Rev 9 Rumors & Myths

Today the term hysteria is not as widely used in the medical, psychological or other professions but in everyday language a person with hysteria may have any sort of physical complaint

People are often called hysterical when they are upset, excited, and unable to control their feelings

We often hear of "hysterical weeping" or "hysterical rage"

Outbursts of feeling may have nothing to do with the disorder that psychiatrists call hysteria

In some cases, hysterical attack occur in "normal people"

Psychiatrists usually treat hysteria by using some type of psychotherapy or behavior therapy

The treatment of hysteria may be done with drugs, hypnosis, or psychotherapy

The causes of hysteria are still not known, but the disorder remains more common in women than in men

In the 1800s, Mackay used the term mass hysteria because CB seemed to him to have no cause, & seemed to be transmitted from person to person w/ no visible method of transmission

From this psychological perspective of hysteria, the sociological perspective has developed a collective behaviorist conception of hysteria where collectivities, i.e. crowds or masses, exhibit irrational, emotional behavior

A Hysteria is a situation in which a group of people believe that something is happening when it is not

There THREE are Types of Hysterias that often overlap

- Believing things that are not true

- Acting as if something is happening that is not

- Exhibiting physical symptoms that have no physiological cause as a result of a belief

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Outline on Folklore

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Folklore is a type of legend which includes the beliefs, customs, and traditions that people pass on from generation to generation which usually includes a greater amount of supernatural events, places, people, or things than do legends

Much folklore consists of ballads, fairy tales, folk tales, legends, myths, arts and crafts, dances, games, nursery rhymes, proverbs, riddles, songs, superstitions, and holiday and religious celebrations

Folklore is as old as humanity & written records left by the earliest peoples include examples of folklore

As soon as a people develop a writing system, they begin to record folk stories

However, folklore does not have to be written down because much folklore is passed orally from person to person

Even today, many peoples do not have a written language, but they have folk songs, legends, myths, and other kinds of folklore

Sometimes folklore is handed down by imitation

For centuries, children have learned games, such as jump rope and marbles, by watching and imitating other youngsters

As people move from one land to another, they take their folklore with them and adapt it to their new surroundings

From the 1500's to the 1800's, for example, thousands of west Africans were transported to the Western Hemisphere as slaves

Many of the slaves enjoyed telling a number of west African folk tales about a sly spider named Anansi

Through the years, the slaves continued to tell tales of Anansi, though the stories about the spider were gradually changed to reflect life in the New World

Today, Anansi remains a popular character in black folklore, both in west Africa and in the Caribbean area

Origins of Folklore:

During the 1800's, scholars believed that folklore in ancient times had been shared by all members of a society

Most ancient peoples lived in rural communities. Through the centuries, large numbers of people moved to cities and gradually lost touch with so-called "authentic" folk traditions

According to the scholars of the 1800's, those traditions were preserved by uneducated peasants called folk, whose way of life had changed little for hundreds of years

Two German brothers, Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, were among the leading folklore scholars. From 1807 to 1814, they collected folk tales from peasants who lived near Kassel, Germany

The Grimms believed that by collecting the tales, they were preserving the heritage of all Germans

The stories they collected became famous as Grimm's Fairy Tales. But some versions of these tales are found throughout Europe, the Near East, and Asia

Today, scholars consider folk to be any group of people who share at least one common linking factor

A common linking factor is often geography, as in folklore of the Ozark Mountains region; religion, as in Jewish folklore; occupation, as in cowboy folklore; or ethnic background, as in Irish-American folklore

Some scholars believe that even a family can be considered folk because many families have their own traditions and stories

Characteristics of Folklore:

Folklore can be short and simple or long and complicated

Brief proverbs, such as "Time flies" and "Money talks," are famous examples of folklore

On the other hand, some Indonesian folk plays begin at sundown and end at dawn

It is extremely difficult to make up folklore

The songs, stories, and other material that became folklore were, of course, thought up by various people

But those individuals had the rare ability to create a subject and a style that appealed to others through the years

Folklore survives only if it retains that appeal. People would not bother to retell tales or continue to follow customs that had no meaning for them

This is the reason people keep on using the same folklore over and over

To be considered authentic folklore, an item must have at least two versions

It also must have existed in more than one period and place

For example, scholars have identified more than 1,000 versions of the fairy tale about Cinderella

These versions developed through hundreds of years in many countries, including China, France, Germany, and Turkey

Changes in folklore often occur as it passes from person to person

These changes, called variations, are one of the surest indications that the item is true folklore

Variations frequently appear in both the words and music of folk songs

The same lyrics may be used with different tunes, or different words may be set to the same music

The nursery rhymes "Baa, Baa Black Sheep" and "Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star" have the same melody

Some people use the folk saying "As slow as molasses," others "As slow as molasses in January," and still others "As slow as molasses in January running uphill."

Kinds of Folklore:

Kinds of folklore include folk tales, fables, fairy tales, folk songs, superstitions, myths, & legends

Folk tales are fictional stories about animals or human beings

Most of these tales are not set in any particular time or place, and they begin and end in a certain way

For example, many English folk tales begin with the phrase "Once upon a time" and end with "They lived happily ever after."

One popular kind of folk tale has a trickster as the hero

Each culture has its own trickster figure

Most tricksters are animals who act like human beings

In Africa, tricksters include the tortoise; the hare; and Anansi, the spider

The most popular trickster in North American Indian folklore is probably the coyote

Fables are one of the most popular types of folk tales. They are animal stories that try to teach people how to behave

One fable describes a race between a tortoise and a hare

The tortoise, though it is a far slower animal, wins because the hare foolishly stops to sleep

This story teaches the lesson that someone who works steadily can come out ahead of a person who is faster or has a head start

Fairy tales are folk tales that have fairies as one of the primary characters & like fables, they often have a lesson or moral

In many European fairy tales, the hero or heroine leaves home to seek some goal

After various adventures, he or she wins a prize or a marriage partner, in many cases a prince or princess

Fairies appear in many kinds of folk stories but are especially prevalent in fairy tales

Legends take place in the real world, and fairy tales occur in some imaginary land

Legends are told as true stories, but fairy tales are told as fiction

Folk songs have been created for almost every human activity

Some are associated with work such as a song sailors sing, called chanteys, while pulling in their lines

Folk songs may deal with birth, childhood, courtship, marriage, and death

Parents sing folk lullabies to babies. Children sing traditional songs as part of some games. Other folk songs are sung at weddings and funerals

Some folk songs are related to seasonal activities, such as planting and harvesting

Many folk songs are sung on certain holidays such as the song "The Twelve Days of Christmas," which is a well-known carol

Some folk songs celebrate the deeds of real or imaginary heroes, but people sing many folk songs simply for enjoyment

Superstitions and customs are involved largely in marking a person's advancement from one stage of life to another

For example, many cultures include a custom called couvade to protect unborn babies

In couvade, husbands pretend that they are about to give birth by, for example, avoiding eating certain foods considered harmful to the expected baby or avoiding work because such activity could cause injury to the unborn child.

A wedding custom called charivari is widespread in various European societies

On the wedding night, friends of the bride and groom provide a noisy serenade by banging on pots and pans outside the couple's bedroom

The desire to avoid charivari led to the practice of leaving on a honeymoon immediately after a wedding

A large number of superstitions and customs supposedly help control or predict the future

The people of fishing communities may hold elaborate ceremonies that are designed to ensure a good catch

Many people try to foretell future events by analyzing the relationships among the planets and stars

Holidays are special occasions celebrated by a group, and almost all of them include folklore

A group may celebrate this holiday with its own special foods and costumes & thus many groups have variations of the same folk custom

In a number of countries, for example, children receive presents on Christmas. In Italy, an old woman named La Befana distributes the gifts. In some countries of Europe, the gifts come from the Christ child. In others, the Three Wise Men bring them.

Folklore and the Arts:

Many folk stories and folk songs are beautiful works of art themselves

Folklore has also inspired masterpieces of literature, music, painting, and sculpture

The English poet Geoffrey Chaucer used a number of folk tales in his famous Canterbury Tales

William Shakespeare based the plots of several of his plays on folk tales including King Lear, The Merchant of Venice, and The Taming of the Shrew

One legend tells about a medieval German scholar named Faust who sold his soul to the devil

The idea of selling out to the devil has been the basis of many novels, plays, operas, and orchestral works

Jazz developed largely from folk music of Southern blacks

Classical composers also have incorporated folk melodies into their works

For example, the Czech composer Antonin Dvorak used black spirituals in his famous symphony From the New World

The Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart used the melody of "Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star" as the basis of a work he wrote in 1778

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Outline on Rumors

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A rumor is a story or statement talked of as news without any proof that it is true

A rumor is unsubstantiated information spread informally, often by word of mouth

Rumors cover topics from everyday events to historically important events

Examples: a new business will be built here or the Pentagon airliner attack is a cover up

See Also: Social Control

People gossip to elevate their standing in a social group, or to raise or lower another's standing

Through gossip, a person may gain status by demonstrating access to insider information not available to other members of the group

In addition to the purpose of affecting the status of the target person, those who spread the rumor are able to feel a sense of social superiority since what applies to the target does not apply to them, or conversely a sense of community since what applies to the target does apply to them

In addition, because gossip is viewed as disreputable, those who gossip may be viewed adversely by others

Many people continue to believe a rumor even when evidence is presented opposing it

The validity of a rumor is difficult to assess

Rumor has always been an element of human social life, but the means of transmitting rumors have changed dramatically w/ modern technology

Throughout history, & before, rumors were spread through face to face communication, then the written word made it possible to spread rumors much faster, & now w/ radios, telephones, TV, the internet, etc., rumors spread even more often & more quickly

Rumors are extremely difficult to defuse or refute because they are often based on charismatic authority & traditional authority

A person continues to believe a rumor because some charismatic leader supports it

A person continues to believe a rumor because some group w/ which they are allied supports it

A rumor is unconfirmed information that is often passed through informal social communication

The person who hears it cannot or does not verify the information

Locher says most people don't take the time to check out a story before passing it simply because they believe it is true

In most cases, it would be difficult to check out a rumor & most people do not circulate a rumor because they believe it, but because it is entertaining or profitable to do so

It may be simple to find out if a rumor is true, but most people don't bother to try

People accept rumors as true w/o any further investigation

People believe the rumor & repeat it to others

Some rumors turn out to be true, but most are false

Tellers consider the info to be important or interesting & feel a need to pass it on

Tellers do not always believe a rumor to be true

Social outsiders repeat rumors when they are in awkward social situations

People tell rumors to

a. gain attention

b. bolster their status

c. provide entertainment & excitement

d. help or hurt another or others

Believers consider a rumor plausible & accept it as fact

People accept rumors that fit their world view & reject those that do not

We judge a rumor ( accept or reject it ) based on our beliefs & knowledge, that is based on our subculture

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Rumors do not circulate constantly, but they occur frequently & are likely to circulate again

In the 1960s rumors spread that the new fast food, chain restaurants were adding filler to their burgers: sawdust, even soybeans!

In 1978 a rumor spread that McDonalds added worms to their hamburgers & sales fell by 30%

Wendy’s managed to stop this rumor of worms in their hamburgers by immediately responding w/ a nation wide press conference

Traditional counter advertising failed to stop the McDonalds rumor of worms in their hamburgers

Finally a logical argument that worms cost more than beef managed to stifle the rumor

Never-the-less many people today believe that McDonalds did put worms in their burgers

Rumors thrive in a climate of ambiguity & they arise & spread most effectively when large numbers of people lack definitive information

Rumors, like other collective behavior, occur when the situation is structurally conducive especially when information is incomplete, unconfirmed, unavailable, contradictory, & ambiguous

If there is widespread suspicion that the pronouncements of authorities are untruthful, rumors are likely to emerge

Rumors provide info that clarifies a situation about which substantiated facts are unavailable

Rumors offer competing conceptions of reality

Rumors are changeable & have the ability to adapt to new information

As rumors circulate, they are altered in the telling so that a number of variations of a single rumor add to the confusion

Generally some details become more important as the rumor is spread while others are lost as unimportant

Example: a rumor about demonstrators & police told by people sympathetic to the demonstrators will emphasized details placing responsibility for the violence on the police & ignore details attaching blame to the demonstrators

Rumors are difficult to stop because the number of people who are aware of it tends to increase in geometric progression as each person spreads the rumor to several others

While some rumors dissipate w/ time, others persist for years

Rumors can be stopped only when clear, substantiated information wi widely disseminated but even then there is not guarantee that everyone will accept such information

Rumors, founded or unfounded can trigger the formation of crowds or other collective action

During the race & political demonstrations & riots of the 1960s, control centers were established in American cities to counter the potentially explosive effects of rumors

Rumors often confirm people's worst fears

While gossip is a local, personal form of rumor, local rumors are generally of concern for a narrow, subculture of people, while non localized rumors are important & spread by the population of an entire nation, or given today's technology, the entire world

The rumors that Beatle Paul McCartney was dead & that Elvis was alive were important to the entire world

Rumors have circulated nationwide about products such as Procter & Gamble, Wendy's, Coke, etc.

Some rumors often have a link w/ something true

Some rumors have a link w/ outright hoaxes

Some rumors are created or embellished by people who have a need for the rumor to be true or an interest in it being true

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Outline on Legends

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Legends, like myths, are stories told as though they were true. But legends are set in the real world and in relatively recent times

A legend, is a story coming down from the past, which many people have believed

Legends are often based on historical events or people, but are not true history

Scho Dic

Examples of legends include the stories about King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table which are often confused w/ history but are not history

A legend is also what is written on a coin or medal as well at the words accompanying a picture or diagram, usually explaining something about it

Legends are very similar to rumors in that they are based on fears & concerns that people have, they change as they are circulated, they are unconfirmable, & they are told as if they are true

Legends are generally more complex than rumors & they often have a moral or a lesson

Legends may be ancient, in which case they are closer to myths, or they may be contemporary & local in which case they are urban legends

Legend is a type of folk narrative that are set in the present or in the historical past & although legends may have religious implications, most are not religious in nature

Legends distort the truth, but they are based on real people or events

In some ways, legends resemble myths, but myths typically relate events from a remote time long ago and deal with such religious subjects as gods and goddesses and the origin of the universe

Every society produces legends because they constitute an unofficial or folk history by reflecting the attitudes and values of the group that creates them

Legend heroes possess exaggerated attributes, positive or negative, of special significance to a society such as those told about George Washington or Abraham Lincoln which emphasized the courage and fairness of these great US Presidents

The majority of societies have both local and national legends

Local legends tell about heroes of a particular ethnic group, occupation, or region

John Henry is a legendary hero of African Americans, and Casey Jones has the same rank among railroad engineers

National legends are shared by an entire people

Many British men, women, and children take pride in the achievements described in the tales of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table

Urban legends are an increasingly common form of folk narrative reflecting the anxieties of modern urban living

American folklore includes many legendary heroes

Davy Crockett was a famous American frontiersman who was elected to the U.S. Congress from Tennessee in 1827

After Crockett died in the battle of the Alamo in 1836, he became a popular figure in American folklore

John Chapman, better known as Johnny Appleseed, planted apple seeds and trees throughout Ohio and Indiana during the early 1800's

He was the hero of a number of legends by the time he died in the 1840's. John Henry was the black hero of many legends in the South

A famous ballad describes how he competed against a steam drill in a race to see whether a man or a machine could dig a tunnel faster

Using only a hammer, John Henry won, but he died of exhaustion

Many legends tell about human beings who meet supernatural creatures, such as fairies, ghosts, vampires, and witches

A number of legends are associated with famous people who have died. Others tell of holy persons and religious leaders

The action in myths and folk tales ends at the conclusion of the story

But the action in many legends has not been completed by the story's end

For example, a legend about a buried treasure may end by saying that the treasure has not yet been found. A legend about a haunted house may suggest that the house is still haunted

Some legends describe how saints work miracles

A number of legends tell about the Loch Ness Monster, a sea serpent in Scotland; and the Abominable Snowman, a hairy beast in the Himalaya

Some people believe these creatures actually exist. From time to time, various expeditions have tried to find both of them

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Outline on Myths

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A myth is an old story told about largely imaginary persons & events to explain the early history, events, or beliefs of a race or nation(s)

A myth is a legend or story, usually one that attempts to account for something in nature

Most myths express a religious belief of a people and are of unknown origin

Myths are religious stories that explain how the world and humanity developed into their present form

A myth may be any invented story or a made-up person or thing

Myths are known to be a belief, opinion, or theory that is not based on fact or reality

People have always tried to understand why certain things happen such as why the sun rises and sets, where babies come from, why their is pain & suffering, etc.

While today, people have scientific answers and theories for many such questions about the world around them, in earlier times, and in some parts of the world today, people lacked the knowledge to provide scientific answers

Myths differ from most types of folk stories because they are considered to be true among the people who develop them

Many myths describe the creation of the earth & in some of these stories, a god creates the earth while in others, the earth emerges from a flood

A number of myths describe the creation of the human race and the origin of death

Thus, a major sociological feature of all myths is that they address fundamental questions relating to human or worldly existence that shape the very nature of a society

Myths are still important today beyond how they can represent fundamental questions which humanity has struggled w/ over the eons

Many social scientists believe that humanity & society continue to struggle w/ these fundamental questions & our struggles can be seen in the structure of society, culture, & collective behavior

The modern form of ideological representations which depict the fundamental questions include rumors, urban myths & legends, & the depiction of these in art, especially music, movies, & plays

Myths explain natural events in terms of stories about gods, goddesses, and heroes

For example, the Greeks had a story to explain the existence of evil and trouble

The Greeks believed that at one time the world's evils and troubles were trapped in a box & they escaped when the container was opened by Pandora, the first woman

Until the modern era, every society developed its own myths, which played an important part in the society's religious life & it is an open question as to whether societies continue to mythologize or whether Weber's conception of "the disenchantment of life" as embodied in the rationalization of life prevents societies from developing myths

The religious significance of myths has always separated them from similar stories, such as folk tales and legends

The people of a society may tell folk tales and legends for amusement, without believing them, but they usually consider their myths sacred and completely true

Many myths concern divinities (divine beings) that have supernatural powers, powers far greater than any human being has

But in spite of their supernatural powers, many gods, goddesses, and heroes of mythology have human characteristics

They are guided by such emotions as love and jealousy, and they experience birth and death

A number of mythological figures even look like human beings & in many cases, the human qualities of the divinities reflect a society's ideals

Good gods and goddesses have the qualities a society admires, and evil ones have the qualities it dislikes, though the mixture of good & evil among the divinities is as complex as it is among humanity

By studying myths, we can learn how different societies have answered basic questions about the world and the individual's place in it

We study myths to learn how a people developed a particular social system with its many customs and ways of life

By examining myths, we can better understand the feelings and values that bind members of society into one group

We can compare the myths of various cultures to discover how these cultures differ and how they resemble one another & to try to understand why people behave as they do

For thousands of years, mythology has provided material for much of the world's great art inspiring masterpieces of architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture

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Outline on the Emergent Norm Perspective's Analysis of Rumors

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The Emergent Norm Perspective (ENP) enables one to understand why people engage in deviant collective behavior

For the ENP, individuals engaging in collective behavior follow situational norms at odds w/ society

While the originators of the ENP Turner & Killian did not apply it to a diffuse situation like rumors, the SIX Stages of the ENP offer some interesting analysis of rumors

a. Uncertainty

Confusion, uncertainty, doubt, etc. makes people follow others who seem to know what to do

Confusion, uncertainty, doubt, etc. also makes people likely to hear & trust a rumor

Allport & Postman call the people who care about a rumor, both tellers & believers, a "rumor public"

Paralleling the ENP, when the rumor public is uncertain, they are more likely to believe a rumor

Uncertainty is not necessarily directly about the object of a rumor, it may relate to a general uncertainty about society & / or the future

The uncertainty is not necessarily directly about the object rumor, such as Procter & Gamble, rather it had to do w/ uncertainty about society, the loss of Christian values, etc.

b. Urgency

For Collective Behavior or Rumors to occur, people must urgently feel that something must be done

In the P & G rumor, the Tellers didn't just believe that the rumor was interesting, they believed that it was extremely important, worth sharing, & required immediate action

The urgency around the P & G rumors is magnified by the historical conditions of the 1980s: the economy was in decline, unemployment & crime were rising

c. Communication of Mood & Imagery

The rumor public talks about the "facts" around the rumor & reach a common understanding & definition of the situation

Word of mouth was secondary to church newsletters & direct mail flyers

The rumors about Procter & Gamble spread from region to region & addressed only some P & G products

d. Constraint

Members of the rumor public often feel constrained or directed by the rumor

In the case of P & G, the church public felt they had to follow the rumors & boycott P & G

e. Selective Individual Suggestibility

As the rumor public develops a common definition, they become more & more polarized from the non rumor public

The rumor public becomes increasingly likely to accept info, beliefs or cues that fit the rumor

Each level of a rumor sets the stage for the more detailed versions of the rumor that follow

It is not general gullibility that matters

It is the individual's susceptibility to rumors pertaining to certain specific topics based on their generalized beliefs, culture, religion, situational conditions, etc.

Some people are more likely than others to believe in satanic cults, some in UFOs, etc. because of their life experiences

f. Permissiveness

Rumors give permission to people to engage in conversation, beliefs or activities related to the general belief of the rumor

During the P & G rumor scare, the fundamentalists received permission to discuss their fears about society

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Outline on Myths & the Collective Consciousness

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Many social scientists have developed theories telling how we can learn about people from the myths they tell

Some of these theories stress the role of myths in understanding society as a whole

Other theories emphasize the place of mythology in understanding why an individual acts in a certain way

DURKHEIM

During the late 1800s & early 1900s, the French sociologist Emile Durkheim developed several important theories on what he felt was the real meaning of myths

Durkheim believed that every society establishes certain social institutions & values, which are reflected in the society's religion

Therefore, according to Durkheim, most of a society's gods, heroes, & myths are really collective representations of the institutions & values of that society or of important parts w/in it

For Durkheim, collective representations determine how the individuals in the society think & act

By examining a society's myths, Durkheim believed, a sociologist can discover its social institutions & values

Many social scientist agree w/ Durkheim that myths provide a unique & powerful window into the fundamental culture of society, into the knowledge, beliefs, values & norms of society

Other social scientist who have examined myths for their insights into culture include Freud, Niklas Luhmann, Jung, Levi Strauss, & others

DUMEZIL

Georges Dumezil, a modern French scholar, was influenced by Durkheim's ideas in the study of Indo European mythology

According to Dumezil, the principal Indo European divinities were collective representations of the caste (class) system common to several ancient Indo European peoples

In ancient India the gods Mitra & Varuna represented the Brahman castes, the highest castes in Hindu society, made up of priests & scholars

The god Indra represented the warrior castes, which ranked below the Brahmans

The Ashvin twins represented still lower castes, farmers & herders

The relation btwn these Indian divinities reveals what the Hindus considered proper conduct among the castes

One ancient Indian myth tells that Indra killed a monster that threatened the peace & security of the gods

But the monster happened to be the chaplain of the gods & therefore a divine Brahman & as a result, Indra felt he had committed a great sin because he had killed a Brahman

The India myth of the killing of a monster illustrates the ancient Indian belief that under no circumstances should a member of one caste harm a member of a higher caste

CG JUNG

In the early 1900s, the Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung developed a controversial theory about how myths reflect the attitudes & behavior of individuals

Jung suggested that everyone has a personal & a collective unconscious which is very similar to Durkheim's view of the collective consciousness

For Durkheim & Jung, an individual's personal unconscious is formed by the person's experiences in the world as filtered through the senses

For Durkheim & Jung, an individual's collective unconscious is inherited & shared by all humankind

Jung believed that the collective unconscious is organized into basic patterns & symbols, which he called archetypes

Myths represent one kind of archetype & other kinds include fairy tales, folk sagas, & works of art

Jung believed that all mythologies have certain features in common such as gods & heroes, & themes, such as love, revenge places, such as the home of the gods or the underworld, & plots, such as a battle btwn generations for control of a throne

Jung suggested that archetypes date back to the earliest days of humankind

By studying myths & other archetypes, Jung believed, scholars could trace the psychological development of particular cultures as well as of all humankind

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Outline on the Origin of Myths

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For all of human existence, people have speculated about the origin of myths & we have evidence about this on-going search for the origin & understanding of myths for the last 2100 years

Some believe myths began as historical events that became distorted with the passage of time while others think myths resulted from an attempt to explain natural occurrences that people could not understand

Scholars have also developed other theories of how myths began, but none of these theories answers all the questions about myths, but each contributes to an understanding of the subject

Euhemerus, a Greek scholar who lived during the late 300's and early 200's B.C., developed one of the oldest known theories about the origin of myths

Euhemerus was one of the first scholars to suggest that all myths are based on historical facts

Euhemerus believed that scholars had to strip away the supernatural elements in a myth to reach these facts

For example, Euhemerus felt that Zeus was probably modeled on an early king of Crete who had such great power that he inspired many supernatural tales

However, Euhemerus's theory has the one basic weakness that in most cases, modern scholars lack enough historical evidence to determine whether a mythical figure ever existed

Emile Durkheim & Carl Jung were some of the earliest modern scholars to examine myth & they believed that myths were cultural representations of the fundamental questions of existence which all societies wrestle w/, as well as representations of a society's solutions to those questions

Friedrich Max Muller suggested that all gods and mythical heroes were representations of nature, especially the sun

Sir Edward Burnett Tylor believed that myths began through people's efforts to account for unexplainable occurrences in dreams

Sir James George Frazer believed that myths began in the great cycle of nature, birth, growth, decay, death, and rebirth

Ritualists believed that myths derive from rituals or ceremonies

Bronislaw Malinowski emphasized the psychological conditions that lead people to create myths

Claude Levi-Strauss believed that people use myths to express, for the most part unconsciously, their deeply held ideas about themselves and their relationship to the world around them

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Outline on Malinowski & Myths

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Bronislaw Malinowski was a Polish-born British anthropologist of the early 1900s

Malinowski disagreed with Tylor that myths began as prescientific attempts to explain dreams and natural occurrences

Instead, Malinowski emphasized the psychological conditions that lead people to create myths

According to Malinowski, all people recognize that a frontier exists between what people can and cannot explain logically

Malinowski said people create myths when they reach the frontier of what they can rationally explain

For example, early human beings lacked the scientific knowledge to explain thunder logically, and so they decided it was caused by a god using a hammer

Malinowski believed that people had to create such myths in order to relieve the tension brought on by their not knowing why something happens

Thus Malinowski's theory of the origins myths is similar to the theory of structural conduciveness as one of the origins of collective behavior; that is, people create myths & / or engage in collective behavior to address a tension in society that cannot be addressed individually

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Outline on Levi Strauss & Myths

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Claude Levi Strauss, a modern French anthropologist, is the best known supporter of structuralism

People use myths to express, for the most part unconsciously, their deeply held ideas about themselves & their relationship to the world around them

Many modern scholars, including Levi Strauss, have applied the methods developed by linguists to the study of mythology

Levi Strauss & many other scholars believe that a set of interpreted myths serves as a form of language

The approach of interpreting myths as a form of language is often referred to as structuralism

According to Levi Strauss, a myth's basic purpose is to resolve an otherwise unresolvable contradiction

Levi Strauss illustrates his version of structuralism through his interpretation of the Oedipus myth

Before Levi Strauss, Freud also interpreted the Oedipus myth to reveal humanity's psychic needs to unite w/ the mother & conquer the father

In this ancient Greek story, Oedipus, the king of the city of Thebes, unknowingly kills his father & marries his mother

When the truth is revealed to him, Oedipus leaves Thebes w/ his children, gouges out his own eyes, & dies in exile

In explaining the meaning of the Oedipus myth, Levi Strauss groups together episodes that share common characteristics

Levi Strauss also considers the whole story, not simply the part that Oedipus plays in it

In the story, Oedipus' great grandfather, Cadmus, kills a dragon, & Oedipus himself kills a monster called the Sphinx

Levi Strauss suggests that both actions of killing a dragon & a sphinx reflect people's triumph over the forces of nature

However, a contrasting theme also appears in the myth

The Greek word Oedipus means swollen foot, & Oedipus' father, Laius, & his grandfather, Labdacus, also had names that refer to difficulties in walking

The choice of names in the Oedipus myth reflects the extent to which humanity can never escape nature

According to Levi Strauss, such themes such as humanity's inability to escape nature must be fully explored before one can understand the "deep structure" of the Oedipus myth

Levi Strauss believes such corresponding deep structures exist in all myths

Some scholars argue that Levi Strauss's theories are too subjective

Other critics claim that his structural models are too far removed from the actual mythological texts to say anything meaningful about them

Nevertheless, the structuralist approach has had a profound impact on modern mythological studies

The idea that myths & other traditional narratives reflect a deep seated model of some sort is accepted by most anthropologists & by most scholars who study myths, legends, & folklore

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Outline on the Urban Myths & Legends

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- Project: Urban Myths & Legends

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Urban myths & legends are persistent, enduring rumors

Urban legends are told in the form of a story

Legends give specific details about an event that supposedly occurred

Most legends carry a moral but some are just interesting

Urban myths & legends have most of the qualities of myths in general in that they deal w/ fundamental questions of existence which represent the culture of a society & they offer a depiction of epic struggles in a society

Urban myths may be considered to be "young or immature myths" on the one hand, while others are in fact, the retelling of the same stories, questions, & epic struggles which myths have represented for eons

The immature urban myth may offer social science some insight into the origin of myths in general

An example of an urban legend is the story of the man who meets an attractive women at a party or bar, goes home w/ her, & wakes up w/ kidney, etc. gone

Urban myths give general information pertaining to a specific "fact"

Myths do not recount a specific event

Most myths supposedly reveal a "truth" but some are just interesting

Urban myths are immature myths in that they may represent a universal or wide-spread fear that is present society, but they are immature in that they offer no solution or epic struggle addressing the fear

Urban myths are immature myths in that they may represent a universal or wide-spread opportunity that is present society, but they are immature in that they offer no moral to the gain of wealth, fame, etc.

An example of a myth is that a tooth, or penny left in a glass of cola will dissolve overnight

Myths & legends often support each other

The difference is whether someone believes a specific, detailed incident took place ( Legend ) or whether something is true ( Myth )

There are always certain "facts" that a person must believe in order to accept Urban Myths

Rumors Legends & Myths spread rapidly by email today

Examples of Urban Legends

a. A teenage baby-sitter on drugs roasted an infant

People must believe that
            "hippies are untrustworthy
            drugs are dangerous
            drugs could make it possible to confuse a turkey & an infant
            society is changing in badly ways
            young people are "different"

Most urban legends carry a moral, some are just interesting stories

The teenage baby roaster carries the moral:
Don't take drugs, don't rust hippies & don't trust teenagers
Don't go out to dinner: you should be home w/ the kids

b. The charred remains of a scuba diver is found in a tree in a burned out forest fire

The victim died of massive internal injuries

The victim had been scooped up by a water scooping aircraft or firefighting helicopter

c. Procter & Gamble, the Devil, & Amway

Examples of Urban Myths

A vast web of organized "Satanic Cults" abduct & sacrifice thousands of babies & young children every year in the US

Feminine hygiene products contain asbestos & manufacturers do this on purpose to make women bleed more during their period

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Outline on the Myth of a Feminine Hygiene Conspiracy

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The was a widespread myth that feminine hygiene pads & tampons contain asbestos & manufacturers do this on purpose to make women bleed more during their period

The allegations of asbestos contamination was allegedly created to increase the sale of another product line of feminine hygiene products

The feminine hygiene myths alleged that the FDA conspired w/ the manufacturers in a cover-up

A common feature of urban myths is the allegation of a cover-up or of authorities w/holding information

Urban myths that feature cover-ups & the w/holding of information represent a widespread or universal fear in modern society

The feminine hygiene products myths functioned to increase sales of "alternative products"

Koenig demonstrates that competitors often turn out to be the sources of negative rumors related to businesses

Many urban myths address problems w/ products, which represents a widespread or universal fear of products in the age of mass production, & perhaps even an ancient fear related to any products over which one has little knowledge of or control over its production, distribution, etc.

Thus, in understanding the origin of an urban myth related to a product, one must understand if the myth is primarily representing a general fear or whether it is primarily motivated by harming one product line or promoting another

Urban myths that functioned to harm a product line have centered on McDonalds, Wendy's, Coke, Tylenol, etc.

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Outline on the Rumors of Procter & Gamble, the Devil, & Amway

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There is nothing peculiar or unique about the Procter & Gamble rumors except for the active participation by Amway distributors in the dissemination of the rumor

In 1980, Procter & Gamble began to receive calls from MN about their ties to satanic causes

Paul Martin, director of the Youth for Christ Office in Willmar, MN claimed that the P & G logo could be found on a "Satanic Church" in St. Paul, but it was actually a bookstore

Another fundamentalist claimed the logo was in a book on magic, but it did not appear in the book

Rumors spread that the CEO of P & G appeared on the Phil Donahue Show & admitted Satanism

The first known rumor about Satanism & corporate American appeared in 1977 about Ray Kroc of McDonalds

By 1982, the rumors about P & G's Satanism had spread primarily by clergy who did not confirm the rumors

P & G enlisted Jerry Falwell, Billy Graham & William Wildman to fight the rumor & Dear Abby called the rumors of Satanism ridiculous

P & G threatened lawsuits against anyone intentionally spreading the rumor of Satanism

The prevalence of the rumors dropped off but resurfaced again in 1984 as the result of Catholic clergy & networks

P & G pulled the logo off all retail products, but it remains on company stationary

P & G traced the resurgence of the rumor to several Amway Distributors

Amway sells itself as a Christian based firm w/ a "mission to do good"

In Amway, distributors often make more money signing up new salespeople than from selling the products themselves

In 1990, P & G sued the Newtons of KS for promoting the Satanic rumors to enhance their Amway sales

The P & G rumors demonstrate the a common feature of urban myths, that product myths:

- represent an ancient fear of products that are produced by others

- function to promote another line of products by another producer

- demonstrate that the use or consumption of a particular product may be evil in & of itself because of the nature of the product or because evil has in some way tainted it

- are sometimes promoted by competitors who hope the rumors continue to damage the competing firm

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Outline on Satanism: Myth & Reality

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- Supplement: Satanic Cult Scare and Allegations of Ritual Child Abuse by Jeffrey S. Victor

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Satanism is the worship of satan & has followings in Christian & most other cultures

Thus devil worship is the practice of worshiping demons or other evil spirits whereas satan refers to the embodiment of evil in the Christian religion

Satanism was in vogue in France during the 1800s & it was mostly a form of decadence rather than actual belief in satan

The principles of or rites used in satan worship usually parallel, in one manner or another, the religious culture of which they are a part

Thus satanism itself, as a collective movement, may be thought of as a counter culture that seeks to avoid the control & norms of the mainstream culture

Satanism embraces devilishness, as a satanic or diabolical disposition or doctrine, the role of the trickster or opposition

Only a few groups actually worship devils or other beings they consider evil

Members of a Brazilian religious group worship evil spirits called Exus, who they believe will harm their enemies

An anti-Christian movement called satanism has a small number of followers in Europe & No America

Satanism involves elements of magic & witchcraft & its chief ceremony is the Black Mass, a distorted version of a Christian church service in which the worshipers praise satan & ridicule God

The term devil worship is sometimes used by people to describe a religion other than their own

Individuals who consider their religion the only true one may regard the gods of others as devils, especially if the gods are portrayed as fierce

People also may use the term devil worship for practices they misinterpret

Some groups offer gifts to evil spirits to calm the spirits' anger & such offerings may seem like devil worship to other people

A Middle Eastern religious group called the Yazidis acquired the name devil worshipers through a misunderstanding

Like early Christians, the Yazidis believe the devil was once the chief angel but was expelled from heaven because of his rebellious pride

According to the Yazidis, however, the devil repented & was restored to his former position by god

The Yazidis worship the devil as the chief angel, who rules the world on behalf of god

There is a widespread myth that a vast web of organized "satanic cults" abduct & sacrifice thousands of babies & young children every year in the US

The FBI spent years investigating satanist cults & never found a single case of child abduction or murder by any organized satanic cult

Thousands of fundamentalist Christians believe these myths about satanism

Many more Americans have heard the myths about satanism & believe it may be true: i.e. they have not made up their mind; they have neither confirming nor disconfirming believes / knowledge

THREE facts fuel the myth of satanism are that:

a. the media builds up the story of satanism through movies such as Rosemary's Baby, etc.

b. there is a Church of Satan which is harmless but does have a charismatic, publicity seeking leader

c. there have been scattered acts of random violence related to unorganized satanists

There are SIX "pseudo - facts," i.e. untrue beliefs, that a person must believe in order to accept the myth of satanism including that:

1. large numbers of people worship satan

2. satanists kill children & babies

3. thousands of children go missing each year

The reality is that the majority of children who go missing are abducted by an estranged spouse, run-away, or are abducted by child molesters, in that order

4. society has become so decadent, evil, or chaotic that effective law enforcement is impossible

5. the media ( & professors! ) are conspiring in a cover up

6. law enforcement officials are either corrupt or inept, or are covering up

The myth of satanism functions for several groups for the THREE reasons that it:

a. provides a common enemy for fundamentalist Christians, thus increasing group cohesion

b. provides "good copy" for the media

c. gives satanists more publicity & feeds their need to be counter-culture, thus increasing group cohesion

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