attainment

The Chart on the Subsystems of the Social System demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is integration, but it still functions in the other realms

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Chart of the Four Sub-Systems of the Cultural System

Maintenance (Latency)

Integration

Societal Level

Adaptation

Goal Attainment

The Chart on the Subsystems of the Cultural System demonstrates that its primary functional imperative is maintenance, but it still functions in the other realms

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Table of Parsons' Social Institutions, Functional Imperatives, & Social Systems

Social
Institutions

Manifest
Function

Social
System

Peers

Integration

Social

Family

Maintenance

Cultural

Religion

Maintenance

Cultural

Work (The Economy)

Adaptive

Behavioral Organism

Govt (Politics)

Goal Attainment

Personality

Military

Adaptive

Behavioral Organism

Charity

Integration

Social

Education

Adaptive

Behavioral Organism

Media

Integration

Social

10.

Recreation / Leisure

Maintenance

Cultural

The Table of Parsons' Social Institutions, Functional Imperatives, & Social Systems indicates the functional imperative (AGIM) & social system (BPSC) of each soc instit (PF REG M CEML)

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Chart on Organization Types based on Functional Imperatives ( Needs ) of Society

Functional Imperatives

Type of organization

Adaptation

production / economic orgs

Goal attainment

political orgs

Integration

orgs that resolve conflicts, bring in people, religion

Maintenance ( Latency )

education, cultural, expressive oriented orgs

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Links

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Outline on an Intro to Robert Merton 1910 - 2003

External
Links

Merton developed THREE Revisions of Functionalism

a. MERTON CRITIQUED STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM'S CONSERVATISM & INABILITY TO EXPLAIN CHANGE

Structural functionalism had said that ALL social values & norms were indispensable or functional just because they existed

Merton posits that social values & norms are not necessarily indispensable in that they have a historical life & practical application and that some could be eliminated or new ones activated

Change occurs when societally sanctioned goals & societally sanctioned means to achieve those goals do not function properly

b. MERTON REVISED STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM TO INCLUDE DYSFUNCTIONS

Structural functionalism had said that social values & norms are functional for both society & individuals

Merton posits that social values & norms are not necessarily functional for both society & individuals, & in fact, some may be dysfunctional

c. MERTON REVISED DURKHEIM'S CONCEPTS OF ANOMIE TO ADDRESS VARIOUS SEGMENTS OF SOCIETY

Structural functionalism had said that social values & norms were universal in that ALL values & norms are functional for society

Merton posits that social values & norms are not necessarily universal for society in that some values & norms may be functional for one segment of society, or one historical era, & not functional for another

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Links

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Outline on Merton's (1910 - 2003)
Critique of Structural Functionalism

External
Links

MERTON CRITIQUED STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM'S CONSERVATISM & INABILITY TO EXPLAIN CHANGE

Structural functionalism had said that all social values & norms were indispensable or functional just because they existed

Merton posits that social values & norms are not necessarily indispensable in that they have a historical life & practical application and that some could be eliminated or new ones activated

Change occurs when societally sanctioned goals & societally sanctioned means to achieve those goals do not function properly

WEAKNESSES OF S-F INCLUDE: AHISTORICITY, NO FOCUS ON CHANGE, NO FOCUS ON CONFLICT, CONSERVATIVISM, LEGITIMAZATION, AMBIGUITY, TELEOLOGY, & TAUTOLOGY

Merton notes that much of structural functionalism:

- is ahistorical

- cannot deal with process of social change & therefore there is a focus on statics

- cannot deal with conflict since it has a focus only on consensus

- has a conservative bias

- mistakes elite legitimations as social reality

- is vague, unclear, ambiguous because grand theory is an illusion & there should be a focus on mid range theory

Merton notes that no methodologies exist to study grand theoretical questions

- has a teleological view of society, i.e. that society has goals as an inherent part of the system, as opposed to mechanism

- tautological: define whole as sum of parts; visa versa; assumes that society, &/ parts of society have goals; & that the determination of goals is based on how society functions; & that the functions of society are explained in light of it's goals

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Links

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Outline on Merton's( 1910 - 2003 )
Revision of Structural Functionalism

External
Links

- Project: Merton's Revision of Structural Functionalism

Link

MERTON REVISED S-F TO INCLUDE FUNCTIONS, DYSFUNCTIONS, NONFUNCTIONS & A NET BALANCE

Structural functionalism had said that social values & norms are functional for both society & individuals

Merton posits that social values & norms are not necessarily functional for both society & individuals, & in fact, some may be dysfunctional

Merton believes that conflict theory makes some valid points, essentially noting that some segments of society have dysfunctions

Function

is a societal process where consequences make for adaptation or adjustment of a system

Dysfunction

is a societal process where consequences derange or confuse a system

Nonfunctions

is a societal process where there are irrelevant consequences for the system

Net Balance

is not a case of simple summation of functions + dysfunctions + nonfunctions

JUDGING THE NET BALANCE OF THE FUNCTIONS & DYSFUNCTIONS OF SOCIETY IS DONE BY SOC SCIENTISTS ON OBJECTIVE CRITERIA, BUT DOES NOT ADDRESS RELIGIOUS, ETHICAL, POLITICAL, ETC. DIMENSIONS

The net balance of any system is not a case of simple summation of functions + dysfunctions + nonfunctions

The task of the sociologist is simply to determine nature & effect of sum of net balance

It is a political & religious task to determine the value or importance of net balance

Merton stated that sociology cannot decide moral questions or set moral goals; however, the social sciences can clearly delineate the functions & dysfunctions of any particular moral stance

Merton's position on the social sciences & morality is similar to that of the rational choice theorists, that the nature of values is a moral question & not a concern of the social sciences

The levels of analysis in the social sciences include social psychology or micro analysis, mid-range analysis, grand analysis, & meta analysis

We are not in a moral position to judge all of society & therefore it is useful for the social scientist to ask ‘functional for whom?’

For Merton, it is important for social analysts to not confuse function with independent motives

Link

Examples of functional for whom?
What would be functional (good) for me/you, but dysfunctional for society? or vice versa?

MERTON ADVOCATES THAT SOCIAL SCIENTISTS SHOULD FOCUS ON MID RANGE THEORY

S-F was much too abstract & not useful in a practical, activist manner that could be used to help society

Merton believed that social science should examine things that actually exist such as social roles, institutional patterns, social processes, organizations, structure, social control, culture, culture. defined emotions, etc.

Merton developed the concepts of manifest & latent functions

Manifest functions are societal functions that are obvious and openly stated; intentional

Latent function are unintended functions that are not obvious or openly stated

Both manifest & latent functions may be functional, dysfunctional, or non functional

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Examples of Functional for Who?
Robbing & stealing is functional for individuals
Dysfunctional for society

Small families are functional for society
Small families generate dysfunctions for individuals

Note that how society is structured, affects function/dysfunctions for individuals

External
Links

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Outline on Merton's (1910 - 2003 )
Revision of Anomie

External
Links

- Video: Merton on Anomie 5:21

Link

- Project: Anomie & Lifestyle

Link

- Project: Anomie & Your Research

Link

INTRO: MERTON REFINED ANOMIE TO ADDRESS DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANOMIE IN DIFFERENT SEGMENTS OF SOCIETY

Merton revised Durkheim's concept of anomie

Structural functionalism had said that social values & norms were universal in that ALL values & norms are functional for society

Merton revised Durkheim's concept of anomie which results when the goals of society break down, i.e. the social order is weakened

Merton held that society socializes members for certain needs & desires, but fails to provide legitimate opportunities / means to satisfy them, then anomie & crime result

It is not poverty itself that creates deviance, but poverty surrounded by wealth, i.e. the income gap

Merton's anomic argument is similar to the economic or achievement explanation of crime

For Merton, the problem is not so often that society fails to provide norms, but that society socializes members for certain needs & desires but fails to provide legit opportunities to satisfy them

Society does not provide the means to achieve normal goals of society

The "strain" between our culture's emphasis on wealth & the limited opportunity to get rich gives rise, especially among the poor, to theft, the sale of drugs, or other street crime