Rev: CO 13: Work Teams

Wk tms are a type of wk grp, but the tasks of individual members are coordinated & interrelated, the tm members have different roles, & the tm has a common obj or task goal

NEXT TO ASSEMBLY LINE PRODUCTION, TEAMS ARE THE MOST COMMON FORM OF WORK ORGANIZATION

Teams can be found in factories, hospitals, schools, stores, the military, & many other places

Any job that requires the coordinated actions of more than one person can involve teams.

In many wkplaces there are grps of people who work relatively independently but still come in contact w/ one another

College profs, salesclerks, security guards, teachers, & other do most of their work w/o team co wrkrs although many other people in their org may be doing similar wk

Even the most independent wkrs are affected by the behavior of others w/ whom they interact at wk

One cannot understand the behavior of individuals w/o considering the influences of others b/c people rarely wk totally alone, unaffected by others

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATED TO WK GRPS & WK TMS INCLUDE: ROLES, NORMS, COHESIVENESS, PROCESS LOSS, COMMITMENT, MENTAL MODELS, & MORE

Important concepts related to wk grps: roles, norms, cohesiveness, process loss, commitment, mental models & more

Roles distinguish the specific position & functions of individuals in a grp or tm

Norms are grp rules of behavior that in many grps are rigidly enforced

Grp cohesiveness is the sum of the forces bolding the grp together

Highly cohesive grps rigidly enforce their norms

Process loss is the time & effort that grp members spend keeping the grp operating rather than wking on tasks

Team commitment is the involvement members have in their team

Team mental model is the shared understanding tm members have about the task & situation

SIMPLE TASKS ARE LITTLE IMPACTED BY OTHERS, WHILE COMPLEX TASKS MAY BE HIGHLY AFFECTED BY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS

The presence of other people affects task performance

Simple or well learn tasks are facilitated by the presence of others; complex or new tasks are inhibited by the presence of others

Grp performance is often inferior to the combined performance of an equal number of individuals wking alone

For additive tasks, where total performance is the sum of each individual's performance, the phenomenon of social loafing explains that the larger the grp, the less effort each individual expends

TEAMS ARE OFTEN IMPACTED BY THE INTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POLARIZATION, THE EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTIC OF THE ENV, & BY ITS OWN CHARACTERISTIC OF KSAOs

Grp polarization explains that, depending on the situation, grp decisions can be riskier or more conservative than individual decisions

Group think is when grps or highly talented decision mkrs make bad decisions when place in dec grps

Rapidly changing envs necessitate that teams innovate by adopting new ways of wking

Team KSAOs (knowledge, skills, abilities, & other characteristics) are characteristics of individuals that make them well suited to wk effectively in teams

COMMON TM STRUCTURES ARE AUTONOMOUS WK TMS, QUALITY CIRCLES, & TM BUILDING ACTIVITIES

Autonomous wk teams are given the responsibility for entire jobs, & they manage themselves, ie are autonomous

Quality circles are grps of employees who meet periodically to create solutions to wk problems

Tm building is one of a number of interventions designed to improve the function of wk tms

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Outline on Work Groups & Work Teams

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COLLECTIONS OF PEOPLE CAN BE CATEGORIZED AS AGGREGATES, IE AN UNFORMED COLLECTION OF PEOPLE, GROUPS, OR TEAMS

A work group is a collection or aggregate of two or more people who interact w/ each other & share some interrelated task goals

The characteristics of interaction & interrelatedness distinguish a grp from just a collection of people

Profs at a college are a work group, students are generally not b/c their actions are generally not interdependent

The profs interact to a limited degree on the job, & they do have interrelations on common core course while students do not have to interact to do their course work & each has a goal that is unrelated to the goals of other students

A WORK TEAM IS A WORK GRP W/ INTERDEPENDENT, COORDINATED MEMBERS, W/ SPECIFIC ROLES, & COMMON TASK GOALS

A work team is a type of work group where:
a. the actions of members must be interdependent
b. the actions of members must be coordinated
c. each member has a particular, specified role
d. there are common task objectives & goals

A GROUP CAN DO THEIR WORK W/O OTHER GROUP MEMBERS, BUT TEAMS CANNOT GENERALLY FUNCTION W/O OTHER TEAM MEMBERS

In an actual wk team, each person, or set of people w/in the team, has a specific role; their actions are different but coordinated; & there is a common goal of successfully completing the task

All teams are grps, but not all grps are teams

A grp consists of people who wk together but can do their jobs w/o one another

A team is a grp of people who cannot do their jobs, at least not effectively, w/o the other members of the team

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Outline on Virtual Teams

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VIRTUAL TEAMS HAVE THE GREAT ADVANTAGE OF ALLOWING PEOPLE TO 'TEAM UP' FROM AROUND THE WORLD, & THE GREAT DISADVANTAGE OF MORE LIKELY MISCOMMUNICATION

Computer & internet supported cooperative work allows people to wk in teams w/o face to face contact

Computer & internet teams are virtual teams who may communicate via video conference, telephone, email, instant messaging, web cams, & other technologies

Some teams are geographically separated, precluding face to face interaction, whereas others are located in the same place but choose to communicate virtually some of the time

Research shows that face to face teams performed more poorly than virtual teams on brainstorming

Virtual grps have worse task performance, took more time to complete tasks, & had lower grp member satisfaction

All levels of performance are impacted by both the type of tech used as well as the members' mastery & comfort w/ the tech

In general the use of richer tech, ie video plus voice, result in better performance than just text alone

A major danger of virtual meetings is that decisions made in such a format are more likely to be flawed b/c of miscommunication

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Outline on the Concept of Roles

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A ROLE IS THE ACTIONS & ACTIVITIES ASSIGNED TO OR REQUIRED OR EXPECTED OF A PERSON OR GROUP

A role is any position in a social structure or the expected behavior in a social position

A role set is a collection of related roles attached to one social position or status; sets of expected behavior

Role conflict is conflicting or opposing expectations or behaviors among various roles

Role conflict can be reduced by "compartmentalizing" our lives

Role strain is conflicting or opposing expectations or behaviors w/in same role

Role exit is the process by which people disengage from important social roles

ROLES CAN ONLY EXIST W/IN A SYSTEM, WHICH DEFINES THE ROLE

The concept of role, in its sociological sense, is often attributed to Linton, although Nietzche uses this theatrical term w/ a sociological meaning

For the soc scientist, every org includes a set of more or less differentiated roles

Roles are systems of boundary conditions, ie normative constraints, to which the actors who play them are supposed to conform, & of the corresponding rights that these boundaries give

The role defines an area of obligations & constraints that corresponds to an area of conditional autonomy

B/c actors are obliged to uphold the correct functioning of the estb, actors have the right, w/in more or less well defined limits & conditions, to have recourse to certain sanctions should another actor overstep the bounds which define the role

Actors are obliged to conform to boundaries, but they are able, nevertheless, to resist any abuse of power or of authority

The boundary conditions assoc w/ each of the roles being more or less known by the set of actors belonging to the org, thereby create role expectations which have the effect of reducing the uncertainty of inaction

When actor A interacts w/ actor B, they each have the expectation that the other will behave w/in the bounds that define the role

	WHILE ROLES VARY TO THE EXTENT THAT THEY ARE INFORMAL OR FORMAL, THERE IS ALWAYS VARIANCE OR AMBIGUITY W/IN ROLES, ALLOWING FOR ACTORS' AUTONOMY
	If the bounds that are imposed on the members of an org through the definition of their roles are necessary to the analysis of their behavior, they are not sufficient to determine the behavior
	The boundary conditions generally include an indeterminacy & an ambiguity that provide the actors w/ a margin for maneuver w/in which strategic conduct can develop
	Goffman insisted on the fact that the person who plays a role recognizes the existence of a distance that varies according to the case, btwn themself & their role
	Parsons largely insisted on the 'variance' of the boundary conditions assoc w/ roles
	Merton underlined their 'ambivalence'
	For example the role of researchers implies that the holders of this role should be ready to make their results available to their peers as rapidly as possible, but it also implies that they must not show too much haste in publishing
	Variance & ambivalence of roles are general characteristics of every role sys
	Even where roles are the obj of an a priori definition, as in the case of a formal org, it is in effect generally impossible, from a technical viewpt, to define them sufficiently precisely to acct for all possible situations of interaction
	The margin of autonomy implied by the variance & ambiguity of roles is a generator or sys effects
	Role variance can produce sys effects w/ considerable soc importance & the analysis of these effects is one the main objectives of the study of orgs
	An example of the variance of roles is seen in that student protests usually come from more prestigious universities where the students in general are more well off
	Students from more prestigious universities are more likely to protest b/c their role set includes more autonomy both as pre college level children, & as students at the university when compared to students from less prestigious universities whose roles are more attuned to authority both as children & as students

	PARSONS NOTED THAT ROLES ARE UNIVERSALISTIC, AFFECTIVELY NEUTRAL, ASCRIBED, OR ACHIEVED
	Parsons' concept pattern variables estb a typology of roles
	Roles are universalistic in that actors in roles are expected to all act the same & treat everyone the same, w/in the bounds of role variance & ambiguity
	In contrast to universalism, 'filial respect' is reserved for family members, associates, friends, cronies, & more
	Actors in particular roles will deal in & discuss only very precise topics w/in the purview of their role; roles are specific
	Roles are 'affectively neutral'
	Roles may be ascribed, ie you are born into them; or achieved, ie you earn or achieve them
	The ascribed / achieved typology is one distinction btwn traditional & modern societies in that traditional societies generally have primarily ascribed roles, while modern societies generally have primarily achieved roles
	In modern societies, one of the main features is the div of labor, which inherently defines what one's role(s) is while on the job
	The more the process or 'rationalization' as described by Weber is in place in a modern society, the more clearly defined are the achieved roles, & roles also tend to be more universalistic, affectively neutral, & achievement oriented

	MERTON NOTED THAT ROLES HAVE STATUS, WHICH DEFINES WHERE THEY ARE IN THE SOCIAL HIERARCHY
	Merton's concept of status set goes hand in hand w/ the concept of the role set
	Status defines the roles hierarchical position in the social order
	The variation or constance of the status associated w/ a role depends on the effects of interdependence
	Generally, the more other people depend on a group of people w/ a particular role, the higher the status of that role
	In modern society there is a trend toward the complexification of role sets
	As an individual is obliged to carry out more complex & varied roles, there is a greater risk of being exposed to normative demands that are partially incompatible
	Actors in complex roles must use their own judgment & determine, for themself, the best way of interpreting their different roles
	The complexification of the div of role sets & the increase of their share of universalist, specific, affectively neutral, achievement oriented roles gives rise to individuation effects, as Coser & Durkheim note, & to a tendency toward egoism

	SOME SEE ROLES AS FUNDAMENTAL TO UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL ACTION, OTHERS SEE ROLES AS NOT AT THE CENTER OF SOCIAL ACTION
	Parsons & Durkheim saw the concept of role relationships as fundamental elements which would be to the social sciences what particle are to physics
	Some theorists disagree that roles are merely fundamental social 'particles' b/c they note that relationships btwn soc agents are not necessarily role relationships, ie relationships btwn roles are not always the center of social action
	Interdependent relationships are often at the center of social action as is the case btwn wkr & owner in the modern econ sys
	The systems of complex interdependence are not role systems, they are systems w/ roles in them
	For example the growth of educational attainment levels in the Western nations is not the result of the growth of the role of the student, it is the result of the demand for education, which is the result of the demand for more educated wkrs, which is the result of the growth of the econ, & so on
	Types of social relationships exist other than role relationships
	Interaction relationships, ie social action, can be affected by interdependence relationships

	THE CHANGE, DEVELOPMENT, EVOLUTION, PROCESS, ETC OF A ROLE MAY HAVE COSTS, & CAUSE ANOMIE
	When external conditions to which an org sys is exposed change, the appropriate adjustment can be difficult to identify as the redefintions of roles is very likely to come up against a double obstacle: cost & anomie
	When roles change, for the individual, the redefinition of their role can involve considerable costs
	When roles change, there can be a period during which a sys's original functions & roles appear as if struck by obsolescence before the new functions & roles can be defined, which can create what Durkheim referred to as anomie, ie a situation where one experiences normlessness
	When roles change, develop, evolve, progress, etc, one experiences normlessness or anomie b/c norms or obligations are what define roles & if one's role is taken away, one feels that one has little or nothing

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Outline on Work Teams Roles

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TEAMS ARE GRPS OF PEOPLE WHO GENERALLY HAVE DIFFERENT WORK ROLES, AS OPPOSED TO A WK GRP WHERE EVERYONE MAY GENERALLY HAVE SIMILAR OR THE SAME WORK ROLES

The concept of role implies that not everyone in a grp or team has the same function or purpose

Different individuals have different jobs & responsibilities in the grp or team

In a hi functioning wk team, each role is clearly defined, & all members know exactly what their roles are

FORMAL WK ROLES ARE DEFINED BY JOB KSAOs, WHILE INFORMAL WK ROLES ARE DEFINED BY INFORMAL GRP INTERACTION

Formal roles are specified by the team or larger or & are part of the formal job description

One important aspect of formal job descriptions are the KSAOs required for the job (knowledge, skills, abilities, & other characteristics)

There often are organizational documents, such as written job descriptions & job analyses that define formal roles

Informal roles form as a result of grp interaction

Grps can invent roles that do not exist formally,. or a org's roles can supersede the formal ones

Informal roles may encompass social goals such as the informal after work get together organizer, or more task oriented tasks such as informal supervisor making sure tasks are stopped at a good pt at the end of the day

Informal roles may supersede a formal role as when one person has the formal title of supervisor but another person is, informally, the actual leader

WK GRPS & TMS VARY AS TO WHICH & HOW MANY ROLES ARE SPECIALIZED

Some roles may have specialized training & credentials

Some roles may be shared or rotated among members over time

Grps vary considerably in the extent to which roles are specialized among members

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Outline on Norms

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NORMS ARE PRESCRIPTIONS SERVING AS COMMON GUIDELINES FOR SOCIAL ACTION

Norms are manifested / demonstrated in & by culture through folkways, mores, laws, etc.

Norms are shared expectations about behavior, i.e. socially defined rules

Folkways are informal, minor norms that usually carry only minor & informal sanctions, or punishments, when they are violated

Mores are informal norms, that are very important to people & may be written into law

Laws are formal, codified norms which everyone is expected to be aware & which carry specific, legal sanctions

Western cultural practices are exported by the media to remote corners of globe
Paul Harvey: Yet this is not "one world"

NORMS ARE SOCIAL RULES WHICH ARE SEEN AS LEGITIMATE & GOOD & B/C THEY ARE INFORMAL, PEOPLE ARE OFTEN NOT AWARE OF WHERE & HOW THEY FUNCTION

Human behavior exhibits certain regularities, which are the product of adherence to common expectations or norms & thus human action is 'rule governed'

A social norm is not necessarily actual behavior & normative behavior is not simply the most frequently occurring pattern

Since norms refer to social expectations about 'correct' or 'proper' behavior, norms imply the presence of legitimacy, consent, prescription, & morality

DEVIATION FROM NORMS RESULTS IN SOCIAL SANCTIONS; PEOPLE MAY BE PUNISHED OR REWARDED FOR VIOLATING NORMS

While deviation form norms is punished by sanctions, norms are acquired by internalization & socialization

Norms are central to theories of soc order since they are the most elemental form of soc order or rules

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Outline on Workplace, Work Group, & Work Team Norms

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EACH WKPLACE HAS ITS OWN CULTURE & MATCHING NORMS WHICH ARE INFORMAL PRESCRIPTIONS FOR BEHAVIOR THAT OFTEN BOTH COMPLIMENT & CONFLICT W/ THE FORMAL RULES & SOPs OF THE WKPLACE

Wk norms are unwritten rules of behavior accepted by members of a wk grp or tm

In the wkplace, formal rules can cover everything from style of dress to how hard everyone wks, but they do not cover everything, & that is where informal norms come into effect

Wkplace norms exert powerful influences on individual beh b/c many grps strenuously enforce them

Violation of norms will bring increasingly stronger pressure to bear on the violator, including:
- informing the violator of the norm
- giving a scolding for violation
- punishing either verbally
- punishing physically (violence)
- ostracization
- & more

WK GRPS & TMS OFTEN DEVELOP PRODUCTION NORMS THAT SPECIFY HOW MUCH A MEMBER SHOULD PRODUCE

Production level norms often include both minimum & maximum amts

Production levels must meet the minimum but production can also be restricted on the high end

Wk grp norms can have more impact on member behavior than supervisors or orgl practices

Changing grp norms can be difficult for mgt which must structure changes so that it is in the best interest of the pro to adopt them

A grp incentive system can be an effective means of getting grps to adopt high production norms

WK GRPS & TMS OFTEN DEVELOP NORMS THAT SPECIFY SOCIALIZING ON & OFF THE JOB, WHETHER CLIQUES ARE IN PLACE OR NOT, & OTHER NORMS REGULATING SOC BEHAVIOR THAT MAY OR MAY NOT IMPACT THE WKPLACE

Wkplace norms are an important part of wkplace culture which is perhaps one of the most influential aspects of an org: the ideology of why & how things are done in the wkplace

While norms about production & other wkplace issues have a direct impact on the job, many norms regulate social behavior in the wkplace, & these too can impact production

Norms about how much social interaction there is, & who interacts are about social issues, but they can impact production

Norms about the number, size, make up, & influence of wkplace cliques is important b/c these soc orgs can become informal wk grps or tms

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Outline on Group Cohesion

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- Project: Conflict & Cohesiveness

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COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP

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Cohesion is people willingly forming a unit

People consistently holding together & willingly forming a unit experience cohesion

Grp cohesion is the sum of th forces attracting grp members & keeping the grp together

Cohesion is a grp phenomenon

For a grp to be cohesive, most if not all members must have strong motives to remain in the grp

Hi levels of grp cohesiveness have major implications for grp behavior

W/ cohesion, norms tend to be strongly enforced in grps that are highly cohesive

The violatio of a norms, esp an important norm, can be threatening to the grp's existence

If grp continuation is vital to grp members, conformity to norms will be a cdritical issue

In the wkplace, people are often dependent on their jobs & the wk grp can be as important as the family

Cohesive grps enforce their norms, & wk grps may adopt norms for high or low productivity

Research shows that cohesiveness is likely to result in high performance

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COHESION ENHANCES CONFORMITY

Cohesive groups have a high level of conformity

Thus factors which cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity

Factors that cause conformity alone, may or may not lead to cohesiveness

AN IN GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE BELONGS TO, & AN OUT GROUP IS ONE THAT ONE DOES NOT BELONG TO

A social group that a person belongs to or identifies with is called an in group

A social group that a person does not belong to or identify with is called an out group

In situations where conflicts of values, personality, or interest can lead to division within a group, sociologist refer to the group to which a person belongs as the in group and to other groups as the out group

Because of ethnocentrism, an out group that does things differently, or looks different, will often be seen as inferior

In groups are seen as having high cohesion

COHESION INCREASES AS GROUP MEMBERS SPEND TIME TOGETHER, & / OR WORK TOGETHER

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Spending time together increases cohesion

Working together increases cohesion

Working at any task, forced or by free will, will increase cohesion

Working together voluntarily increases cohesion the most

OUTSIDE THREATS INCREASE COHESION

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An outside threat can be so powerful on group dynamics that even groups or members that are hostile to each other may join / become cohesive to fight a common enemy

An outside threat, such as natural disaster or war, can serve as a unifying force in societies

CONFORMITY IS ADHERENCE TO A CULTURE & COHESION IS TO BE OF THE SAME GROUP

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Conformity is not cohesion

Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion

Conformity is adherence to an organizational culture ( KBVN )

Cohesion is to be of the same group

All cohesive groups have conformity, but a conforming group is not necessarily cohesive

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Cohesion defined
To be united
To hold fast, as parts of the same mass
To be naturally or logically connected
People willingly forming a unit
Being consistent
Holding together

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Time together increases cohesion

Simply spending time w/ another, /\ likelihood you will stand by them
True for guard/prisoner relations, etc.

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Outside threats /\ cohesion
Outside threats pull people & groups together
Conflict of interests, values, personality, etc. can lead to a division within a group.
Divisions can be minimized through outside threats
Grade school teacher: brown eyes blue eyes
Weathering a storm

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Conformity is a subset or quality of cohesion

Groups that are cohesive, conform
But groups that conform, are not necessarily cohesive

Factors that cause cohesiveness, generally cause conformity
However, the coercive factors demonstrated above generally do not cause cohesion

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Outline on Process Loss

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PROCESS LOSS INCLUDES THE TIME & EFFORT SPENT ON ACTIVITIES NOT DIRECTLY RELATED TO PRODUCTION OF TASK ACCOMPLISHMENT

Most time & effort of wk grps is devoted to orgl objectives through the performance of members

Some time & effort inevitably is spent on activities that do not directly relate to process, but do so indirectly, while some activities are thought to indirectly related to process, but do not

Some effort goes into other grp functions that have less to do w/ job performance including time spent in grp maintenance, such as norm enforcement & conflict resolution

Grp maintenance can also involve social activities such as meals, conversation, drinks, parties, & more

MAINTENANCE INCLUDES THOSE ACTIVITIES NECESSARY TO KEEP THE WKPLACE FUNCTIONING AT ITS PREFERRED RATE, & MAY INCLUDE BOTH SOCIAL & PHYSICAL MAINTENANCE

Grps vary on the amt of time they devote to maintenance

Maintenance is necessary to prevent process loss

Some grps have norm violators & interpersonal conflicts that consume time & energy

Some grps fun smoothly w/. little friction & few distractions

Too much process loss clearly creates inefficiency, but not enough process loss can also cause inefficiency

A certain amt of of process loss is necessary & may lead to better future performance by the grp

ANOTHER TYPE OF PROCESS LOSS IS SET UP & STAND DOWN TIME

Set up time includes all those activities that must be done to get a production process or service up & running

Some set up time must occur each day & often a failure to perform set up tasks hinders production later on

Set up time can also include that longer period of activity that is necessary to get a new business up & running

Initial set up for a new business can take months, even years

At the end of each work period, some time must be taken to end business for the day whether that be securing money & resources, or shutting down complex machinery

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Outline on Team Commitment

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TEAM COMMITMENT IS THE STRENGTH OF AN INDIVIDUAL'S INVOLVEMENT IN A TEAM, & CONSISTS OF THE ACCEPTANCE OF TEAM GOALS, A WILLINGNESS TO WK HARD FOR THE TEAM, & A DESIRE TO REMAIN ON THE TEAM

Commitment may be extended to a many different entities in an org, including teams

High team commitment is assoc w/ high performance, low turnover, high satisfaction, & significant innovation

Team commitment is related to cowkr & supervisor satisfaction, as well as orgl commitment

Team commitment is related to general job satisfaction & team satisfaction

TEAM COMMITMENT IS NECESSARY FOR & CAN BE INCREASED AS A RESULT OF TASK INTERDEPENDENCE

Task interdependence is the extent to which tasks require sharing of resources of wking together

Task interdependence is an important element in distinguishing grps from teams

Grps consist of people who may or may not be interdependent, but merely wk in proximity to one another, whereas teams are interdependent

Task interdependence can enhance job satisfaction, team satisfaction, & team commitment b/c the demand of wking closely leads to camaraderie & good interpersonal relationships

TEAM COMMITMENT IS BROADER THAN COHESIVENESS

Team commitment usually implies a resilient dedication to achieving tm objectives as well as the welfare of the tm

Commitment involves acceptance of team goals & willingness to wk hard for the team, while cohesiveness is only the attraction of individuals to the grp

All committed teams are cohesive, but all cohesive teams are not committed

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Outline on Mental Models

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MENTAL MODELS ARE MENTAL STRUCTURES WHICH ARE SUMMARIZED OR DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATIONS OF SOMETHING OR THE DISPOSITION OF SOMETHING

Mental models are also knows as schemas or mental frameworks

Mental models are cognitive frameworks that allow us to organize large amts of info in an efficient manner

Once formed, mental models exert strong effects on social thoughts; effects that a person is not always aware of

Mental models may not be accurate

WE HAVE MANY DIFFERENT MENTAL MODELS FOR DIFFERENT SITUATIONS, & WHILE PEOPLE IN A GIVEN CULTURE SHARE MENTAL MODELS, NO 2 MODELS ARE EXACTLY ALIKE

People all have mental models for nearly all situation they may encounter, even those situations we have never actually been in

People have mental models for people, occupations, social roles, specific social grps, & many other aspects of the soc world

Experiences allows people to build up a mental model that helps them organize their knowledge & assumptions about each situation we have encountered, or may encounter

B/c our personal experiences are similar to that of other people in our culture, most people in a given society tend to share certain basic mental models

Mental models to vary from one person to the next, reflecting unique life experiences

Once they are formed mental models play a role in determining what we notice in the physical world, what we notice in the social world, what info we remember, how we interpret such info, & how we use such info

	MENTAL MODELS INFLUENCE ATTENTION, ENCODING, RETRIEVAL, INTERPRETATION, & USE OF INFO
	Mental models influence the 3 basic processes of attn, encoding of memories, & memory retrieval, as well as 'higher' mental functions of interpretation & decision making or judgment
	Attention refers to what information we notice
	Encoding refers to the processes through which info we notice gets stored in memory
	Retrieval refers to the processes through which we recover info from memory to use it in some manner such as making decisions or judgments
	MENTAL MODELS FILTER EXPERIENCES & INFO WE ENCOUNTER, EASILY EMBRACING THAT WHICH SUPPORTS OUR MENTAL MODEL WHILE MAKING IT MORE LIKELY TO REJECT THAT WHICH CONFLICTS W/ OUR MENTAL MODEL
	Mental models often act as a kind of filter in that info consistent w/ our mental model is more likely to be noticed & to enter our consciousness
	Info that does not fit w/ our mental model is more easily ignored, unless it is so extreme that we can't help but notice it
	Info contradictory to our mental model is often discounted as 'an exception that proves the rule'
	Info contradictory to our mental model causes mental tension or anxiety
	MENTAL MODELS IMPACT THE PROCESS OF ENCODING THE EXPERIENCES & INFO WE ENCOUNTER INTO MEMORY, MAKING THAT WHICH SUPPORTS OUR MENTAL MODEL MORE LIKELY TO BE REMEMBERED & THAT WHICH CONFLICTS W/ OUR MENTAL MODEL MORE LIKELY TO BE FORGOTTEN
	Encoding includes the processes through which specific info is entered into memory & info that becomes the focus of our attn is more likely to be stored in long term memory
	Since info that is consistent w/ our mental model is more likely to receive our attn, then info that is consistent w/ our mental model is more likely to be encoded into memory
	Info that is inconsistent w/ our mental model, info that does not agree w/ our expectations in a given situation, may sometimes be encoded into a separate memory location & marked w/ a unique 'tag'
	Unexpected info may literally 'seize our attn' & almost forces us to make a mental note of it
	Research suggests that info that is consistent w/ our mental models is more likely to be remembered
	The effects of mental models on social cognition, ie how we use info we notice & remember to make decisions or judgments, are influenced by how well developed our schema is & by how much new info we are trying to process

	THE MORE WELL DEVELOPED A MENTAL MODEL, THE MORE LIKELY IT IS TO INFLUENCE OUR DECISIONS & JUDGMENTS
	B/c we have varied experiences, we all develop a large array of mental models, therefore, the mental model we choose to operate under often depends on the strength & development of the mental model
	Mental models that are stronger & more well developed are more likely to influence our decision making & judgments
	Mental models can be activated by what is know as priming
	Priming is the transitory increase in the ease which specific mental models can be activated produced by experiences relevant to the mental model
	Recent experiences make some mental models more active than they would otherwise be, & as a result they exert stronger effects on current thinking
	PRIMING IS THAT EXPERIENCE WHICH MAKES A BEHAVIOR OR MENTAL MODEL MORE LIKELY
	Priming is known to have strong short term effects, but it may also have some long term effects
	Unpriming occurs when the effects of a mental model are somehow expressed in thought or behavior, resulting in a decrease in those effects
	The interest or excitement we may feel as a result of an internal or external stimulus is more likely to dissipate once it is expressed or recognized

	THE PERSEVERANCE EFFECT HOLDS THAT MORE WELL DEVELOPED OUR MENTAL MODEL, THE MORE LIKELY IT WILL PERSIST IN SPITE OF CONTRADICTORY INFO
	Mental models influence what we notice, enter into memory, later remember, & use in cognition, decision making, or judgment can produce distortions in our understanding of the social & physical world b/c we don't notice some info, we don't enter some info into memory, we don't remember some info, & we don't use some info to make decisions
	Mental models, once they are formed, are often resistant to change
	Perseverance effect is the tendency for beliefs & mental models to remain unchanged even in the face of contradictory info
	TO DISCOUNT THAT WHICH CONTRADICTS OUR MENTAL MODEL, WE OFTEN CATEGORIZE CONTRADICTORY EXPERIENCES & INFO INTO THE CATEGORY OF AN EXCEPTION, A RARITY, SINGLE CASE, SINGULARITY, ETC
	When we encounter info inconsistent w/ our mental model, we often do not alter our mental model, rather we put that info in a special category or subtype which do not confirm contradict that mental model
	The perseverance of a mental model can result in self fulfilling effects on our behavior; we see or make happen what we expect to happen
	Mental models exert self confirming effects, causing us to behave in ways that create confirmation of them

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Outline on the Team Mental Model

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A TEAM MENTAL MODEL IS THE SHARED UNDERSTANDING AMONG MEMBERS OF THE TASK, TEAM, EQUIPMENT, & SITUATION

When people wk in a team, they have some common conception of what they are to do together

Mental models are complex & can be divided into those concerned w/ task work & those concerned w/ teamwork

A task work mental model is concerned w/ the nature of the job that needs to be done

Mental models do not have to be identical, just compatible

The teamwork model is a the shared conception of the team & how its members are to work together

A shared mental model of tmwk facilitates team performance b/c members know how to coordinate efforts

An effective team must have a sufficiently shared team mental model

Teams w/ an inadequate mental model will fail to coordinate, will be inefficient, & will be likely to make errors

Conflicts can arise out of misunderstandings or b/c members get frustrated w/ others b/c each expects the other to do tasks that are not getting done

The team mental model's quality, esp accuracy & similarity, relates to performance

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Outline on Group Performance

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GROUP PERFORMANCE IS DEPENDENT ON MANY FACTORS, ESP THE NATURE OF THE TASK & THE CHARACTERS OF THE ACTORS INVOLVED

Grp performance is often superior to a collection of individual performances

Grp performance is estb as people inspire one another to be better than they would have been alone

For many tasks, the coordinated efforts of 2 or more people are necessary b/c a single individual could not accomplish them alone

For many tasks, grps are not necessarily better than collections of individuals

Process loss is one reason collections may be better than teams

Individuals may distract & keep one another from concentrating on the task

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Outline on Group vs Individual Performance on Additive Tasks

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ADDITIVE TASKS ARE DIVISIBLE; CAN BE BROKEN INTO SUBTASKS SO THAT EACH MEMBER CAN CONTRIBUTE MEANINGFULLY TO THE GRP'S OUTCOME

Additive tasks refer to group work where each additional group member can add something to the output

Disjunctive tasks are those that only need one grp member to be capable of achieving the task

Conjunctive tasks are those where each group member has to contribute

If a conjunctive task is successfully completed, generally there is more group learning, but the requirement for full participation increases the chances of grp failure

Discretionary tasks are so called b/c grp members have discretion in how they combine their efforts

Additive tasks have output that is countable & the total output is the sum of the individual grp member outputs

The effects of grp process on additive task perf can be seen by comparing output of an interacting grp w/ a nominal grp, individuals who do not interact

A nominal grp is a number of individuals who do not interact

Research over several decades has shown that on additive tasks the output of the nominal grp is consistently higher than the output of the interacting grp

SOCIAL LOAFING IS A REDUCTION IN INDIVIDUAL EFFORT B/C OF THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS & IS MOST LIKELY WHEN MEMBERS FEEL LESS LIKELY TO BE IDENTIFIED, OR WHEN OUTPUT IS ASSESSED

One explanation for superior nominal grp perf is process loss

Process loss is seen when members interfere w/ each other's task perf or may spend time on grp maintenance rather than task perf

One explanation for superior nominal grp perf is social loafing

Social loafing occurs when people do not put forth as much effort in a grp as they would if they were working alone

W/ social loading, the larger the grp, the less effort each person exerts

The social loading effect can be diminished if individual output is being assessed, or if individual productivity is visible to others

The social loafing effect is more predominant in individualistic cultures such as Australia, Canada, the UK, & the US

The social loafing effect is nearly non existent in collectivist nations w/ an emphasis on the grp & society, such as China

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Outline on Brainstorming

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BRAINSTORMING IS A TECHNIQUE, INDIVIDUAL OR GRP, WHERE THE AIM IS TO GENERATE IDEAS W/O BEING CRITICAL OR JUDGMENTAL IN ANY WAY

Brainstorming is a group or individual creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its member(s)

Brainstorming is a grp or individual problem solving technique that involves the spontaneous contribution of ideas from all members of the grp

Brainstorming is the mulling over of ideas by one or more individuals in an attempt to devise or find a solution to a problem

GRP DYNAMICS MAY ENHANCE OR INHIBIT BRAINSTORMING / IDEA GENERATION

Brainstormed ideas will be evaluated & modified after the idea generating phase is complete

Grps may be superior to individuals in generating ideas or solutions to problems (Osborn, 1957)

Galupe, et all, 1991, failed to find that the perf of grps is superior to that of nominal grps

In generating ideas, some grp members may inhibit one another & there is always the possibility of process loss

A grp often does not spend as much time as an individual in generating ideas

Individuals may be reluctant to share ideas in the grp b/c of shyness or social anxiety

A single person might be more confident & secure in generating ideas

IN an active grp, members may spend most of their time listening to others rather than generating options

INTERNET BASED BRAINSTORMING HAS ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES COMPARED TO FACE TO FACE INTERACTION

Some research on internet based brainstorming has shown enhanced perf of idea generation tasks

W/ internet based brainstorming, the enhanced perf is more a function of social distance than anonymity

Part of the advantage of internet based brainstorming is that people do not have to wait to enter their response, suggesting that process loss in face to face interaction is significant

Internet based brainstorming may dissipate the grp excitement created by an idea b/c excitement is partially a function of body language

WHEN USING THE BRAINSTORMING TECHNIQUE, IT IS IMPORTANT TO ENHANCE THE EFFECTS OF GRP DYNAMICS

Paulus (2000) argues that grp members do inspire one another, but members may also 'get in the way' of others in both process loss, ie who talks, when they talk, & how much they talk, as well as silencing b/c os social anxiety, as well as over talking .b/c of dominant & / or insecure personalities

Paulus suggests that members 1st get together to discuss ideas, & then wk alone to generate specific options

Osborn noted that 2 principles contribute to 'ideative efficacy,' including deferring judgment & reaching for quantity

Any brainstorming technique should:
- reduce social inhibitions among grp members
- stimulate idea generation
- increase overall creativity of the grp
- encourage participation by everyone, w/ no self censoring (ALL ideas are 'put on the table')

Osborn estb general rules of brainstorming including: focus on quantity, w/hold criticism, welcome unusual ideas, & combine & improve ideas

1. A focus on quantity means of the grp should strive to enhance divergent production, aiming to facilitate problem solving through the maxim that quantity breeds quality

There is the assumption that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a radical & effective idea

2. A focus on w/holding criticism means that participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later 'critical stage' of the process

By suspending judgment, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas

3. A focus on welcoming unusual ideas is important in order to get a good & long list of ideas

Ideas can be generated by looking from new perspectives & suspending assumptions in the hope that these new ways of thinking may provide better ideas

4. A focus on combining & improving ideas to form a single better good idea is suggested by the slogan '1+1>2'

A focus on combining & improving ideas is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a process of association

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Outline on Group Problem Solving

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PROBLEM SOLVING IS OFTEN BETTER ACCOMPLISHED BY A GROUP; GROUP PERFORMANCE IS OFTEN SUPERIOR TO ITS INDIVIDUAL, BEST MEMBERS

Problem solving is not the same as decision mking; problem solving involves finding the solution to a given situation, such as solving a puzzle

For additive tasks & brainstorming, nominal grps may do better than interacting grps, grps can outperform individuals on some tasks, under certain conditions of organization

There are tasks, that when structured correctly, can be done better when people interact

For some problems there can be a correct answer while for others, a variety of solutions could be reasonable

Performance is assessed as the time to find the right answer in the case of one corrected answer, or a suitable answer or the quality of the answer for the case of a range of available solutions

Studies of problem solving have often found that grps perform as well as or better than their best members, suggesting that problem solving is well suited for grp completion

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An Overview of Decision Making

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THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF DECISIONS, INCLUDING STRATEGIC, MID LEVEL, LOWER LEVEL, IMMEDIATE, & OTHERS

A decision is the determination of the answer to a question

In the process of decision making, the determination of the decision question, i.e. the criteria for the question, may be more important that the decision / answer itself

A decision is a formally pronounced judgment

Some decisions are "non decisions" in that the failure to decide or act is a decision in & of itself

A decision is the "making up of one's mind" as in a resolution

A resolution, as the making up of one's mind, is often a future decision, i.e. it is not known when any action that comes from a decision that is based on the resolution will be made

PROGRAMMED DECISIONS ARE REPETITIVE & WELL DEFINED, & PROCEDURES EXIST FOR RESOLVING THE PROBLEM

Programmed decisions are well structured because criteria of performance are normally clear, good info is available, alternatives are easily specified, & there is certainty that the chosen alternative will be successful

Programmed decisions are made in response to recurring problems & opportunities

Programmed decisions frequently develop into programs

Programs are standard sequences of behaviors that people follow routinely when encountering a particular type of problem or opportunity

Orgs develop programs when the same kinds of problems or opportunities keep arising

Orgl rules are designed to help members make programmed decisions

People need to be aware that they should change programs & rules as needed

Often, people & orgs are slow to change programs & rules because is seems simpler to do things the way they have always been done, & because it takes more time & effort, & incurs more risk, to change the way things are done

Examples of programmed decisions include simple decisions such as:

- decision rules such as when to replace an office copy machine or complex decisions that have become routine

- when & how to open a new branch or franchise

Nonprogrammed decisions are novel & poorly defined, & no procedure exists for solving the problem or exploiting an opportunity

Nonprogrammed decisions are used when a problem or an opportunity has not been encountered before & people may not know how to respond

In a non programmed decision:

- people must choose how to respond to novel situations

- because the decision situation is often new or novel, people often begin w/ searching for info (more on info searches & decision making below)

- clear cut decision criteria do not exist

- alternatives are fuzzy

- there is uncertainty about whether a proposed solution will solve the problem

- typically, few alternatives can be developed for a non programmed decision, so a single solution is custom tailored

Examples of non programmed decisions include the Tylenol poisonings, developing a new program such as a new product, a new general education curriculum, etc.

DECISIONS MAY INVOLVE RATIONAL, INTUITIVE, BELIEF ORIENTED, & OTHER TYPES OF COGNITION

Just as leadership takes place throughout the org, decision making occurs throughout the org

In any analysis of decision making, one must be sure to make no assumptions of rationality

Thompson holds that decisions involve the TWO dimensions of:
a. beliefs about cause/effect relationships
b. preferences regarding possible outcomes

Beliefs & preferences about the process & outcome of decision making can operate at a conscious level, at the individual level, group level, or the org level

IN RELATIONSHIP TO CERTAINTY, THERE ARE FIVE TYPES OF DECISIONS INCLUDING:
A. ROUTINE / COMPUTATIONAL
B. JUDGMENTAL
C. COMPROMISE / STRATEGIC
D. INSPIRATIONAL
E. NON DECISIONS

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The Figure: The Cause / Effect Relationships & Preferences in Decision Making, by Thompson, notes that there are FIVE types of decisions including routine / computational, judgmental, compromise / strategic, inspirational, & non decisions

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A. ROUTINE / COMPUTATIONAL DECISIONS have uncertain outcomes & certain cause / effect relationships

Computational decisions may be performed by a computer w/ great simplicity

Computational decisions often remove decision making from the lower levels of the org

Setting up the process of computational decision making is often a decision that impacts the entire org & removes power from mid & lower level orgs

B. JUDGMENTAL DECISIONS have certain outcomes & uncertain cause / effect relationships. Judgment enters in determining what the effects of particular courses of action may be

C. COMPROMISE / STRATEGIC DECISIONS have uncertain outcomes & certain cause / effect relationships

D. INSPIRATIONAL DECISIONS have uncertain outcomes & uncertain cause / effect relationships

E. NON DECISIONS are the choice to make no decision & therefore either let the status quo remain or accept an inexorable change

Bacharach & Baratz, 1962, note that a Non decision is in fact a decision

There are FOUR types of non decisions

Non decisions occur when:

i. a decision has already been made, but the decision making process is followed as though it were not

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ii. issues are not allow to surface as matter for decision

iii. there are issues that are believe to be unthinkable in the values of the powerful groups in the org

iv. a decision needs to be made, but no decision is made, thus choosing to maintain the present course of action

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Decisions can only judged over time & time frames vary depending on the nature of the decision

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The world is full of classic examples of good & bad decision

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Figure: The Cause / Effect Relationships & Preferences in Decision Making

Preferences Regarding Possible Outcomes

CERTAINTY

UNCERTAINTY

Beliefs about
Cause / Effect
Relations

CERTAIN

Routine / Computational

Compromise / Strategic

UNCERTAIN

Judgmental

Inspirational

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Example: b. Issues are not allow to surface as matter for decision

I wouldn't bring that up if I were you, Hickson, 1987

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Examples of Computational Decisions

JIT Inventory

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Examples: Decisions can only judged over time

40 yrs. plus of the Russian rule in E. Europe appeared to be successful for many yrs.
Corp decisions are generally give a 3 to 5 yr. time frame
Surgeons, police, firefighters & other members of high reliability orgs must make decisions in short time frames that usually have dramatic impacts in a relatively short time frame (seconds to days)

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Examples: The world is full of classic examples of good & bad decision

Ford Edsel & Mustang
Junk bonds seemed to be a good investment in the 1980s
The New Coke

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Outline on Group Decision Making

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GROUP DECISION MAKING IS SUPERIOR UNDER SOME CONDITIONS WHILE INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING IS SUPERIOR UNDER OTHER CONDITIONS

Both situational factors, ie the nature of the problem, & the make up of the group determine whether grp or individual dec mking is superior

Group dec mking is superior when:
- the tasks involve generating many ideas
- the tasks involve generating many unique ideas
- recalling info accurately is important
- estimating & evaluating ambiguous or uncertain situations
- jobs are relatively interdependent

Individual dec mking is superior when:
- the problem involves thinking out problems
- there is a long chain of decisions to be made
- there is implementation of predesigned plans, rules or instructions
- jobs are relatively independent

Work grps confront different types of tasks & experience varying degrees of member interdependency for different problems

Effective grps use both individual & group decision mking

Inappropriate use of grp dec mking wastes human & physical resources, causes members to be bored or alienated because they could be engaged in other pursuits, & motivation is reduced because actors believe time is being wasted

Inappropriate use of individual dec mking results in poor coordination, lower quality & creativity, greater errors, & the alienating feeling of being shut out of the dec mking process

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Outline on Work Teams & Group Decision Making

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WHILE IN TODAY'S MAJOR ORGS, DEC ARE OFTEN MADE BY GRPS, WORK TEAM DEC MKING IS LESS COMMON, THOUGH IT IS BECOMING MORE COMMON AS PRODUCTS & SERVICES, & THE PRODUCTION OF THOSE PRODUCTS & SERVICES BECOMES MORE COMPLEX & REQUIRES ON THE SPOT DEC MKING

Groups in orgs frequently make decisions ranging from the unimportant, eg the color of new signage, to those that impact the org & the community, eg opening a new plant

In the typical org, grp decisions are made by mid mgt & upper mgt teams, but in some orgs, lower level teams, ie work teams also make decisions

Orgs differ tremendously to the extent to which major dec are made by individual mgrs, ie the autocratic approach, or by grps, ie the democratic approach

Most orgs are more autocratic & less democratic in their grp dec mking, & even fewer have work team dec mking

A hybrid of the grp dec process is where the dec maker consults a grp or committee, but has the authority to make the dec on their own

Any sizable org usually has it's 'inner circle' of people involved in dec at each level

A work team dec mking grp may have its own 'inner circle' in the case where only some of the members of the wk team participate in the dec

A wk tm may have an inner grp even if all members of the wk tm participate in the dec b/c some of the member hold more authority in the grp & other members respect & follow their lead

EVALUATION OF GRP DEC IS DONE BY OTHER GRPS OR BY MKT CRITERIA

Evaluating the qual of a decision is not easy or straightforward

Objective eval may not be possible at all or may be possible only years after the decision is made, eg after a product goes to mkt, or after a change in design of a product is manufactured

Eval of the quality of a decision is often accomplished first by the team itself, then depending on the level of the team, by the team or teams above it in the orgl hierarchy

Upper mgt grp decisions are eval by other upper mgt tms, by the board of directors, or even by the mkt, ie whether a product or service is successful

Mid mgt grp decisions are eval by upper mgt

Wk tm dec are evaluated by md mgt & possibly by upper mgt

SUBJECTIVE CRITERIA ARE SOMETIMES THE ONLY CRITERIA AVAILABLE TO EVAL A DEC

Even if obj criteria are available to eval an grp dec, a range of obj criteria may be available including sales, mkt share, mkt leadership, return on investment, & more

If obj criteria are not available to eval an grp dec, the eval may be almost completely 'in the eye of the beholder' in that a layoff might be a good decision for profits, but bad or the wkrs or the community

GRP POLARIZATION & GRP THINK ARE COMMON PROBLEMS IN ALL GRP DEC MKING INCLUDING WK TEAMS

Wk tm dec, & indeed all grp dec are often framed by grp polarization which may occur when the grp takes more risks or is more conservative in their decision than individuals

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See Also: Team KSAOs

ASSEMBLING AN INNOVATIVE & EFFECTIVE TEAM IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF BOTH TEAM LEADERS & MEMBERS

In work teams both leaders & members are accountable to assemble teams & lead them to optimal performance outcomes

An effective team recognizes the importance of embracing differences in people & knows how to connect the dots amongst those differences to get the best outcomes from the team

Most innovations are created through networks, grps of people wking in concert

Innovation requires a certain type of person: they are passionate explorers in pursuit of endless possibilities

These explorers are courageous enough to take that leap of faith & follow it through all the way to the end

The best teams know that innovation must come from multiple sources, both internally & externally

When people & their different pts of view & experiences converge, they create the types of innovations that individuals could not have done or found alone

TEAMS CAN FOSTER INNOVATION BY BUILDING TRUST, COLLABORATION, COMMUNICATION, CHANGE, & COURSE CORRECTION

The 5 immediate things teams can do to foster an env of innovation & initiative include:

1. Trust yourself enough to trust others

Members of the team must become more transparent than ever before, & as such, each member of the team must trust themselves enough to trust each other

2. Collaborate & discover

Collaboration is not just about wking closely together, but also about taking leaps of faith together to discover new ways of thinking & create greater outcomes

A team can never know which idea will take shape into the new innovation that creates impact & influence

3. Communicate to learn

Strong communication helps teams find their rhythm & find the things they are looking for to build trust & collaboration

The manner in which a team communicates sets the tone & propels thinking in a variety of directions that leads to new innovations

4. Be a courageous change agent

Innovative & effective team member think critically & see through a lens of continuous improvement

Accepting the role of a change agent means taking on an entrepreneurial attitude, embracing risk as the new normal, beginning to see opportunity in everything, & making innovation second nature

5. Course Correct to Perfect

To course correct, every team must ask themselves the following three questions: 1) What must we keep doing?, 2) What must we stop doing?, and 3) What must we start doing?

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Outline on Team KSAOs
( Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, Other Characteristics )

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TEAMS SHOULD HAVE KSAOs THAT RELATE BOTH TO ORGL GOALS & TO TEAM PERFORMANCE

An effective team should have special team KSAOs that determine whether a person is a good team member

Teams KSAOs should be directly tied to team performance

For some KSAOs, prediction of individual job performance also predicts team performance

One KSAO that demonstrates individual & team performance is cognitive ability in a team, computed by averaging team member scores

TEAM ONLY KSAOs INCLUDE TEAMWORK, SOCIAL SKILLS, EMPATHY, & A COLLECTIVIST PERSONALITY

Several team KSAOs have been identified that related only to team performance, including:

1. being a good team member requires knowledge of teamwork, ie how individuals can effectively work together & how good wking relationships w/ others can be developed

2. having good social skills of communication & influence

3. being empathetic, ie understanding & caring for others on the team

4. having personality characteristics that are suited to teamwork, ie values that are more collectivist as opposed to individualist values

A TEAM SHOULD DEVELOP A DIVERSE SET OF TASK ORIENTED KSAOs & SHARE A SET OF TEAM KSAOs

Individual member must still possess the requisite task related KSAOs for the position they occupy, but a greater emphasis should be placed on team related KSAOs & team synergy

Any KSAO analysis of the team should include both traditional individual levels KSAOs as well as team level KSAOs

It may be important for someone in the team to possess a certain KSAO for the team to be successful, in fact team members may each have a set of individual KSAOs & not be required to successfully perform each of the team roles

A team should estb a shared mental model & a sufficient understanding of other team members jobs & KSAOs

An understanding & respect for other members KSAOs builds team synergy & espirit de corp

Cross training in other team members' roles may be a way to build appreciation of the importance of coordinating behaviors

Given the nature of work flow btwn members in a team, attn should focus on the exchanges btwn members, where in a a team, they occur more frequently, & often must be coordinated in multiple directions

TEAMS SHOULD LEARN TO TAKE ON LEADERSHIP KSAOs, IE KSAOs THAT ARE USUALLY PERFORMED BY THE LEADER

Motivation & incentive & reward programs should clearly focus on team level process & outcomes by providing team level feedback & incentives

Self directed or autonomous work grp designs are most appropriate for teams operating in these settings

Team leadership should focus on enabling the self mgt functions w/in the team

Team task arrangement often means greater diffusion of responsibility for team members, requiring that member share in problem diagnosis, solution generation, & planning of solution implementation, activities that, in traditional grps, are often responsibility of only the leader

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Outline on Group Diversity

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DIVERSITY IN THE WKPLACE IS INCREASING & CAN BE USED TO INCREASE EFFECTIVENESS & INNOVATION

Demographic shifts have resulted in increasing numbers of minorities & women in the wkplace

Coupled w/ the greater reliance on teamwork, grp diversity has become an important issue for orgs

Diversity can be divided into cognitive & demographic categories

Cognitive diversity concerns knowledge, skills, & values

Demographic diversity consists of more visible attributes, such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, & more

DIVERSITY CAN HAVE BOTH POSITIVE & NEGATIVE EFFECTS

Diversity can have different effects depending on the task

Cognitive diversity is likely to be helpful for team innovation, but demographic diversity is not

Demographic diversity is helpful when there is a need to get the perspectives of a diverse population of potential clients or customers

ORG CONTEXT IMPACTS THE EFFECTS OF DIVERSITY

Diverse grps were the best performers when the job required coordinating w/ teammates, & were the worst performers when the job could be done independently

Teams w/ grp goals were more satisfied if they were diverse, & members of teams w/ individual goals were more satisfied if they were not diverse

DIversity can have negative effects when people have no stake in getting along w/ one another either b/c their jobs are independent or their goals are not linked

When there is a necessity to work well w/ others, not only does the negative aspect of diversity disappear, but there can be significant advantages in both performance & satisfaction

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Outline on Autonomous Work Teams (AWT)

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AUTONOMOUS WK TMS HAVE 2 OR MORE INDIVIDUALS WHO INTERACT & SHARE COMMON TASK GOALS ON INTERDEPENDENT TASKS & INDIVIDUAL TASK RELATED GOALS, & WHERE THEY HAVE THE AUTONOMY TO DECIDE HOW TO DO THE TASK(S)

An autonomous work team is a group encouraged to manage its own work & wking practices

The concept of an autonomous work team was developed by Eric Trist at the Tavistock Institute in London, England after the end of World War II

AWTs decide for themself how the work should be carried out, & distributed among members

Most orgs have a network of interrelated wk grps

For orgs w/ AWTs to function effectively, individuals must coordinate their efforts w/in their own grps, & grps must coordinate their efforts w/ one another

Autonomous wk teams (AWT) are one alternative to the traditional org that can function to coordinate w/in & across grps

AWTs REQUIRE LESS RESOURCES FOR SUPERVISION THAN THE TRADITIONAL ORG

In the traditional factory, assembly is broken down into many small operations & for a large factory there can be hundreds or thousands of ops, each done by a separate wkr

In the traditional org, b/c assembling a product required the coordination of a large number of people, many resources must be devoted to supervision

The autonomous wk team is an alternative sys whereby an entire product is assembled by a small team of wkrs

A factory which is organized around AWTs is comprised of many wk teams, each assembling an entire product

B/c assembly of a product involves only the coordination of team members, relatively few resources are necessary for supervision

Teams are relied on to manage themselves, requiring far fewer supervisors

AWTs SHARE MANY COMMON CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS JOB ROTATION, PURCHASING, PERFORMING INSPECTIONS, FEW SUPERVISORS, CONDUCTING HIRING & FIRING, & MGT TASKS

Many autonomous wk tms (AWTs) have the characteristic of:
1. wkrs frequently rotating jobs
2. after about 18 mos, most wkrs knowing the entire production process
3. grps designing & purchasing their own tools
4. grp members going on service calls to do warranty repairs
5. quality control inspection being done by grp members
6. few supervisors
7. grp members participating in hiring & firing
8. supervisors serving as coaches, providing counseling & training
9. weekly grp meetings & monthly meetings
10. wkrs advisory grps who reported to mgt

Hackman & Oldham, 1980

In most AWTs each member of the team learns each operation so that after about 18 mos on the job every wkr can handle every operation

The team is responsible for the quality of the finished product which it tests before sending it out

There are few supervisors & their major function is to offer advice & training to team members

The approach is participative w/ frequent staff meetings & an advisory committee made up of members from different teams

WHEN COMPARED TO TRAD ORGS, AWTs HAVE HIGH JOB SATISFACTION, COMPARABLE JOB PERFORMANCE, & HIGHER OVERALL EFFICIENCY B/C LESS RESOURCES ARE SPENT ON SUPERVISION

Autonomous wk tms (AWTs) can benefit wkrs & orgs; job satisfaction is higher than w/ traditional approaches

Job performance has been found to be the same; however, the decreased need for supervisory personnel can result in overall greater efficiency

AWT create a better orgl envl where innovation is more likely

AWT are not suitable for all situations since they are best suited to task that require a high level of interdependent effort among members to complete tasks

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Outline on Team Building

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- Supplement: ALL Team Building Supplements

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- Supplement: The Handbook for Economic Lecturers. Groupworks & Assessment

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- Supplement: Tim Haws. Team Building

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- Project: Build Your Own Team Building Activity

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TEAM BUILDING OCCURS WHEN A TEAM STUDIES ITS OWN PROCESS OF WKING TOGETHER & ACTS TO BUILD A CLIMATE THAT ENCOURAGES & VALUES THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF TEAM MEMBERS IN ACCOMPLISHING TEAM TASKS & THE TASK(S) OF THE ORG

Team building refers to any of a number of activities designed to enhance the many different aspects of the function of wk grps or tms

Team blding refers to a wide range of activities, presented to businesses, schools, sports teams, religious or nonprofit orgs designed for improving team performance

Team blding generally sits w/in the theory & practice of orgl development, but can also be applied to sports teams, school groups, & other contexts

Some team blding efforts are task oriented in that they attempt to help team members improve how the accomplished their team tasks

Work envs tend to focus on individuals & personal goals, w/ reward & recognition singling out the achievements of individual wkrs

Some tm blding efforts are interpersonally oriented; they are concerned w/ how well tm members communicate & interact

Tm members who communicate & interact w/ one another generally perform better

Tm blding is a planned activity that consists of one or more exercises or experiences that are designed to accomplish a particular objective

Tm blding is typically conducted or facilitated by a consultant or trainer who is an expert in the particular form of tm blding

It is difficult if not impossible for a tm to run itself through a tm blding exercise

Tm blding involves an existing wk tm

Individual are trained in tm blding to enhance their individual tm skills w/in their wk teams

TEAM BLDING INVOLVES TRAINING TM MEMBERS TO DISCUSS PROBLEMS & COME UP W/ SOLUTIONS

Team building is pursued via a variety of practices, & can range from simple bonding exercises to complex simulations & multi day team blding retreats designed to develop a team, grp assessment, grp dynamic games, & more

Team blding is not to be confused with 'team recreation' that consists of activities for teams that are strictly recreational

Team blding can also be seen in day to day operations of an organization & team dynamic can be improved through successful ltm blding & operation

Team blding can also refer to the process of selecting or creating a new team

The role of the tm trainer is to facilitate the discussion by getting tm members talking to each other

The trainers job is to get people to raise issues, identify problems, & discuss possible solutions

The trainer might have to mediate conflicts if the discussion leads to arguments among team members

	FOR LAFASTO, 5 DYNAMICS ARE FUNDAMENTAL TO TEAM BLDING SUCCESS, INCLUDING COLLECTIVE ORIENTED MEMBERS, 'FEEDBACK BASED' RELATIONSHIPS, A PROBLEM SOLVING ORIENTATION, LEADERSHIP SKILLS, & ORGL ENV IN SUPPORT OF THE TEAM
	Effective team members have a collective orientation, are experienced in teams & the task(s) at hand, have problem solving abilities, are open to problem solving & collective dec mking, & are action oriented
	Effective teams estb relationships such that members are able to both give & receive feedback
	Effective teams focus on estbing a relaxed, comfortable & accepting team env, open & honest communication, clear goals, all oriented to the task of problem solving
	Effective teams have a competent leader & the team itself has leadership competencies which focus on estbing goals, ensuring a collaborative climate, blding the confidence of team members, setting priorities, demonstrating sufficient 'know how,' & managing performance through feedback
	Effective teams have an orgl env where the climate & culture of the org must be conducive to team behavior, where competitiveness is discouraged & uniformity is encouraged, where conflict is focused on problem solving, & destructive conflict is discouraged

	THERE ARE MANY ADVANTAGES TO TEAM BUILDING
	Studies show mostly positive effects of tm blding exercises
	Nearly all studies show either positive effects, or short term effects, or no effects
	Team blding is said to have benefits of self development, positive communication, leadership skills & the ability to work closely together as a team to solve problems
	Team blding increases the team's flexibility & abilities
	Team blding creates teams that are more productive than work grps w/ an individualistic mindset
	Team blding aids the team in fostering & facing orgl change
	Team blding encourages both individual & team development & improvement
	Team blding builds a focus on grp goals to accomplish more beneficial tasks
	Team blding builds collaboration, communication & increased creative or flexible thinking

	TEAMS MAY BUILD TOWARD TAKING ON TEAM LEADERSHIP TASKS, IE INTERNALIZE LEADERSHIP & HAVE ONLY SPOKESPERSONS & LIAISONS; TEAM LEADERSHIP INCLUDES A GOAL ORIENTATION, A SAFE ENV, BLDING TRUST, ESTBING COMPETENCE, SETTING PRIORITIES, GIVING FEEDBACK, & MORE
	Teams as leaders foster a goal orientation to keep the team on track
	Teams as leaders promote a safe environment where members can openly discuss issues
	Teams as leaders build confidence amongst members by building & maintaining trust and offering the members responsibilities
	Teams as leaders are technically competent in matters relating to team tasks & goals
	Teams as leaders set a manageable list of priorities for the team to keep members focused
	Teams as leaders offer clear performance expectations by recognizing and rewarding excellent performance, and provide feedback to others
	In a study of 75 teams, Larson & LaFasto identified effective strategies a leader should employ to enhance team building, including: 1. establishing clear & inspiring team goals 2. maintaining a results oriented team structure 3. assembling competent team members 4. striving for unified commitment 5. providing a collaborative climate 6. encouraging standards of excellence 7. furnishing external support & recognition 8. applying principled leadership

	TEAM BLDING ACTIVITIES CAN RANGE FROM THE SIMPLE 5 MINUTE SAFETY SESSION TO THE WEEK LONG 'ADVENTURE' EXPERIENCE
	There are many types of tm blding activities & they can be categorized along a sliding scale btwn two extremes, 'fun' or 'developmental' (VanZile, 2002). . . .
	At the 'fun' end of the tm blding scale there are the icebreakers, ropes courses, camping trips, scavenger hunts, & more that are generally used to bond members of new teams or rejuvenate an already estb team
	At the 'developmental' end of the tm blding scale there are workshops & intensive tm blding exercises that have very specific goals & are typically suited to a group of professionals already focused on addressing certain issues
	In the middle of the tm blding scale are things like Outward Bound trips, that are adventurous, but still tackle serious objectives
	At the ends of the gradients in btwn a 'customized & tailored' approach to tm blding there are hundreds of tm blding companies out there able to facilitate any type of tm activity be it basket weaving or something akin to the next 'Survivor' game show
	TYPES OF TEAM BLDING ACTIVITIES INCLUDE GAMES, SOCIAL ACTIVITIES, COMMUNICATIONS, INTERPERSONAL SKILLS, STRESS BUSTERS, PUZZLERS, DEC MKING, PLANNING & ADAPTING, TRUST BLDING, & MORE
	A specific type of team blding might include:
	- team blding 'games' such as blding a pyramid or catching the falling person
	- team blding social actives such as a social hour, a brown bag lunch, a breakfast meeting, an orgl milestone celebration, etc, w/ a focus simply of socializing
	- team blding communications exercise
	- team blding to build interpersonal skills
	- team blding 'games' to reduce stress & build familiarity among team members
	- team blding problem solving 'puzzlers' that can be based on actual orgl tasks or can be based on 'fun' or mystery puzzles
	- team blding decision making scenarios that can be as simple as where to go for lunch, to a personal decision such as choosing a college, to an imagined orgl oriented decision, to a case study of a past orgl decision, & more
	- team blding planning / adaptability exercise where the team faces an internal, ie from the org, or external change, ie from the env, & the team must decide how to react
	- team trust blding can be accomplished through social activities, in everyday type interactions, through enhancing frequency & type of communication, through exercises designed only to build trust such as the catching the falling person, the 'tell me something I don't know about you' game, the 'why am I here' self revelation exercise, the division of labor, chained task scenario, & more
	In order to know what to expect with team building it is prudent to explore a few team building models

	TEAMS, LIKE PEOPLE & ORGS, GO THROUGH DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
	There are predictable stages every team goes through on its way to becoming a highly productive, efficient team
	Leaders & team members who are aware of these stages can improve the quality of their team's interactions during each stage
	Arguably the most famous & easiest model of team development to remember is that of Bruce Tuckman (1965), which designates 4 stages of team development: forming, storming, norming, & performing
	Chart: The Form, Storm, Norm, Perform, 'Search Pattern' The Form, Storm, Norm, Perform 'Search Pattern' Chart answers the question: 'where are we in the team blding pattern w/in the current discussion / activity?
	1. Forming:. During the forming stage, when teams 1st get together, members are generally cautious & uncertain about many things
	During the forming stage, people explore, dabble, try something.
	During the forming stage, everyone tries their best to look ahead & think about all the things that need to be done
	During the forming stage, the tm w/ internalized leadership functions must set the focus, or the leader must set the focus
	2. Storming:. During the storming stage, the developmental process begins to mature under the pressures of wk & conflicting perspectives
	During the storming stage, people jockey for influence
	During the storming stage, patient & impatient people clash
	During the storming stage, trust is tested, and confusions around goals and roles begin to surface
	During the storming stage, if there are heavy deadlines, this stage can be quite tense
	3. Norming: During the norming state, as people get to know each other, they reconcile & agree on things like dec mking processes, resources, timing, quality standards & more; ie they estb tm norms
	A team 'norm' is is an informal, sometimes never spoken rule, that everyone understands & follows
	Norms are the formal & informal rules that make up the operating system of productive work
	4. Performing: During the performing stage, the tm uses all the experience & understanding it has develop to get results for the tm & the org
	AT EACH STAGE OF GRP DEVELOPMENT, THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRP, THE MEMBERS, THE LEADERSHIP FUNCTIONS, OUTPUT, & TM FACILITATION, EACH CHANGE
	During team development, the characteristics of the group evolve from uncertain, to conflict, to committed, to fully functional
	During team development, the tm members evolve from being talkative, to disagreeing, to a sense of belonging, to functioning well
	During team development, the leadership style evolves from clear direction, to open conflict, letting the tm take over leaderships tasks, to the consultation role
	During team development, output evolves from getting little done, to low output, to moderate output, to high output
	During team development, facilitation evolves from organizing, listening, to giving feedback, to consensus
	Table: The Stages of Group Development The Stages of Group Development Table indicates how the characteristics of the grp, the members, the leadership task, output, & tm facilitation progress in each stage of tm development

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Outline on Future Issues in Work Teams

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AS TECH & WKPLACE SYSTEMS BECOME MORE COMPLEX, WK TMS WILL HAVE TO PROGRESS TO ADDRESS THESE ISSUES

One facet of complex tech in the wkplace is the necessity for coordinated tm efforts among wkrs

Very often several people are required to operate complicated equipment & tech

When teamwork breaks down, the consequences can be serious

The challenge in the future is to find ways to improve the functioning of tms in the face of the increasing complexity of technology & wkplace systems

TEAMS WILL NEED TO DEVELOP MORE ABILITY, INITIATIVE, SKILLS, MOTIVATION, & HIRING PROCEDURES

The autonomous wk tm is becoming an increasingly popular way of organizing mfr orgs

Part of the motivation for autonomous wk tms is their efficiency since they allow the elimination of supervisory personnel

As factory jobs become more complex, they will require a higher level of ability & initiative

People w/ both more task & team skills & motivation will have to be either hired or developed on the job

Tms will have to become more involved in the hiring process & need to develop selection procedures to find the best people, training to enhance their skills, & systems to increase motivation

TEAM BLDING TECHNIQUES WILL NEED TO BE DEVELOPED FOR ALL THE TYPES OF TEAMS & TO ENHANCE COGNITIVE & DEMOGRAPHIC DIVERSITY

Tm blding techniques will need to be developed for the many, many different kinds of tms out there from sales, to mfr, to special ops in the military, to operation of complex power plants

Tms need to develop interventions that maximized the benefits & minimize the drawbacks of increased diversity

W/ cognitive diversity, tms needs to develop strategies to utilize talent w/in an org; ie effective ways to decide the skill mix that will make the tm effective for a particular task

For demographic diversity, tms need to develop strategies to train supervisors, or tm members participating in supervision, to effectively manage diverse tms

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