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Review Notes: Assembly & Sociocybernetic Perspectives
(Symbolic-Interactionist/Behaviorist) ( AS-SIB Perspective )
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 Behaviorism:  Behaviorism is the intellectural foundation of Symbolic Interactionism & the AS-SIB Perspective   
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 Intro to Symbolic Interactionism:  Symbolic Interactionism  is the intellectural foundation of the AS-SIB Perspective   
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            The Principles of Symbolic Interactionism   
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 Systems Theory:  Systems Theory is a parallel theory to socio cybernetics as in the AS-SIB Persepctive   
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          Autopoietic Systems   
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          Society & Psychic Systems   
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 The Assembly, Sociocybernetic, Symbolic-Interactionist/Behaviorist (AS-SIB) Persepctives  
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 The Assembly, Sociocybernetic, Symbolic-Interactionist/Behaviorist (AS-SIB) Persepctives & Other Schools of Thought  
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 The Assembling Process  
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 The Gathering Process  
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        Cohesion:  During the Gathering Process cohesion is created    
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 The Dispersal Process  

 
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Outline on the  Assembly-Sociocybernetic-Symbolic-Interactionist/Behaviorist (AS-SIB)
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  AS-SIB theories go by many names, each has a different nuance/emphasis & combines a number of schools of thought   
  Many call AS-SIB perspective the assembly perspective because of the focus on the patterns by which humans assemble into gatherings   
  The AS-SIB perspective was established by Clark McPhail in the 1970s 
 
  The AS-SIB perspective focuses on the organization of convergent behavior within gatherings 
 
  Behavior converges because of the common meaningful interpretations or instructions created by participants & others 
 
  People are thought to regulate their own behavior & directly influence others
 
  For AS-SIB, collective behavior is just another form of group behavior in that there is a continuum of behavior from the individual to the small group to a large group... 
 
  AS-SIB examines how crowds come together, behave, disperse 
 
  Unlike Smelser & value added theory, AS-SIB has no analysis of the structural causes of collective behavior 
 
  McPhail is a "grounded theorist:" he has observe thousands of collective actions such as rallies, protests, sporting events, etc. 
 
  McPhail views collective behavior as any organization or coordination of individual activity 
 
  In everyday life people come together & form temporary groups where they manage to coordinate their behavior to allow everyone to meet their goals 
 
  McPhail is interested in how the processes of assembling, gatherings & coordination of behavior are accomplished 
 
  McPhail is not trying to explain atypical behavior; he wants to explain all group behavior including collective behavior such as fads or riots 
 
  It is useful for the study of collective behavior to note that collective behavior is not so different from normal group behavior   
  McPhail now calls his theory the sociocybernetic theory of collective action 
 
  For McPhail's sociocybernetic theory:   
  a.  people in crowds do not lose control, go mad, etc. 
 
  b.  people have no psychological condition, cognitive style, or predispositions which distinguishes participants from non participants 
 
  c.  most crowd behavior is not uniform, rather most gatherings exhibit perfectly normal, expected behavior 
 

 
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 Outline on the Behaviorism
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  Behaviorism is the psychological school holding that objectively observable organismic behavior constitutes the essential or exclusive scientific basis of psycholigcal data & investigation & stressing the role of the environment as a determinent of human & animal behavior   
  Behaviorism explains human behavior entirely as a physiological response to environmental stimuli 
 
  One of the earliest theorists in behaviorism was Pavlov who trained his dog to salivate at the sound of a bell 
 
 
 Pavlov & Bekhterev developed the behavioristic concepts of the conditioned reflex 
 
  Pavlov's experiments with animals proved that certain reflex actions can become conditioned responses to entirely new stimuli   
  EARLY BEHAVIORISM:  PAVLOV & WATSON  
  Pavlov noticed that a dog's mouth begins to water as a reflex when the animal smells meat   
  Pavlov rang a bell each time he was about to give meat to a dog   
  Eventually, the dog's mouth began to water when Pavlov merely rang the bell   
  The flow of saliva had become a conditioned response to the ringing of the bell   
 
 As a major branch of psychology, behaviorism developed from research on learning 
 
 
 Today behavioral theories continue to emphasize the effects of learning on behavior 
 
 
 Behaviorism was introduced in 1913 by the American psychologist John B. Watson, who felt psychologists should study only observable behavior rather than states of consciousness or thought processes 
 
  Watson's approach to behaviorism was strongly influenced by the research of the Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov during the early 1900's   
 
 Watson developed behaviorism based on the mechanistic concepts of Democritus, Epicurus, & Hobbes 
 
 
 Watson believed changes in behavior result from conditioning, a learning process in which a new response becomes associated with a certain stimulus 
 
 
 Watson denied the value of introspection & consciousness as unscientific concepts 
 
 
 Watson saw all mental processes as bodily movements, even when those movements could not be observed 
 
 
 For Watson, verbal thinking is subvocal speech 
 
  Watson demonstrated that responses of human beings could be conditioned in a similar manner to the methodology of Pavlov's Dog   
  In one study, Watson struck a metal bar loudly each time an infant touched a furry animal   
  The sound of a metal bar which was struck as an infant touched an animal scared the child, who in time became frightened by just the sight of the animal   
  Watson felt he could produce almost any response in a child if he could control the child's environment   
  Watson is an advocate of what today is called Radical Behaviorism that is only concerned w/ observable behavior   
  RADICAL BEHAVIORISM:  BF SKINNER & OTHERS   
  Radical behaviorism focuses only on stimuli & responses & the resulting behavior   
  For radical behaviorism, mental processes were an unexamined black box   
  During the mid 1900's, the American behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner became known for his studies of how rewards and punishments can influence behavior   
  B.F. Skinner was an important behaviorist of the 1950s until the present who may also be considered a radical behaviorist   
  Skinner believed that rewards, or positive reinforcements, cause behavior to be repeated   
  Positive reinforcements might include praise, food, or simply a person's satisfaction with his or her own skill   
  Punishments discourage the behavior they follow but punishment also encourages people to avoid situations in which they might be punished   
  Skinner concluded that positive reinforcement is more effective in teaching new and better behaviors   
  Skinner's work led to the development of teaching machines, which are based on positive reinforcement   
 
 Behaviorists considered all emotions except fear, love, & rage as learned by conditioning, & thus they can be unlearned 
 
 
 Behaviorism was very influential in the US btwn the world wars 
 
 
 Behaviorists hold that ALL behavior is conditioned by the environment 
 
 
 The environment, which includes other people, gives people rewards & punishments, which are the stimulus 
 
 
 An operant conditioning schedule of rewards & punishment determines behavior 
 
 
 The behavior, that is elicited by a stimulus, is a response 
 
 
 In an operant conditioning schedule, 
 
 
 - rewards are the supplying of something valuable, or the removing of something unpleasant 
 
 
 - punishments are the supplying of something unpleasant, or the removing of something valuable 
 
 
 For behaviorism, consciousness is an artifact, meaning that it is not necessary to study it in order to understand behavior 
 
 
 In many ways, behaviorism is a 100% socialization theory in that genetics, & will power / consciousness have a minimal role 
 
 
 Behaviorists use a learning process called conditioning to change abnormal behavior 
 
 
 In this process, behaviorists treat disturbed people by teaching them acceptable behavior patterns and reinforcing desired behavior by rewards and punishments 
 
  SOCIAL BEHAVIORISM:  MEAD & COOLEY   
 
 Social behaviorism, as developed by Mead, the exchange theorists, network theorists, & rational choice theorist  diverges from strict or radical behaviorism in that mental process are seen as important 
 
 
 For the social behaviorists, radical behaviorism was too simplistic because it ignored the social context in which a given behavior occurred 
 
 
 For the social behaviorists, social theorists need to understand mental process to interpret behavior 
 
 
 Actors are not stimulus & response puppets, but dynamic, reactive actors 
 
 
 Social behaviorism (as for Mead) is concerned w/ operant conditioning 
 
 
 Social behaviorism has a strong influence on 
 
 
    Mead   
 
    Exchange Theory   
 
    Network Theory   
 
    Exchange Theory   
 
 Social behaviorism sees stimuli as reward & punishment schedules from the environment, from other actors, and from the actor themself 
 
 
 Social behaviorism examines the relationship btwn behavior and its effect on the environment and the actor's later behavior 
 
 
 Social behaviorism examines the learning process by which behavior is modified by its consequences 
 
 
 The social & physical environments are affected by an actor's behavior and act back:  i.e. give feedback 
 
 
 Feedback affects the actor's later behavior 
 
 
 Social behaviorism is concerned w/ the history of env feedback or consequences and the nature of present behavior 
 
 
 Past consequences of a behavior govern its present state 
 
 
 Social rewards have ability to strengthen or reinforce behavior 
 
 
 Social costs reduce the likelihood of behavior 
 
  Most psychologists agree with the behaviorists that environment influences behavior and that they should study chiefly observable actions   
  However, many psychologists object to pure behaviorism because they believe that it pays too little attention to such processes as reasoning and personality development   

 
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 Outline on   Intro to Symbolic Interactionism
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  INTRO:  S - I FOCUSES ON HOW WE CREATE MEANING IN AN INTERACTIVE PROCESS W/ OURSELVES, OTHERS, & SOCIAL STRUCTURES  
  Symbolic interactionism is a micro oriented paradigm which holds that: 
1.  we create meaning in an interactive process w/ ourselves, others, & social structures 
2.  societal level actions are aggregated by the actions of individuals/groups 
3.  what people believe to be true, becomes true in its consequences 
4.  society sends messages, gives rules 
5.  these messages are imprinted on us (through socialization) from childhood on 
6.  the content of these impressions is culture 
7.  social processes / relationships are what construct the individual & society 
8.  there is a 3 way dynamic among the self, society, & the processes of the construction of the self & society 
9.  societies interact through symbolic processes w/ themselves & individuals 
10.  individuals interact through symbolic processes w/ themselves & societies 
 
  S - I metaphor: 
"All the world's a stage,
And all the men & women merely players.
They have their exits & their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven stages."
William Shakespeare, As You Like It ( Act II Scene 7 )
 
  The symbolic interactionist paradigm is a major micro sociological perspective stressing the importance of messages from others & society, how people understand & interpret these messages & how this process affects people's behavior 
 
  Societal level actions are aggregated by the actions of individuals or groups   
 
 FOR S - I, SOCIAL PROCESSES / RELATIONSHIPS ARE WHAT CONSTRUCT THE INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY
 
  Symbolic interactionism is the study of the processes 
  by which human interaction occurs 
  including the interactions 
  btwn individuals & larger society 
  & how that interaction creates society itself 
  & the individual itself 		  
  Symbolic interactionism holds that 
  Society, 
  social interactions, 
  & the self itself, 
  develop / are created through the use of 
  symbols, language, signs & gestures 
 
 
 THERE IS A 3 WAY DYNAMIC AMONG THE SELF, SOCIETY, & THE PROCESSES OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF & SOCIETY 
 
  Symbolic interactionist holds that there is a THREE way dynamic which constructs the self & society 
 
    a.  The self (selves) creates social interactions 
 
    b.  Social interactions create society 
 
    c.  Society creates the self 
 
  Blumer coined the term symbolic interactionism in 1937 
 
 
 SOCIETIES INTERACT THROUGH SYMBOLIC PROCESSES W/ THEMSELVES & INDIVIDUALS  
  Societies do 
  - send messages 
  - give rules 
  - but it is on the individual level that these situations, messages, etc. occur 
 
 
 INDIVIDUALS INTERACT THROUGH SYMBOLIC PROCESSES W/ THEMSELVES & SOCIETY  
  Individuals also 
  - send messages 
  - give rules 
  - but most of these messages & rules are largely shaped by & constrained by society 
 
  Symbolic interactionism developed from social psychology, & still has a strong relationship w/ that field & has inspired a number of other  important subfields: dramaturgy, exchange theory, neuro linguistic programming 
 
  In sociology, most of the ideas of symbolic interactionist are found in the study of socialization   

 
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 Outline on the  Principles of Symbolic Interactionism
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  -  Project:  Messages 
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  -  Video:  Cast Away:  Hanks & Wilson:      22.45 
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  -  Project:  Video:  Cast Away, Mead, Cooley, & Symbolic Interactionism 
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  FOR SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM, BOTH THE INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY ARE CREATED SIMULTANEOUSLY; THEY CREATE EACH OTHER IN AN ON-GOING PROCESS OF THE MEANING CREATION & INTERPRETATION OF SYMBOLS   
  There are SIX Common Principles in Symbolic Interactionism    ( a micro sociological theory )
1.  Individuals send messages 4.  The meaning we perceive shapes our behavior
2.  We receive thousands of messages per day 5.  Our interpretation & behavior creates our self
3.  We interpret messages 6.  The social construction of reality is a dynamic on going process
 
  Symbolic interactionism focuses on how messages are sent, received, interpreted, & shape our "reality" (individual behavior & society)  
  We sometimes notice this "meaning creation process" in stressful situations:
-  Does this person like me?
-  What do these people really want?
-  What is going on here?
-  What am I supposed to do?		  
  But the meaning creation process goes on all the time  
  The meaning creation process is routine in most situations  
  What makes society function smoothly, w/o conflict, w/o chaos, is that most behavior & meaning is routine  
  We establish "habits," "routines," life-styles," "personalities," etc. that create meaning for us  
  1.  INDIVIDUALS SEND MESSAGES   
 
 "Individuals" send messages 
 
  "Society" does & does not send messages  
  Does:  smiles, comments, rules, laws  
  Doesn't:  individuals create this, but as dictated by society  
 
 Examples:  shake hands, bow, hug, high five, look me in the eye; avoid eye contact, hug, kiss, etc.
 
  2.  WE RECEIVE THOUSANDS OF MESSAGES PER DAY   
  We receive thousands of messages per day
 
  Individuals receive messages through the senses, which are then interpreted by the mind  
  Society receives messages through individuals in the social institutions such as family, church, govt, etc.  
  3.  WE INTERPRET MESSAGES   
  We interpret messages:  i.e., we engage in meaning creation  
  Meaning is created, & is not inherent in the situation  
  So reality depends on the content of the messages & situations as well as how the person interprets them  
  The interpretation of reality can often be an important fact in determining the ultimate reality  
  Example:  Hello:  Someone on the street saying "Hello, it's a nice day" 
You may interpret this as a friendly gesture or as an attempt to get something from you		  
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 Example:  Shirtless at UVW  
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 4.  THE MEANING WE PERCEIVE SHAPES OUR BEHAVIOR   
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 Behavior sends messages.....  
  Examples:  interpreting situations  
  Common social situations for discussion of meaning include major life passages:  birth, marriage, death, retirement, etc.   
  Common situations where we impart meaning, but it is really not a topic of conscious thought include a party, a friendship, a major purchase such as a car, home, major toy etc.  
  For symbolic interactionists, common situations pre influence meanings, such as
 Example:  Religion:  what is the meaning of baptism, communion, confirmation, brisk, etc.?		  
  But as delineated by Marcuse, Habermas et al, major corps do try to create / understand the meaning of these acts so that they can manipulate the meanings to enhance consumption of their products  
  5.  OUR INTERPRETATION & BEHAVIOR CREATES OUR SELF   
  Our interpretation & our behavior, which are the result of messages we send & receive, creates the self  
  We create habits or routines of how we interpret behavior & messages, which are a major aspect of what psychologists call personality  
  We create habits or routines of how we behave & send messages  
  Our interpretations & behaviors become fixed for ourself; our self:  Can I reinterpret my impression of a tattoo?  
  6.  THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY IS A DYNAMIC ON-GOING PROCESS   
 
 These social psychological processes of symbolic interactionism result in the "social construction of reality" which  denotes that their is no objective reality 
 
  "Reality" is constructed via an ongoing social process  
  - The reality that an actor experiences is NOT the same as the objective reality  
  - The interpretation of reality can be as important as reality itself  
  Reality is not simply determined by what goes on in an objective sense  
  Reality is determined by one's subjective or interpretive understanding of the meaning of what happens  
  Meaning is a product of past social experiences because an actor's subjective, interpretive understanding is rooted in past social experiences  

 
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Example:  Topless at UVW  I see man in halls w/o shirt
I try to rationalize why he might be w/o a shirt:
  - came in from outside
  - is involved in sociology project
  - major spill
  - is showing off
He will receive combination of 
  - approval messages
  - disapproval message

I see woman in halls w/o shirt
This is such unacceptable behavior, 
I am shocked, but come up w/ different explanations
  - is mentally unstable; risking arrest
  - is streaking

Point is:  I try to create meaning/understand
My meanings shape my behavior


 
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4.  A message's interpreted meaning shapes reality     Meaning shapes behavior  (individual & societal behavior)

If I believe man is showing off, I sneer
If I believe man had major spill, I pity him or offer jacket if I have one

If I believe woman is streaking, I laugh
If I believe woman is unstable, I try to get her help


 
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5.  Behavior sends messages... cycle continues  If I offer my coat to the man or woman, if I have misinterpreted 
   & they do not want the coat, they may laugh & / or threaten me

 
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 Outline on  Systems Theory
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  SYSTEMS THEORY'S BREADTH & FLEXIBILITY EXAMINES ALL SOCIAL PHENOMENA BY USING A MULTI LEVEL SYSTEM WHICH CONSIDERS A VARIETY OF COMPONENTS CONNECTED BY DIFFERENTIATED RELATIONSHIPS & PROCESSES   
 
 Scrivener asks, why do we need cybernetics & systems theory now? 
 
 
 We need systems theory because, "When we try to pick up anything by itself we find it is attached to everything in the universe."  -- John Muir, ecologist  
  Systems Theory:  
 
 - is applicable to all behavioral & social sciences 
 
  - provides a common vocabulary to unify the behavioral & social sciences & the physical sciences  
  - examines the many aspects in the social & behavioral sciences  
 
 - is a multi level system
 
  - can be applied to the largest & the smallest scale social phenomenon  
 
 - examines the many varied relationships
 
  - focuses on relationships & processes at various levels w/in the social system  
  - views social life as relationships among relationships  
  - sees all aspects of socio cultural systems in process terms, i.e. as networks of information & communications  
  - is inherently integrative  
  - operates against a piece meal analyses of the social world  
 
 - holds that components & complexes of elements are directly or indirectly related in a causal network such that each component is related to some others in a more or less stable way w/in any particular period of time
 
 
 - holds that because of the intricacy of social systems, an analysis of the parts cannot be treated out of the context of the whole
 
 
 - holds that society, social structures, texts, etc. cannot be treated as unified social facts
 
  The example of gravity shows that gravity, as reified into a thing, is actually only a relationship of attraction btwn objects w/ mass, demonstrating that in the social sciences we must not fall into reification of, for example, social structures, which are not things, but relationships  
     See Also:  Reification  
  FOR SYSTEMS THEORY, INFORMATION IS THE MOST IMPORTANT UNIT OF ANALYSIS   
 
 Information is "a difference that makes a difference," to use Gregory Bateson's definition
 
  Information is a measure of the reduction of uncertainty (entropy) that results from receiving a message  
  System is a word that we use to describe any "experience cluster" that we can map as a set of interacting elements over time  
  A system is mapped by identifying the pathways of information flow -- as well as possibly the flow of energy, matter and other variables  
 
 In a system, the "flow" of information is special, because only information can go from A to B while also staying at A  
 
 Buckley saw systems theory as operating on the levels of large scale objective structures, symbol systems, action  & interaction, consciousness, & self awareness
 
  INDIVIDUALS & SOCIETY EXCHANGE INFO DIRECTLY & AS FEEDBACK THROUGH MECHANICAL, ORGANIC, & SOCIO CULTURAL SYSTEMS  
 
 The individual & society are viewed as equal & as connected through mutually constitutive fields, related through feedback processes
 
 
 Systems theory focuses on processes in seeing the social world in dynamic terms where socio cultural reality continually emerges
 
 
 Systems theory sees relationships among mechanical systems, organic systems, & socio cultural systems, running in a continuum from least to most complex, & as exhibiting sub-systems that exist in a continuum from least to most stable
 
 
 In mechanical systems, interrelationships are based on transfers of energy
 
 
 In organic & socio cultural systems, interrelationships are based on transfers of information
 
 
 Mechanical systems, organic systems, & socio cultural systems may be differentiated by their degree of openness or closeness which describes their degree of interchange w/ the environment
 
 
 In general, mechanical systems are the most closed, organic systems are intermediate, & socio cultural systems are the most open  
 
 The degree of openness is related to entropy, the tendency of a system to run down, or negentropy, the tendency of a system to elaborate systems  
  Closed systems tend to be entropic & open systems tend to be negentropic  
  Socio cultural systems are generally open & tend to have more tension built into them  
  SYSTEMS ESTB GOALS, GIVE FEEDBACK, PRACTICE MAINTENANCE, ELABORATE / GROW, & MEDIATE / ADAPT TO THE ENV   
  Socio cultural systems can be purposive & goal seeking & they receive high levels of feedback from the environment, which allows them to move toward their goals  
  Feedback is an essential process in systems theory  
  In contrast to functionalism w/ its focus on equilibrium, feedback enables systems theory to deal w/ friction, growth, evolution, & change  
  See Also:  Functionalism  
  One quality of system openness is the amount of feedback a systems receives  
  Morphostasis includes those processes that help a system maintain itself, which are similar to functionalism's maintenance, a.k.a. latency function  
  Morphogenesis includes those processes that help a system change itself, & grow more elaborate  
      See Also:  Archer & Agency Structure Integration  
  Social systems develop increasingly complex mediating systems which are systems which intervene btwn external forces & the action of the system  
  Some mediating systems maintain the system & some cause change  
  Mediating systems may grow more independent, autonomous, and determinative of the system, allowing the system to become less dependent on the environment  
  Mediating systems allow the system to adjust, they allow the system to enter new environments, they reorganize parts of the system to more efficiently deal w/ the environment  
  The system processes of goal setting, feedback, maintenance, elaboration, etc. are similar to those analyzed by Parsons' functionalism   
  See Also:  Parsons  
  CONSCIOUSNESS IS AN INTERNAL FEEDBACK SYSTEM WHICH KEYS ACTION  
  Buckley built on Mead's work where consciousness & action are interrelated  
     See Also:  Mead  
  Action begins w/ a signal from the environment, which is transmitted to the actor, complicated by noise, providing the actor w/ info, upon which the actor selects a response via the mediating process of self consciousness  
  In systems theory, self consciousness is a mechanism of internal feedback of the system's own states which may be mapped or compared w/ other info from the situation, form memory, permitting selection from a repertoire of actions in a goal directed manner  
  For Mead & systems theory, consciousness is integral part of both action & interaction  
  Buckley builds on Mead's understand of consciousness, action & interaction by integrating the interpersonal realm w/ the personality system & seeing both as mutually determinative  
  Buckley did not move beyond the individual /consciousness, personal & interpersonal levels, to the interactional domain of patterns of interaction such as imitation & response  
  Buckley did examine the macro level, especially roles & institutions  
  THE PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEMS THEORY INCLUDE TENSION, VARIATION, DYNAMISM, AGGREGATION, & MAINTENANCE   
  Buckley formulated general principles of systems theory 
 
  A.  TENSION   
  Systems theory accepts the ideas that tension is normal, ever present, & necessary for system operation 
 
  Like conflict theory, systems theory recognizes struggle btwn the system & the env as well as amongst the parts of the system   
  See Also:  Conflict Theory  
  B.  VARIATION   
 
 Systems theory focuses on the nature & sources of varieties of social systems 
 
  Functionalism, like systems theory, recognizes that differentiation, the increasing complexity of a system, is a regular process of society   
  See Also:  Functionalism   
  The focus on tension & variety makes systems theory dynamic   
  C.  DYNAMISM   
 
 Dynamism is enhanced in the understanding that the selection process at various levels, i.e. individual & interpersonal, has alternatives that may be sorted & sifted 
 
  Systems w/ differentiated segments in tension w/ each other creates a dynamic system, i.e. one that is constantly experiencing a flow of info & other resources, some of which results in change & some of which maintain the system through a thermostat like feedback group   
  D.  AGGREGATION   
 
 The interpersonal level is the basis of the larger structures 
 
  A fundamental aspect of the social sciences is that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts because of dynamism, which is to say that parts aggregate, i.e. combine in complex manners to create the system   
  E.  MAINTENANCE   
 
 Besides the dynamic processes of tension, variation of systems, & choice, the processes of perpetuation & transmission operated to bring stability & change 
 
 
 Ball notes the similarity btwn systems theory & dialectics in their focus on relations, process, creativity, & tension 
 
 
    See Also:  The Dialectic   
  Like functionalism, in systems theory perpetuation & transmission serve to maintain the system   

 
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 Outline on  Autopoietic Systems
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  -  Project:  Autopoietic Systems & Social Structure 
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  Autopoietic systems have the qualities that they
1.  - produce the basic elements of a system, i.e. the system produces itself
2.  - are self organizing
3.  - produce & organize their own boundaries, distinguishing btwn what is in the system & what is in the environment
4.  - are determined by the self organization of the system, & not as functionalism would hold, by the functional necessities of the system
5.  - produce & organize their own internal structures
6.  - produce their own structures
7.  - are self referential
8.  - are a closed systems w/ no direct connection btwn itself & the environment, instead dealing w/ representations of the environment
 
  1.  Autopoietic systems produce the basic elements of a system, i.e. the system produces itself
 
  Example:  the economic system produces money, & the meaning / value of money is produced / maintained by the system
 
  Both money & the economic system emerged together
 
  2.  Autopoietic systems are self organizing
 
  3.  Autopoietic systems produce & organize their own boundaries, distinguishing btwn what is in the system & what is in the environment
 
  Example:  customers are sometimes seen as being part of an business, & sometimes not  
  4.  Autopoietic systems are determined by the self organization of the system, & not as functionalism would hold, by the functional necessities of the system  
     See Also:  Functionalism  
 
 5.  Autopoietic systems produce & organize their own internal structures
 
  Traditional European philosophy has favored theories in which causality is the dominant explanatory principle: things happen because someone, or by extension something, makes them happen  
  Causality has rarely provided adequate accounts of most systems because they consist of many interacting parts   
  The behavior of the system as a whole, and often of the individual parts, is an complex aggregation of the interactions of all the parts  
  In most systems, no part controls the whole, or can even control another part outside the influence of the rest of the system  
  Systems are said to be 'self organizing' and the behavior of aggregates of components is said to be 'emergent'  
  Systems may be living organisms, ecosystems, and social or ecosocial systems, all which have no isolated controlling agencies  
  There are no control hierarchies among components: no generals, captains, and soldiers  
  Self organizing systems are inherently democratic, and Eurocultural philosophies basically are not  
 
 The environment & other systems may try to limit the scope of autopoietic systems
 
  An example of the limiting of autopoietic systems can be seen in the situation that sex & drugs are part of all market systems, but political systems try to exclude them
 
  6.  Autopoietic systems produce their own structures
 
  An example of autopoietic systems producing their own structures is economic systems producing markets, banks, exchanges, etc.
 
  7.  Autopoietic systems are self referential
 
  An example of the self referential quality of autopoietic systems is that economic systems use prices to refer to itself; the legal system has laws about laws; the educational system assesses & educates itself
 
  8.  Autopoietic systems are a closed systems w/ no direct connection btwn itself & the environment, instead dealing w/ representations of the environment
 
  An example of the closed quality of autopoietic systems is that economic system responds to the needs of the people through the demand they have as represented by the money they are willing to offer
 
  An example of the closed quality of autopoietic systems is that the IRS deals w/ tax forms, not people
 
  Autopoietic systems develop subsystems to indirectly link it to its environment & thus an autopoietic system is affected by its environment
 
  An example of the linking quality of autopoietic systems is that  Stock Market value may be out of sync or in sync w/ various environmental qualities such as the value of assets, resale price, revenue value, etc. 
 
  A closed system is distinct from the individual components that appear to be part of it; i.e. a bank is more than its money, more than its customers  
  An example of the distinction quality of autopoietic systems is that a bureaucracy is made up of people & deals w/ people in the environment & thus must bring people from the environment into the system as workers, as clients, & so on, differentiating them as workers, mgrs., major clients, etc.   

 
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 Outline on  Society & Psychic Systems
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  Society & psychic systems are autopoietic systems because they fulfill the four characteristics in that they produces their own basic elements, they establish their own boundaries & structures; they are self referential; & they are closed
 
  The basic element of society is communication produced by society
 
  Participants in society refer to society through communication
 
  An individual is relevant in society only to the extent that they communicate
 
  Whatever is not communication is part of the environment including biological & psychic systems, thus, for Luhmann, the individual is not part of society
 
  For Luhmann, there are no true individuals in that we are all created by society & continually immersed in it; to use the terms of the ethnomethodologists, behavior is over determined
 
     See Also:  Ethnomethodology  
  A psychic system is the consciousness of the individual
 
  The psychic system & society are systems consisting entirely of communication, which both rely on meaning, which affects the choices of the system
 
  The meaning of an action or object is the difference from other actions or objects
 
  Meaning appears against a backdrop of contingency
 
  If there is no possibility of being different, then there is no difference in meaning
 
  Action has meaning only when a selection is made from a range of possible actions
 
  All systems which rely on meaning, such as the Social & Psychic Systems, are closed because
 
  a.  meaning always refers to other meanings
 
  b.  only meaning can change meaning
 
  c.  meaning usually produces more meaning
 
  Meaning forms the boundary to each social or psychic system
 
  For example, for the psychic system, what is not meaningful is seen as outside the system as a cause of action; and what is seen as inside the system is seen as a motivation  
  Events enter the psychic system only as meaning  
  Even our bodies are seen only as a disturbance to the psychic system as the body enters our consciousness by becoming meaningful as an emotion, a feeling, a sensation  
  The social system differentiates meaning btwn a communication w/in the system, meaningful communications from the environment, or noise from inside or outside  
  Psychic & social systems evolved together because each is the necessary environment for the other  
  The elements of the psychic meaning system are conceptual representations  
  The elements of the social meaning system are communications  
  The  meaning in the psychic system does not have any priority over meaning in the social system because both systems are autopoietic & thus produce their own meanings & processes  
  In the psychic system, meaning is bound to consciousness, while in the social system, it is bound to communication  
  Consciousness is internal communication  
  Meaning in the social system cannot be attributed to an individual, an individual's intentions, nor to a social system because it is a selection from among the elements of each of these systems & thus meaning is contingent, the selection which is negotiated by members of the systems  
Link
 Examples of various meanings of a greeting  

 
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Examples of the various meanings of a greeting

A friendly hello
A person who wants something
A brush off
A romantic proposition


 
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 Outline on the  AS-SIB Perspectives & Other Schools of Thought
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  This set of theories goes by many names, each has a different nuance/emphasis & combines a number of schools of though
 
  From the behaviorist perspective, the AS-SIB perspective sees human behavior as mechanical, & capable as being broke down into a series of small decisions & actions
 
  Review the principles of symbolic interactionism
 
  The sociocybernetic name given to this perspective by McPhail demonstrates that the theory is trying to draws parallels btwn human decision making & artificial intelligence/computer programming
 
  AS-SIB is similar to emergent norm theory
 
  For the AS-SIB perspective, the process of developing similar reference signals is similar to emergent norm perspective's creation of a collective definition of the situation
 
  For the AS-SIB perspective, the concept of adopting reference signals developed by a 3rd party is similar to individuals conforming to an emergent nor in emergent norm theory
 
  For the AS-SIB & the emergent norm perspectives, people behave the same because they have a similar reference signal or define the situation in the same manner
 
  For both AS-SIB & the emergent norm perspective, people interdependently develop a common reference signal, i.e. create a common definition of the situation
 
  For the AS-SIB perspective & the emergent norm perspective, people w/in a gathering attempt to acquire info to develop a collective or convergent orientation/a common focus of attention
 
  For the AS-SIB & the emergent norm perspectives, people express feelings that match the crowd & thus exhibit circular reinforcement
 
  An example of the AS-SIB principle of people expressing feeling that match the crowd is seen at Woodstock 99 where of 225,000 attendees, several hundred rioted at the close of the concert
 
  With reference to Woodstock 99, traditional studies of collective behavior would focus on the riot while AS-SIB would focus on the 99+ % of the group that did not riot
 

 
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 Outline on the  Assembling Processes of the AS-SIB Perspective
External
Links
 
 -  Project:  AS-SIB, Assembly & Dispersal
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  There are 3 stages of any collective action for AS-SIB
 
  The first stage of any collective action is the assembly process
 
  Assembling instructions  must be given for people to take part in any gathering
 
  For the AS-SIB Perspective, instructions in the assembly process can be written or verbal  
  Instructions can be verbal: "Let's go to the protest"
 
  Instructions can be written:  "Protest at 2:00 on Saturday"
 
  Instructions for assembly can be given in person, by telephone, through the media, the internet, etc.
 
  Today, email & websites are linking more people in protest movements thus aiding the assembly process
 
  Most assembling instructions arrive informally through friends & acquaintances
 
  Most people go to gatherings w/ people they know
 
  The more "nudges" we receive from friends, media, etc., the more likely we are to attend an event
 
  Access is the variable that determines whether people can get to a collective action
 
  Access can be determined by laws regulating assembly
 
  Access can be affected by transportation to an action
 
  Access can be affected by the location of the action in that easily accessible locations make it easy for potential participants to assemble, but it also means that those opposed to the action may be able to intervene more easily  
  For the Rainbow Festival, location is an important factor in that they always choose a remote location such as the mountains outside of Council, ID  
 
 Distractions or competing demands are the variables that determines the degree of other opportunities available to potential participants  
  Students, part time workers, the unemployed, the never employed, "professional protesters," single people all have less distractions than the average, fully employed, married w/ children American  

 
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Outline on the Gathering Process of the AS-SIB Perspective
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 The 2nd Stage of any collective action is the gathering
 
 
 During the gathering, crowd behavior is almost never coordinated or unanimous
 
 
 Most gatherings are many small groups of people who know each other & who gather at the same time & place to take part in expected behavior of a large group
 
 
 The attention of the participants is as much on each other as it is on the focus of the event itself
 
 
 Examples of the attention of participants on each other can be seen in a college class or at a protest, but as w/ the emergent norm theory, when attention is more on the other participants, the more uncertain the situation becomes  
 
 A gathering is a term for a crowd made up of any number of people in the same place at the same time
 
 
 Non face to face collective action such as fads are not examined by AS-SIB
 
 
 Collective behavior for AS-SIB: 
-  has two or more people 
-  is engaged in one or more behaviors 
-  is judged to be common or concerted 
-  functions on one or more dimension of direction, velocity, tempo, substance
 
  AS-SIB's definition of collective behavior does not distinguish btwn collective behavior & typical small group behavior, & this lack of distinction is considered a strength by McPhail, but a weakness by Locher  
  For Locher, failing to distinguish btwn collective behavior & small group behavior is a weakness because collective behavior is unique, i.e., different, when compared to typical small group behavior   
 
 Cybernetic means self governing, as are collective actors for the AS-SIB Perspective
 
 
 People are purposive actors and unless they are constrained, they control their own behavior by means of self instructions toward achievement of their goals
 
 
 Cybernetic theory parallels emergent norm theory in that:
-  people have expectations & preferences 
-  these expectations are a reference against which we constantly measure our condition 
 
  For the AS-SIB Perspective, following the computer model, human behavior is considered an output, our perceptions are considered an input to our desired state or reference signals  
  Whenever possible, we behave in ways that allow us to match our preference  
 
 Reference signals are an individuals' standard for judgment [ values & preferences ]
 
 
 What we expect or desire ( i.e., our reference point ) is what determines our behavior
 
  People act to achieve a goal, or meet an expectation, based on their definition of the situation  
 
 AS-SIB does not use common terms such as goals, expectations, or definition of the situation
 
 
 The concept of self instructions denotes that people follow internal commands to engage in action
 
 
 Following a computer model, it was determined that if people decide to do something, then they tell themself to physically do it
 
 
 People in a group behave differently because they give themselves different self instructions because they have different reference signals  
  Thus, people must want the same thing, or agree on a goal, in order to act together  
  Tacit agreement in a crowd is created by THREE methods  
 
 a.  People independently create similar reference signals in elementary collective actions  
  The independence of signals in elementary collective actions is similar to convergence theory where people w/ similar predispositions are drawn to an event that represents their common predispositions/ interests  
  b.  People interdependently create similar reference signals, that is to say that they formally or informally "negotiate" a common reference signal  
  The independently created reference signal concept is similar to emergent norm theory which holds that norms, goals, etc. are created in uncertain situations   
  c.  People adopt a reference signal developed by a third party  
  In order for people to adopt a reference signal from a third party they must be able to communicate w/ each other  
  The adoption of a reference signal developed by a third party is similar to emergent norm theory where people are influenced by others  

 
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Outline on   Group Cohesion 
External
Links
  -  Project:  Conflict & Cohesiveness 
Link
  COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP  
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 Cohesion is people willingly forming a unit 
 
  People consistently holding together & willingly forming a unit experience cohesion   
  COHESION ENHANCES CONFORMITY  
  Cohesive groups have a high level of conformity 
 
  Thus factors which cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity   
  Factors that cause conformity alone, may or may not lead to cohesiveness   
  AN IN GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE BELONGS TO, & AN OUT GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE DOES NOT BELONG TO   
  A social group that a person belongs to or identifies with is called an in group   
  A social group that a person does not belong to or identify with is called an out group   
  In situations where conflicts of values, personality, or interest can lead to division within a group, sociologist refer to the group to which a person belongs as the in group and to other groups as the out group   
  Because of ethnocentrism, an out group that does things differently, or looks different, will often be seen as inferior   
  In groups are seen as having high cohesion   
  COHESION INCREASES AS GROUP MEMBERS SPEND TIME TOGETHER, & / OR WORK TOGETHER   
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 Spending time together increases cohesion   
  Working together increases cohesion 
 
  Working at any task, forced or by free will, will increase cohesion   
  Working together voluntarily increases cohesion the most 
 
  OUTSIDE THREATS INCREASE COHESION   
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 An outside threat can be so powerful on group dynamics that even groups or members that are hostile to each other may join / become cohesive to fight a common enemy 
 
  An outside threat, such as natural disaster or war, can serve as a unifying force in societies   
  CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE & COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP  
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 Conformity is not cohesion   
  Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion   
  Conformity is adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )   
  Cohesion is to be of the same group   
  All cohesive groups have conformity, but a conforming group is not necessarily cohesive   

 
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Cohesion defined
To be united
To hold fast, as parts of the same mass
To be naturally or logically connected
People willingly forming a unit
Being consistent
Holding together

 
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Time together increases cohesion 

Simply spending time w/ another,  /\ likelihood you will stand by them
True for guard/prisoner relations, etc.


 
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Outside threats /\ cohesion
Outside threats pull people & groups together
Conflict of interests, values, personality, etc. can lead to a division within a group. 
Divisions can be minimized through outside threats
Grade school teacher:  brown eyes   blue eyes
Weathering a storm

 
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Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion 

Groups that are cohesive, conform
But groups that conform, are not necessarily cohesive

Factors that cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity
However, the coercive factors demonstrated above generally do not cause cohesion


 
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 Outline on the  Dispersal Process of the AS-SIB Perspective
External
Links
  -  Project:  AS-SIB, Assembly & Dispersal
Link
  Dispersal is the 3rd & Last Stage of any collective action in the AS-SIB process
 
  McPhail demonstrates that most gatherings disperse, i.e. break up, routinely in response to instructions from others, because of competing demands, or by force
 
  For the AS-SIB perspective, instructions in the dispersal process can be written or verbal  
  A.  Instructions for dispersal parallel instructions for assembly except they urge people to disperse
 
  Instructions can be verbal:  "Let's leave"
 
  Instructions can be written:  "Protest ends at 2:00"
 
  During dispersal, instructions can be general or specific
 
  During dispersal, some participants go home while some members will reassemble somewhere else
 
  B.  Competing demands make people leave because they have other obligations such as jobs, class, etc.
 
  Disruption of society by a collective action such as riots, etc. or by some other force of nature, or war, etc. reduces the competing demands & therefore makes dispersal less likely
 
  C.  Force is used by the agents of social control to disperse collective actions that are determined to be illegal, unruly or dangerous
 
  Most crowds break up in an orderly manner, but those that require force are usually dramatic & have a large impact on society
 
  During dispersal, participants who have nothing else to do & nowhere to go are much more likely to stay until forced to leave  
  While most police do not have much experience at handling large crowds, it is often left to them to disperse an unruly or illegally gathered crowd  
  Alternative instructions for dispersal can be given by TWO categories of individuals including those who have:   
  a.  traveled the farthest to attend the gathering have the most effort invested & therefore are less likely to disperse  
  b.  no competing demands such as a job are less likely to disperse  

The End
 
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