Internal
Links

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Review Notes on  ST 12:  Social Mobility
External
Links
Link
 Social Mobility  
Link
           The Methods of Study of Stratification  
Link
           E.O. Wright  
Link
           Social Mobility of the Elites  
Link
           Social Mobility of Blacks  
Link
           Social Mobility of Women  
Link
 Historical Patterns of Mobility in the US
 
Link
 Comparative Social Mobility  
Link
 Social Mobility - Advanced  
Link
 Attainment  

 
Internal
Links

Top
  Outline on  Social Mobility
External
Links
  -  Project:  Your Experience of Social Mobilityv
Link
  -  Project:  Social Mobility in Other Societies & Today 
Link
  Social mobility is the frequency w/ which people move up or down in a society's economic hierarchy  
  Social Mobility is also known as socioeconomic mobility       or simply               mobility  
  Socioeconomic mobility refers to mobility in all of the dimensions of stratification:   economic, prestige, & power  
  Social scientists frequently refer to upward social mobility or downward social mobility  
  Kerbo demonstrates that the US class structure is very stable; i.e., there is not great mobility
 
Percent of Income Earned by Lowest & Highest Quintile
 
1947
1970
1992
 Lowest Fifth 
5  %
5 % 
4 %
 Highest Fifth 
43 %
41 %
45 %

NOTE:  The 70s were the best years for the lower class & the worst for the upper class /corporate class

  
 
 The top & the bottom of the stratification system have the lowest levels of social mobility in the US  
  An example of the low level of social mobility in the US is that one out of 10 sons of manual laborers will attain professional employment, while seven out of 10 sons of professional workers will  
 
 In the US, the middle of the stratification system has the highest level of social mobility ( i.e. low occupational inheritance w/ higher intergenerational mobility )  
  There is a strong relationship between stratification and socioeconomic mobility in that there is more mobility in societies that have more equality  
  There are six fundamental types of stratification systems, each of which dominated a particular historical period, each of which fosters a particular level of social mobility
a.  Primitive communal system ( aka hunter gatherer society or tribal society )
b.  Slavery system  (two types:  conquest & racist)
c.  Caste system
d.  Feudal system ( aka estate system )
e.  Class system  ( aka capitalist or state capitalist system )
f.  Post-industrial system ( aka global system )		  
  Each type of economic system fosters a particular level of social mobility  
  Furthermore, particular economic systems have subtypes as is seen w/ pure capitalism, state capitalism, industrial capitalism, a service economy, etc.  
  There are EIGHT characteristics of strat systems in that they may be open, closed, vertical, horizontal, exchange, intergenerational, intragenerational, & structural  
  Open stratification systems have a high level of social mobility
 
  In an open stratification system, a person's position in society is attained as a result of what the person has done  
  Achieved status has substantial influence in an open stratification system
 
  Ascribed status has little influence in an open stratification system  
  An open stratification system is the type of system where achieved statuses have substantial influence over the social status a person attains in adulthood  
  Closed stratification systems have a low level of social mobility  
  In a closed stratification system, a person's position in society is attained by birth-right, e.g., race, sex, family, etc.  
  Achieved status has little influence in a closed stratification system  
  Ascribed status has substantial influence in a closed stratification system  
  A closed stratification system is the type of system where ascribed statuses largely determine a person's life chances  
  Vertical social mobility is movement up or down the stratification system, i.e. to a better or worse position; i.e. from working class to middle class from corporate class to upper middle class  
  Vertical mobility is the movement form one occupational position to another of higher or lower rank  
  Vertical mobility describes upward or downward movement in the standard of living as measured by income, prestige, autonomy, etc.  
  Conditions affecting vertical mobility include disability, formal demotion, lay-off, bumping, downsizing, closing, etc.  
  The greater the degree of vertical mobility, the more open the class system, the greater the vertical mobility, the closer the society is to the value of equal opportunity  
  An example of upward vertical example is movement from police officer to public school teacher  
  Horizontal social mobility is movement across positions of roughly equal rank  
  Horizontal social mobility is the mobility that most people experience
It is primarily from one type of job to another while a person's income, status, power, influence stay relatively the same
Of course people hope to do better on all dimensions as they advance their career, but few achieve enough to change class		  
  Horizontal mobility is the movement from one position to another of equal rank in the occupational structure  
  Examples of horizontal mobility include 
- moving from supervisor to manager or gaining seniority & status on the job
- the Electrician who leaves job w/ GM for job w/ Boeing even though it may include a sizable raise who is thus still a member of the middle class		  
 
 Exchange mobility, aka churning, denotes a type of social mobility where there is little societal social mobility, but high levels of individual social mobility
 
 
 Exchange mobility, aka churning occurs when someone's absolute position changes in relation to others
 
 
 Exchange mobility, aka churning, denotes relatively equal amounts of upward & downward social mobility, which often gives the illusion of upward class mobility
 
 
 The concept of exchange mobility, aka churning, denotes that
 
  - there are many people moving up the socio-economic scale as there are moving down the socio-economic ladder  
  - while it appears as if many people are moving up the socio-economic ladder, in reality those moving up are replacing those moving down  
  - people fall in and out of each class ( churning ) because of continuing economic competition  
  - once a person is poor, the chances are good that they will get out of poverty, but not very far  
 
 The concept of churning describes the fact that while a particular number of people may experience upward vertical mobility in a given year, usually nearly an equal number of people experience downward vertical social mobility
 
 
 The media & our ideology reflects upward class mobility ( things are improving ) therefore we are more likely to see the upward mobility & ignore the downward mobility
 
 
 Churning is also created by simultaneous status churning & by horizontal mobility  
  While the US has a poverty rate of 15 %, in a ten year period, 25 % will be in poverty at least once  
  43 % to 60 % of the poor do not move out of poverty for any length of time & thus, 67 % to 40 % do get out for at least a while  
  Thus, at least 17 mm adults & children are chronically poor & 33 mm fall in & out of poverty or rise into the Working Class or higher  
  It is the group of poor who rise into the working class who could significantly benefit by structural changes  
  Intergenerational mobility is the attainment by people of a socio-economic status that is higher or lower than their parents  
  W/ Intergenerational mobility, there is a changing proportion of higher & lower class families  
  When sociologists compare a person's status with that of his or her parents, they are looking at intergenerational mobility  
  Upward intergenerational occupational mobility occurs when a person's occupation/class as compared to parents, is higher  
  Intragenerational mobility compares the occupational position of a person over an extended period of time  
  Intragenerational mobility compares a persons 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. jobs  
  Upward intragenerational occupational mobility occurs when a person's occupation/class as compared to contemporaries, is higher  
  Mobility in the US is slightly above average for industrialized country, but it is less than most people assume   
  There is a direct relationship btwn stratification and mobility as seen in the fact that only one out of 10 sons of manual laborers will attain professional employment, while seven out of 10 sons of professional workers will attain professional employment  
  The top & the bottom of the stratification system have the lowest levels of social mobility in the US  
  From the view point of inflow & outflow mobility, low social mobility is created by high occupational inheritance & low intergenerational mobility  
  Thus, the top & bottom of the stratification system have high occupational inheritance & low intergenerational mobility  
  In the US, the middle of the stratification system has the highest level of social mobility  
  In the US, the middle of the stratification system has low occupational inheritance & high intergenerational mobility  
  Structural mobility is a type of mobility where classes of people improve their socio-economic position  
  Structural mobility occurs when there has been a growth in the economy of better paying, more pleasant, higher status, white collar jobs, and a decline in the number of blue collar jobs  
  Structural mobility describes ability to move to different occupation; such as from industry to service, & results from large scale changes in the economy  
  The occupational opportunity structure is dependent on structural mobility, the health of economy, immigration, etc.  
  In the industrialized modern nations, structural mobility occurs because of an increased proportion of jobs in the higher status, white collar categories  
  Growth in the economy of better paying, more pleasant, higher status, white collar jobs, & a decline in the number of blue collar jobs increases structural mobility  
  Structural mobility is the opposite of exchange mobility  
  The US has a strong value that there is a high level of social mobility, but in reality there is a high level of exchange mobility & little structural mobility  
  Although the US has little more mobility than most other industrialized societies, Americans believe & feel that there is a lot of mobility & that America is the land of opportunity where everyone who works hard can get ahead
 
  Historically, the US experienced positive structural mobility, but there have also been periods of negative structural mobility
 
  The historic eras which marked changes in structural mobility include:
-  "the land grab" in the mid 1800s
-  after the Industrial Revolution & the legalization of unions
-  in the 1930's, the Great Depression
-  after WW2 
-  after the Vietnam War
-  the Reagan Era 1980s & early 1990s
-  from the early 1990s to 2001
-  today?		  
 
 The US experienced positive structural mobility until "the land grab" was completed in the mid 1800s & then there was a long period of exchange mobility 
 
  After the Industrial Revolution & the legalization of unions, the working class gained & experienced positive structural mobility  
  In the 1930s, the US experienced negative structural mobility as a result of the Great Depression  
  After WW2, the US experienced positive structural mobility as a continuing result of industrialization, the Labor Movement & Pax American  
  After the Vietnam War, from the mid 1970s until the early 1990's the US experienced negative structural mobility  
  From the early 1990s to 2001, the US experienced slight positive structural mobility but mostly exchange mobility  
 
 70 % of Americans agree that "America is the land of opportunity where everyone who works hard can get ahead"
 
  80 % agree that "people who grew up in rich families have an average or better than average chance of getting ahead"  
  50 % believe that blacks, women, & working class families have an "average or better than average chance of getting ahead"  
  But the groups of blacks, women & working class families have a poorer than average chance of getting ahead  
 
 The Horatio Alger Myth is the belief that anyone, no matter how poor, can succeed on a grand scale  

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on the  Methods of Stratification Studies
External
Links
  Most studies of social mobility & status attainment focus on measures of occupational prestige, not on income
 
  Most studies cannot analyze mobility at the very top of the stratification system because measurements of occupational prestige are fairly meaningless at the top of the system
 
  All occupations at the top of the strat sys have very high status, but do vary considerably in power, wealth, etc.
 
  Most studies of social mobility exclude women, & are thus based solely on men
 
  Men are the focus because most studies of social mobility focus on the family, & only one major earner has been the focus of these studied
 
  Obviously the single earner, male headed family as the primarily societal form of social organization is a thing of the past
 
  In the past, the status of women was determined by the status of their husbands & so most studies of strat focused on men, & attributed his status to the whole family
 
  Inflow studies identify the % of sons at an occupational level who come from that or another occupational level, i.e. flow in to the occupation of their fathers
 
  Inflow studies identify the occupational family background of the people in an occupation, determining whether they have a family background in the occupation or whether they came in to the occupation solely on their own
 
  Inflow studies generally are not sensitive enough to take account of other family members who might have influenced a worker to move into an occupation
 
  Inflow studies generally are not sensitive enough to take account of workers who move into a similar occupation as an immediate family member
 
  Inflow studies identify where people in an occupation were recruited from; i.e. from w/in a family in an occupation or from outside the occupation
 
  Inflow studies  identify how many people, usually the %,  in an occupation came from families in that position, as well the % that came from other occupations
 
  Outflow studies determine the % of sons who move to another occupation; up or down the occupational scale; i.e. flow out of the occupation of their fathers to another occupation
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
  An Overview of   Erik Olin Wright
External
Links
  -  Video:  E.O. Wright on Social Class          4:49
Link
Link
 -  Biography & Major Works
 
  Wright believes it a simple, FOUR level class structure of capitalists, managers, workers, & petty bourgeoisie is as effective as a more complex one in demonstrating income hierarchy:  
  a.  capitalists own the means of production ( MOP ) & employ many others  
  b.  managers work for capitalists & control their own labor  
  c.  workers simply sell labor  
  d.  petty bourgeoisie own some of the means of production but employ few others  
 
 Wright found his four level class structure was as accurate at explaining income stratification as occupational status & educational level  
 
 Wright's capitalist class has higher income, even allowing for educational level  
  Comparing only people w/ low education in the capitalist, mgr., worker & petty bourgeoisie classes, the capitalists, never-the-less have higher income  
  Comparing only people w/ high education in the capitalist, mgr., worker & petty bourgeoisie classes, the workers never-the-less have higher income have lower income  
 
 Education is not a panacea in helping workers attain a higher income   
  Education does, generally, help mgrs. attain a higher income  
 
 Within a class, there is little difference in economic achievement btwn races or genders  
  In the working class, men & women, blacks & whites, etc. earn approximately the same level of income  
  For example, women earn 66% of what men earn, overall, but w/in the working class women earn equal wages to men  
 
 Blacks & females are more often in the Wright's working class & thus have an overall lower income  
  The proportions of blacks & females are greater in the working class  
  The proportions of white males are higher in the capitalist & managerial classes  
 
 Robinson & Kelly found similar results as well as separate mobility patterns in terms of class position & occupational status  
  To attain a capitalist class position, it is best to be born of capitalist parents  
  To attain a high occupational position, it is best to be from of parents w/ hi ed & hi occupational position  
Link
 Table:  Wright & Perrone's Class Divisions of Authority & Ownership by Race & Sex, 1977, demonstrates a clear hierarchy based on race & sex  
 
 Thus Wright's analysis demonstrates that  a person's relation to the production system does impact their position in society  
 
 The capitalist property dimension has the least amount of social mobility  
  The expertise dimension has a middle level amount of social mobility  
  The authority dimension of class structure has the most social mobility  
 
 Thus the US has more inequality based upon property ownership than any other industrialized country, putting more power in the hands of capitalists & the corporate class  
 
 Wright also found that fewer people from outside the capitalist property class had friendships with people inside the capitalist class  
  Wright found that people in other classes than the capitalist property class had more across class friendships  

 
Top
  

Erik Olin Wright

Department of Sociology 
University of Wisconsin - Madison 
email: wright@ssc.wisc.edu
telephone: 608-262-0068

Top
  
Major Works of EO Wright

The Politics of Punishment:  A Critical Analysis of Prisons in America. New York:  Harper and Row and Harper Colophon Books, 1973. 
Class, Crisis and the State, London:  New Left Books, 1978; Verso paperbacks, 1979.  Translations in Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese, Korean. 
Class Structure and Income Determination, New York: Academic Press, 1979. 
Classes (London: Verso, 1985). Spanish translation, 1994. 
The Debate on Classes (London: Verso, 1990) 
Reconstructing Marxism: essays on Explanation and the Theory of History (with Elliott Sober and Andrew Levine), Verso, 1992 (Portuguese translation, 1993) 
Interrogating Inequality (London: Verso, 1994) 
Class Counts: Comparative Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge University Press, 1997) 
Deepening Democracy: institutional innovations in empowered participatory governance (with Archon Fung), Verso, 2003. (Spanish Translation, National University of Colombia Press, 2003) 


 
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Table:Wright & Perrone's Class Divisions of Authority & Ownership by Race & Sex, 1977

The data presented here demonstrate a clear hierarchy based on Race & Sex

Kerbo0410
Class
% White Males
% Black Males
% White Females
% Black Females
Employers
10.9
6.6
3.0
0.0
Managers
42.9
36.8
27.7
22.9
Workers
41.5
55.3
66.6
77.1
Petite Bourgeoisie
4.6
1.3
2.7
0.0
Total
100
100
100
100

 
Internal
Links

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Outline on the  Social Mobility of the Elites
External
Links
  Kerbo points out that the US class structure is very stable: i.e., there is not great mobility
 
  The top & the bottom of the stratification system have the lowest social mobility in the US  ( i.e. high occupational inheritance w/ lower intergenerational mobility)  
  The middle of the stratification system has the highest level of social mobility in the US  ( i.e. low occupational inheritance w/ higher intergenerational mobility )  
  "The elites" include both the upper class ( old money ) & the corporate class ( new money ) & make up about 5 % of the population
 
  Kerbo calls this group of elites of old & new money "the top"  
  Farley calls this group of elites of old & new money the corporate class & the upper class  
  The upper class owns large amounts of the major means of production
 
  The corporate class is defined mostly by the amount of power they have in that they control the corporations  
  Most social mobility studies do not analyze the elites only the upper nonmanual or managerial & professional categories
 
  There is high inheritability & low recruitment into the elite class because:
 
  -  upper class institutions are designed to prevent such mobility  
  -  the Social Register, elite prep schools, exclusive social clubs these institutions are designed to keep the new rich out until they "qualify" these institutions also encourage intermarriage  
  The elites often complain that the group is not as restrictive as it should be or once was  
  Studies show that there is a high level of endogamy in the elite class  
  Most of the elites inherit their money
 
  A study in 1970 found that of the 66 riches people, 82 % had upper class origins  
  The trend that most elites inherit their money may have temporarily changed with the advent of the tech millionaires  
  The amount of social mobility in the elites depends on how one defines the corporate class
 
  The corporate class by definition has more recruitment than the upper class
 
  Dye ( 1995 ) found that:  
  -  30 % of the corporate class had upper class origins  
  -  another 59 % of the corp class had upper middle class origins  
  -  90 % of the corp class had origins at or near the top of the stratification system  
  If we include only the the top corporate officers of the biggest 200 corps, there is much less mobility than if we include all the corporate officers of the top 500 corporations  
  Domhoff found that the corporate class had slightly less recruitment than other classes, thus it grew from w/in
 
  Domhoff examined the top 20 industrial corporations, the top 30 financial corporations, & the top 30 transportation & utility corporations  
  By examining the top corps, Domhoff found that more than 50 % of top executives had upper class origins  
  Mintz ( 1966 ) found that 66 % of all cabinet members between 1897 & 1973 were from the upper class & that 75 % of these cabinet members were also official of top corporations
 
  Useem & Soref show that those people in multiple corporate directorships tend to have upper class origins
 
  In conclusion, at least 60 % of the corporate class come from within the elites & maybe as high as 90 %
 

 
Internal
Links

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Outline on the  Social Mobility of Blacks
External
Links
  Social mobility patterns vary among races
 
  There is a race as well as a sex bias in the occupational structure  
  Class divisions for Blacks are said to be rigid, i.e. there is little movement out of the lower classes  
Link
 Table:  Outflow Mobility for Black Men from Head of Family's Occupation to Son's Occupation, 1962 & 1973
 
  An analysis of the Chart on Outflow Mobility for Black Men shows that there has been improvement in every category from 1962 to 1973. but this table does not take account of the poor & unemployed  
  The Chart on Outflow Mobility for Black Men demonstrates that blacks have increased outflow mobility in the upper occupations in that there is increase intergenerational mobility of the father's occupation by the sons
 
  In 1962, occupational inheritance at the top of the occupational ladder was severely limited for blacks
 
  In 1962, only 13.3% of black fathers in upper nonmanual positions could pass that occupational level on to their sons while in 1973, 44 % could pass on that occupational level  
  The lack of occupational inheritance for blacks was especially damaging because a failure to inherit a higher level occupation means that the son's travel down the occupational scale
 
  In the 1960s blacks had no intergenerational mobility because families found it difficult to pass on wealth & status  
  In the 1960s a black middle & upper class did not exist  
  In the 1970s, the situation marginally improved & blacks estbed themselves in both the middle & upper classes
 
  Intergenerational inheritance has increased to allow for the establishing of a small middle class in all races  
  44 % of black sons of fathers w/ upper nonmanual occupations inherited that status
 
  Still, nearly 60 % of blacks inherited a lower manual occupation even when their fathers were in a upper nonmanual occupation  
  Those blacks able to break into the higher occupational positions are able to form a stable black middle class
 
Link
 Chart:   % of Races Matriculating from High School to College:
 
  An analysis of the Chart on the % of Races matriculating from High School to College demonstrates that fewer blacks matriculated from high school to college in the 80s than in the 70s  
Link
 Chart:  % of Races w/ Four Years of College  
  An analysis of the Chart on the % of Races w/ Four Years of College demonstrates that the gains in education made by Blacks & other minorities eroded in the 1980s & 1990s  
  "The anger of lower class blacks is likely to be directed toward middle class blacks as toward the white power structure in the next round of riots, which are sure to come if political and economic conditions for lower class blacks remain the same in coming decades."
Harold Kerbo
 

 
Top
  
Table:Outflow Mobility for Black Men from Head of Family's Occupation to Son's Occupation, 1962 & 1973
Kerbo0411
 
Son's Current Occupation
Father's Occupation
Upper Nonmanual
Lower Nonmanual
Upper Manual
Lower Manual
Farm 
Total
1962
Upper Nonmanual
13.3
10.0
13.7
63.0
0.0
100
Lower Nonmanual
8.3
14.0
14.0
63.7
0.0
100
Upper Manual
8.2
10.9
10.9
67.0
3.0
100
Lower Manual
6.7
9.1
11.1
71.0
2.1
100
Farm
1.2
5.4
7.1
66.3
19.9
100
Total
4.5
7.7
9.4
67.9
10.5
100
1973
Upper Nonmanual
43.9
11.8
8.3
36.0
0.0
100
Lower Nonmanual
19.5
20.8
13.4
45.5
0.8
100
Upper Manual
16.3
13.9
15.8
53.7
0.2
100
Lower Manual
12.1
12.2
13.7
61.0
1.0
100
Farm
5.1
6.8
16.5
63.2
8.4
100
Total
11.6
10.8
14.7
59.4
3.5
100
An analysis of the Table on the Outflow Mobility for Black Men from Head of Family's Occupation to Son's Occupation, 1962 & 1973 shows that blacks have increased outflow mobility in the upper occupations in that there is increase intergenerational mobility of the father's occupation by the sons

 
Top
  
Chart:% of Races matriculating from High School to College:
Kerbo0411
External
Links
  
1975
    
Male Whites   57  %  matriculated from HS to College    
Female Whites   49
Male Blacks   50
Female Blacks   46
1985
    
Male Whites   55    
Female Whites   52    
Male Blacks   44    
Female Blacks   44    
In relation to blacks' social mobility, an analysis of the Chart on the % of Races matriculating from High School to College demonstrates that fewer blacks matriculated from high school to college in the 80s than in the 70s

 
Top
  
Chart:% of Races w/ Four Years of College
Kerbo0411
External
Links
  
1970
    
Blacks  13 % attended college  (peak enrollment)    
1985
    
Hispanics  11 %   (peak enrollment)    
1987
    
Whites  23 %    
Blacks  11    
Hispanics    8    
An analysis of the Chart on the % of Races w/ Four Years of College demonstrates that the gains in education made by Blacks & other minorities eroded in the 1980s & 1990s

 
Internal
Links
Outline on the  Social Mobility of Women
External
Links
  Social mobility patterns differ for men & women 
 
  There is a gender as well as a race bias in the occupational structure   
  Most strat studies did not include women   
  When using the five job patterns of upper nonmanual, lower nonmanual, upper manual, lower manual & farm, the mobility patterns of men & women are very similar 
 
  The job patterns of men & women in the five job patterns are similar because women are concentrated in occupations such as clerical worker, i.e. in the lower nonmanual category and the studies are not able to detect important differences in the other occupational categories   
  Studies w/ 18 occupational categories demonstrate differences btwn men & women 
 
  Tyree & Treas (1974) found that daughters of professional fathers were more likely to be in white collar occupations than were sons of professional fathers   
  Daughters of farm workers were more likely to be in white collar occupations & less likely to be in blue collar occupations than their fathers   
 
 Overall, working women are less likely to be in an occupational status close to their father's   
  Because women are concentrated in the middle occupations, they are more likely to be both upwardly & downwardly mobile 
 
  While black men are often pushed down in the occupational structure, women tend to stay in the middle w/ some upward & downward mobility   
  Traditionally, the status of women has been assumed to follow that of their husbands 
 
  With more women than men working ( 50+ % of women & 50- % of men ), this assumption can no longer go untested   
  The status of the unworking spouse is usually determined by that of the working spouse   
  Women marry men w/ similar occupations as their brothers more than they entered occupations similar to their brothers 
 
  The marriage market more closely reproduces the intergenerational mobility patterns of men   
  The marriage market more closely reproduces the intergenerational mobility patterns of men because men & women marry people closer to their educational attainment than to their father's status   
  Mobility for women is slightly greater through marriage than is mobility for men through occupation 
 
  It is commonly believed that women had more upward mobility through marriage than did men through occupations 
 
  The old story of the poor but attractive girl marrying a rich man is still common today   
  In fact, women are as likely to marry down as to marry up   
  But still women have more mobility through marriage than men have through occupation   
  Wright ( 1997 ) has the most complete studies involving women & men 
 
  Men & women have the same patterns of mobility; w/ a few differences, the property class boundary was the most impermeable   
  Occupation skill level had a medium level of permeability   
  Authority level was the least restrictive   
  About the same % of men & women move across these barriers   
  Wright found the property class barrier was somewhat more permeable for women 
 
  Women do marry into the upper class more than men do   
  Wright found that women in the US are more able to move up the occupation ladder than in other countries 
 

 
Internal
Links

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Outline on the  Historical Patterns of Mobility in the US
External
Links
 
 The study of stratification did not exist before the late 1800s in the US so many studies of these eras are done retrospectively
 
 
 Even before the mid 1900s, empirical investigation of mobility patterns was almost totally neglected
 
  Keller (1953) found that only 3 % of business leaders born around 1820 had white collar or blue collar origins  
  Bendix & Howton (1959) found that only 1 to 2 % of business leaders born btwn 1801 & 1890 had working class origins  
  Another study in six steel & iron industry communities at the turn of the century had no mobility into the upper class  
  Mills (1963) found that 13.2 % of business leader born btwn 1820 & 1829 had blue collar origins but by 1907 only 9.8 % of the business leaders were from blue collar origins  
 
 Thermstrom (1970) examined mobility in Boston during the 2nd half of the 1800s & found that 36 % of Fathers were in white collar occupation & 56 % of their sons ended up in white collar occupations
 
  Thermstrom found that in the 2nd half of the 1800s, sons of white collar fathers were twice as likely to end up in white collar occupations as were the sons of blue collar fathers  
  Rogoff compared mobility in Indianapolis btwn 1910 & 1940 & found that intergenerational mobility was very similar in those decades
 
  Rogoff found that the rate of occupational inheritance was about the same in the 1910 & 1940  
  Rogoff found that the rate of upward & downward mobility were about the same in the 1910 & 1940  
  Tully, Jackson, & Curtis (1970) extended Rogoff's work by comparing 1910, 1940, & 1962 & again concluded that the pattern of social mobility in Indianapolis has varied only slightly over these years
 
  Guest, Landale, & McCann (1989) compared mobility in 1880 & 1900 & found that upward mobility was lower from 1880 to 1900
 
  Blau & Duncan found that occupational inheritance was higher than in the 1962 & 1973; however,, excluding farmers, there was only a small difference upward mobility  
  Several researchers found a slight increase in upward mobility since WW 2 due to an increase in higher level occupations compared w/ low level occupation
 
 
 The trend of modest upward mobility in the US has reversed in the 1980s
 
  Remember that traditional mobility studies generally cannot analyze those at the top of the hierarchy
 

 
Internal
Links

Top
 Outline on  Comparative Social Mobility
External
Links
  Cross national comparisons of soc mob compare differing rates & patterns of soc mob among nations in relation to several dimensions, including:  occupational structure, dist of rewards, political authority, bureaucratic authority, property ownership, race structures, occupational status, & more
 
  One must be attuned to the differences in each nation's culture & social structure when making soc mob comparisons
 
  In relation to cross national comparisons of soc mob, nations differ in
a.  their occupational structure
b.  the importance of age
c.  the size of firms
d.  the importance of education
e.  the stage of development of industrialization
 
  Examples of the importance of these factors in soc mob can be seen in:  
  Nations in later stages of development have fewer working class positions & more upper middle class positions to move into  
  In Japan, income is more related to age & firm size than education as compared to the US
 
  Japan has a higher rate of upward mobility out of the wking class, & less downward mobility into the wking class than the US or Europe
 
  FEATHERMAN JONES HAUSER HYPOTHESIS
 
  The Featherman Jones Hauser Hypothesis ( FJHH ) holds that nations at the same stage of econ dev have similar circulation rates of social mobility if adjusted for variances in occupational distributions.
 
  FJHH believed that soc mob is the same in all industrial nations & that soc mob is shaped by the stage of ind development
 
  Contrary to the FJHH it was found that soc mob rates vary in ind nations due to a wide variety of factors which interact w/ each other
 
  the 'contra FJHH' has substantiated the fact that cross nat soc mob is:
 
  a.  is moving toward varying rates across nations
 
  b.  that there is no common trend across nations
 
  c.  that some nations having increasing soc mob while some have decreasing rates
 
  d.  factors outside the econ influence soc mob including political events, culture, historical practices, democracy, inequality, etc.
 
  The level of democracy & inequality in a nation demonstrate that political action & govt policy create more opportunity while higher levels of inequality impede circulation mobility  
  Social democratic welfare states influence the operation of capitalist class systems toward greater equality  
  Wright notes that in the US the wealthy are able to protect their positions & boundaries keeping others out  
  If the family unit of women is the unit of analysis, women's soc mob differs little from men, but if women are viewed independently then they have more soc mob than men, & much of it is downward to lower white collar or manual jobs  
  Supporting the existence of the concept of the glass ceiling, cross nat studies of soc mob demonstrate that women experience more limited soc mob into top positions, even when they are born into families close or at the top  
 
 In relation to Wright's concepts of property, occupation, & authority dimensions of strat, women experience less of the glass ceiling effect in the US than Europe
 
  Greater levels of sexism in a nation create lower levels of soc mob for women  
  The US has average rates of soc mob & equality of opportunity except for the poor who have lower than average rates of soc mob & equality  

 
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 Outline on  Social Mobility - Advanced
External
Links
  Soc mob is often concerned w/ upward & downward mobility in the occupational structure, i.e. class mobility
 
  The dynamics of class indicate the amt of ascription & achievement status factors operating in a society
 
  The dynamics of soc mob, class, ascription, & achievement all are indicators of as well as factors affecting important sets of values in a society:  econ values & values of social justice
 
  A relatively open society is functional because it helps maintain social stability
 
  Even if a class is poor, they will productively participate in the society, i.e. not revolt, if the society is open & then believe they have a just chance for soc mob
 
  When those at the bottom of the strat system believe they have no path to improvement, they may organized & collectively challenge the overall system & violent class conflict may result
 
  A system of positive soc mob is functional, esp for the elite, because it prevents challenges of the status quo system
 
  Soc mob is the most pervasive in the middle of the occupational structure in all Western nations, which is a major factor in their high levels of stability & productivity
 
  The amt of outflow & inflow mobility in the mid class shows that they do have some mob from less successful to more successful occupations, all of which are in the mid class occupational structure
 
  Table:  Outflow Mobility:  An analysis of Outflow Mobility shows that 
a.  occupational inheritance was quite similar in 1962 & 1973
b.  nonmanual occupation have the highest degree of occupational inheritance
c.  farm workers have the lowest rate of occupational inheritance
 
  Table:  Inflow Mobility:  An analysis of Inflow Mobility shows that 
a.  occupational recruitment was very similar in 1962 & 1973
b.  farm work has the highest rate of self recruitment
c.  there is a higher rate of upward than downward mobility
 
  Marx's prediction of the destruction of capitalism because of increasing "enmiseration of the proletariat" has, so far, been incorrect  
  Marx's prediction of the destruction of capitalism has not come about because of the ability of Western industrialized nation to maintain positive soc mob
 
  Enmiseration of the proletariat was largely eliminated, & positive soc mob was created because of the:
 
  a.  break up of the trusts, i.e. the robber barons large, monopolistic, exploitative enterprises such as railroads, oil, steel, & others
 
  b.  success of the labor mvmt in winning basic rights & a middle class pay scale for wkrs  
  c.  estb of state capitalism whereby corps are regulated & the econ is manipulated to lessen the depressions & booms of the econ  
  It is recognized even today that widespread & long term econ stagnation leading to reductions of soc mob impacts the stability of even Western nations  
  While the creation of the mid class proved Marx's theory of enmiseration, empowerment, & revolution to be incorrect, it is worth noting that the existence of the mid class is a historically young phenomenon, circa 150 yrs, & thus its existence must not be assumed to be a certainty  
  The present hist trends of deindustrialization, globalization, free trade, & immigration are shrinking the mid classes in the modern industrial nations (i.e. US, Europe, & Japan) & if these trends continue the mid class will go the way of the factory wkrs, small farmers, serfs, & slaves before them  
  The US managed to regulate these negative forces against the mid class through the actions of T Roosevelt, trust busting, the Labor Mvmt, the development of state-regulatory-capitalism, the Civil Rights Mvmt  
  The actions which regulated laissez faire, robber baron capitalism are not effective in the present globalized capitalism & thus Western wkrs may again experience the exploitation of a globalized, laissez faire, robber baron capitalism, & see the elimination of the mid class  
 
 The major findings in relation to soc mob are that:  
  a.  occupational inheritance is high at the top & bottom of the occupational struc, & lower in the middle  
 
 b.  little is known about the soc mob of the elites
 
  c.  the amt of soc mob is stable, creating a stable class structure  
  d.  the amt of soc mob for blacks & women is stable, but more rigid at the bottom, indicating the difficulty w/ getting out of poverty  
  a.  A major finding in relation to soc mob is that occupational inheritance is high at the top & bottom of the occupational struc, & lower in the middle  
  While there is high inheritance of one's strat position for the elites, there is also significant recruitment into the elite class  
  Recruitment into the elite class indicates that there is a process whereby the best & the brightest achieve elite-hood if they demonstrate an ability to accept the status quo system & the inequality which it embodies  
  Most soc mob in the US is short range mob in that people usually rise or fall only to positions close to those of their family origins  
  Thus it is likely that those who move to the top of the strat system are likely to be close to the top in their origins  
  b.  A major finding in relation to soc mob is that little is known about the soc mob of the elites  
  The lack of info on the elites has lead research to examine that which is visible about the elites:  their status in society  
  Analysis of the status of the elites is common, while analyses of ownership, control, power, cooperation, & competition are not  
  While the existence of inheritance of one's position in the strat system is well documented, recruitment is believed to be strong, but as yet the substantiation of this fact is weaker  
  The elites often experience sponsored mobility whereby recruitment is very selective to ensure those brought into the elites are supportive of class inequalities & privilege inherent in the status quo system  
  Because of sponsored mobility, very few elites are in favor of extensive equality & restrictions on corp class power  
  c.  A major finding in relation to soc mob is that the amt of soc mob is stable, creating a stable class structure  
  Soc mob & class structure in the US has been relatively stable for 150 yrs.  
  The US began as a nation of small farmers & thus it is changes in that pattern which have affected US soc mob & class structure  
  Farming occupations have decreased slowly over the yrs due to mechanization & industrialization  
  Former farm wkrs eventually landed jobs in industry which at first provided little or no soc mob though they did change class from farmer owner to factory wkr  
  The class struc for Blacks changed from slave to farm wkr or factory wkr  
  The class struc for women changed from farm wife laborer to housewife to factory wkr  
  The success of the Labor Mvmt beginning in the late 1800s until the 1960s raised factory wages & improved wking conditions creating a mid class  
  Women achieved soc mob by entering the wkforce during WW 2, but were ejected when men returned  
  Blacks achieved soc mob because of the Civil Rights Mvmt ( circa 1950s & 1960s ) & have a gradual improvement to the mid class & up mid class to the present  
  Women achieved soc mob by entering the wkforce since the Women's Mvmt ( circa 1960s & 1970s ) & have a gradual improvement to the mid class & up mid class to the present  
  Beginning in the 1970s the the numbers of people in the mid class began to shrink & the income & wealth of the mid class decreased due to deindustrialization, globalization, free trade, & immigration  
  In some yrs in the 90s & 00s, there has been more downward than upward soc mob  
  d.  A major finding in relation to soc mob is that the amt of soc mob for blacks & women is stable, but more rigid at the bottom, indicating the difficulty w/ getting out of poverty  
  Occupational inheritance is the rule at the bottom of the class struc  
  For blacks, there is occupational disinheritance at the top of the class struc, though at present that trend appears to be reversing  
  Women's soc mob is different from men in that they are concentrated in lower nonmanual jobs  
  No matter where women begin in the class struc, in terms of their father's occupation, they move up or down to lower nonmanual positions  
  When comparing women's soc mob to that of their husband instead of their father, they tend to parallel that of their husband, demonstrating that at present their is downward intergenerational mobility  
  When compared to men, women have slightly more upward soc mob because they tend to marry up while men marry down, demonstrating the support for the tenets of both social exchange theory & power dependency theory in gender relations  

 
Top  
Table:Outflow Mobility from Family Head's Broad Occupational Group 
to Son's Current Occupation Group, 1962 & 1973
Kerbo0409
An analysis of Outflow Mobility shows that occupational inheritance was quite similar in 1962 & 1973
Nonmanual occupation have the highest degree of occupational inheritance
Farm workers have the lowest rate of occupational inheritance
Kerbo0311
 
Son's current occupation
Head's Occupation
Upper nonmanual
Lower nonmanual
Upper Manual
Lower Manual
Farm
Total
1962 ( n = 10,550 )
Upper nonmanual
56.8
16.7
11.5
13.8
1.2
100
Lower nonmanual
43.1
23.7
14.6
17.0
1.7
100
Upper manual
24.7
17.0
28.3
28.8
1.2
100
Lower manual
17.9
14.8
21.9
43.4
1.9
100
Farm
10.3
12.3
19.3
35.9
22.2
100
Total
24.5
15.9
20.2
31.7
7.7
100
1973 ( n = 20,850 )
Upper nonmanual
59.4
11.4
12.8
15.5
0.9
100
Lower nonmanual
45.1
16.6
16.4
20.7
1.2
100
Upper manual
30.9
12.2
27.7
28.1
1.2
100
Lower nonmanual
22.9
12.1
23.9
40.1
1.0
100
Farm
16.4
9.0
22.9
37.1
14.5
100
Total
31.2
11.8
21.9
31.0
4.1
100

 
Top  
Table:Inflow Mobility from Family Head's Broad Occupational Group
to Son's Current Occupation Group, 1962 & 1973
Kerbo0409
An analysis of Inflow Mobility shows that occupational recruitment was very similar in 1962 & 1973
Farm work has the highest rate of self recruitment
There is a higher rate of upward than downward mobility
Kerbo0311
 
Son's current occupation
Father's occupation
Upper nonmanual
Lower nonmanual
Upper manual
Lower manual
Farm
Total
1962 ( n = 10,550 )
Upper nonmanual
25.4
11.6
6.2
4.8
1.7
11.0
Lower nonmanual
23.1
19.6
9.5
7.0
2.9
13.1
Upper manual
19.0
20.2
26.3
17.1
2.9
18.8
Lower manual
20.1
25.6
29.7
37.6
6.8
27.4
Farm
12.5
23.0
28.3
33.6
85.7
29.7
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
1973 ( n = 20,850 )
Upper nonmanual
29.3
14.8
9.0
7.7
3.2
15.4
Lower nonmanual
16.7
16.2
8.6
7.7
3.3
11.5
Upper manual
20.2
21.0
25.8
18.5
5.8
20.4
Lower manual
21.8
30.5
32.6
38.5
7.0
29.7
Farm
12.1
17.5
24.0
27.5
80.7
22.9
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100

 
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 Outline on the  Attainment Process: Occupational Position
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Links
  Status attainment is the position one holds in the occupational structure which dictates a position in the class structure as a function of ascriptive, achievement, social structural, cultural, political, & economic forces
 
  At a more specific level many factors impact one's occupational attainment (OA) including education, intellect, motivation, parental influence, parent's job, family background, race, gender, one's first job, & many more
 
  The factors impacting OA are direct & indirect & they interact w/ each other as seen in one's motivation being a function of parents, family, education & more while family & parental background impact one's ed attainment, & motivation impacts one's ed attainment
 
  BLAU & DUNCAN  
  Blau & Duncan found that fathers were able to influence their sons' occupation primarily by influencing their sons' ed, while the sons' ed was also impacted by family background
 
  In Blau & Duncan's study on the impact of fathers on sons' occupations, besides ed, other indirect factors included the fathers' ed, the fathers' job, & the sons' first job
 
  While Blau & Duncan's study on the impact of fathers on sons' occupations examined many variables, these variable explained the determination of a sons' occupation only about 40% of the time, meaning that other factors, which vary widely from person to person, were also important
 
  THE WISCONSIN MODEL
 
  The Wisconsin Model ( WM ) built on the work of Blau & Duncan by examining socio psychological variables to determine how family background impact ed & job attainment
 
  In the WM, socio psychological vars include the sons' ed aspirations, job aspirations, the influence of SOs, mental ability, & academic performance
 
  The WM determines that there is a mixture of ascriptive & achievement factors that explain ed & job attainment
 
  The ascriptive effect of family socio econ status ( SES ) functions through the sons' SOs which impact their aspirations, which impact ed attainment
 
  The WM found that a sons' peer group is influenced by his family background & these peers impact the sons' success or failure
 
  The WM found that ed has the strongest effect on job attainment, & ed attainment is in part an achievement var & thus not completely determined by SES
 
  The specific finding of the WM are that:
 
  1.  the parents' SES impacts the sons' ed & job attainment through other vars  
  2.  the parents' SES impacts the sons' SOs  
  3.  the sons' SOs impacts his ed & job attainment  
 
 4.  occupational aspirations have a weak effect on job attainment
 
  5.  ed aspirations have a strong effect on ed attainment  
  6.  ed attainment strongly impacting job attainment  
 
 7.  intellect has a strong effect on academic performance
 
  8.  academic performance has a weak effect on aspirations  
  9.  grandparents' SES does not effect the grandsons' job attainment  
  CRITIQUE  
  The WM is believed to be individualistic, ignoring social structural & cultural factors  
  Because the WM ignores the structure of unequal opportunity which set limits on achievement, they have underestimated the effect of ascriptive factors such as family bkgrd  
  While the WM added socio psychological vars to the analysis, others have added social structural & cultural factors including social capital & cultural capital  
  Capital is something a person owns which can be used in productive activities  
  Capital usually refers to econ cap such as money, machinery, technology, or intellectual capital  
  Social capital is the social skills & relationships in a location in a social structure which give one an the advantage in the production of physical or social products  
  In The Forms of Capital (1986) Pierre Bourdieu defines social capital as "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition."  
  In short, social capital is the the value of networks  
  Examples of social capital include interpersonal networks, friendship networks, networks of family relations, professional networks, etc.  
  Research shows that the more social capital one has, i.e. the more personal ties one has, the more help they get in finding jobs, getting references, & learning the job  
  For the poor, because those in the poor enclaves often leave those areas as soon as they are able, they are taking their social capital w/ them, leaving those left in the enclave w/ a lack of social capital  
  Cultural capital is the amt of higher culture one is in command of which give one an the advantage in the production of physical or social products  
  Cultural capital includes the forms of knowledge, skill, ed, & advantages a person has which give them a higher status in society, including high expectations, which give on an advantage in the production of physical or social products  
  While parents provide children w/ cultural capital, the attitudes & knowledge that makes the ed system a comfortable familiar place in which they can succeed easily, one can also gain cultural capital on their own  
  Examples of cultural capital include knowledge of art, music, classical dance, literature, etc.  
  Cultural capital increases ones' achievement in ed & jobs because it may give a child a more favorable evaluation by SOs such as teachers or supervisors which can lead to favorable treatment leading to more actual achievement  
  Contrary to other studies Jencks et al (1979) found that family bkgrd is very important, explaining 50% of job attainment  
  Jencks also found that ed is not the great avenue of achievement as portrayed in other studies, demonstrating the truth of the adage, it is not what you know, but who you know  
  Another reason for the lack of impact of ed on attainment is that all ed is not created equal & those w/ higher class families, w/ more social & cultural capital, usually receive a better ed  

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