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 Review Notes on   CO:  Organizational Communications
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 An Overview of Organizational Communication   
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           The Importance of Communication   
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           Types of Communications   
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 The Communications Process   
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           Styles of Communications   
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           Individual Factors in Communication   
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 Formal & Informal Communications   
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           Downward Communications   
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           Upward Communications   
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           Horizontal Communications   
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 Communications Networks   
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           Functional & Dysfunctional Communications w/in a Hierarchy   
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 Communications Problems   
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           Info Processing in Orgs   
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           Methods to Enhance Orgl Communications   

 
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 An Overview on Orgl Communications
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  COMMUNICATIONS IS ALL ABOUT GAINING, TRANSFERRING, & RECEIVING INFO   
 
 Orgs are info processing systems 
 
  Morgan, 1986, uses the brain as a metaphor for an org 
 
  Orgs capture & filter info 
 
  An org processes info in terms of what it has already learned, i.e. interpreted 
 
  Orgs change the info, & finally act on it 
 
  Orgs have memory lapses   
  Orgs have highs & lows   
  Communications has recently been seen as the panacea for all org ills, but here it is one among the many factors affecting individuals & orgs   
  Communication is always one person in communication w/ another, mediated through individuals, technological devices, orgs, etc.   
  The interpretation of communication by individuals is influenced by their org positions   
  THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF COMMO MSGS INCLUDING THOSE ABOUT ORGL MEMBERS, OTHERS, ORGL PRACTICES, & WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE   
  Katz & Kahn, 1978, noted that there are FOUR types of orgl messages.  They said that members communicate about   
  a.  themselves, their performance, their problems, etc.   
  b.  others, their performance, their problems, etc.   
  c.  orgl practices & policies   
  d.  what needs to be done & how it can be done   
  THERE ARE FORMAL & INFORMAL COMMUNICATIONS   
  For Katz & Kahn, orgl messages & all other communication may be seen as occurring through TWO channels, including:   
  a.  the formal lines of commo, which are those designed by the org   
  b.  the informal lines of commo (a.k.a. the grapevine, etc.), which are those that arise spontaneously as a result of human nature   
  The grapevine may be supported by mgt. & may actually be more efficient than the formal lines of commo   
  Kanter, 1977, found that commos in orgs occur among mgrs, subordinates, superiors, peers, & customers   
  Kanter determined there were types of meetings, mail, phone, email, faxes all must be answered   
  In short, the task of mangers was commos  
  COMMO IS SHAPED BY ORGL CULTURE   
  Orgs develop their own cultures, w/ language, rituals, & styles of commos (Frost, 1985; Morgan, 1986; Ott, 1989) 
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  Kanter, 1977, found that large orgs hired white males on assuming that social homogeneity would foster clear commo 
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  Pascale, 1985, found that orgs socialize personnel to minimize commos problems 
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  Hall notes that despite a common culture & socialization efforts, orgs have inherent problems in commo 
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  By examining org structure, power, & leadership, we see that the vertical element of commo (hierarchy) is a crucial orgl fact of life 
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 Outline on the  Importance of Communications
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  THE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN ORGL STRUCTURE IS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A COMMUNICATIONS PATH   
  But orgs do not always follow these designated communications paths   
  Aspects of power, leadership, & decision making rely upon the commos process   
  Barnard noted in 1938 that commos are of central importance in org studies   
  For Katz & Kahn, 1978, communications is the exchange of information & the transmission of meaning is the essence of a social system or an org   
  But commos varies in importance according to where one is looking in an org  & what kind of org is being studied   
  COMMO IS MORE IMPORTANT FOR SOME TYPES ORGS, WKRS, & IS A PRIMARY TASK OF MGRS   
  Commos is important throughout the org, but most models see commos as more important the closer one gets to the center of the org   
  Kanter, 1977, found that mgrs spent the largest portion of their time in commos  
  Klauss & Bass, 1982, found that mgrs spend 80% of their time on commos, & as one moves away from the top of the org, the proportion of time in communication decreases, except for specialists in communication such as Public Relations Specialists   
  THE IMPORTANCE OF ORGL COMMO IS DETERMINED BY COMPETITIVENESS, INTERNAL UNITY, RATIONALIZATION OF OPS, THE SIZE OF THE ORG, THE HETERO / HOMOGENEITY OF THE ORGL PARTICIPANTS   
  Wilensky, 1967, suggests FOUR factors determine the importance of commos or intelligence of the org, including:   
  a.  competitiveness in the env   
  b.  dependence on internal support & unity   
  c.  the degree of rationalization of internal operations & the env   
  d.  the size & structure of the org, its heterogeneity of membership, diversity of goals, the centrality of authority   
  Communications are more important in orgs that must deal w/ uncertainty, complexity, & have unroutinizable technology   
  The more the org is idea & people oriented, the more important is communications   
  In routinized orgs, once procedures are set, communications are routinized   

 
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 Outline on the  Types of Communications
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  THE TYPES OF COMMO INCLUDE: 
1.  verbal commo 
2.  written commo 
3.  nonverbal commo 
4.  interpersonal commo 		 5.  listening 
6.  orgl commo 
7.  formal downward commo 
8.  formal upward commo 		   9.  formal horz commo 
10.  informal commo 
11.  network commo 
 
  1.  VERBAL COMMO   
 
 Verbal commo can be delivered face to face or by electronic means such as a telephone, voice recordings, video recordings, computers, & more 
 
 
 Conversation is the most common form of verbal commo 
 
 
 Oral commo should not always substitute for written commo because sometimes a record is needed or the message is too complex or long to convey verbally 
 
  Interpersonal commo involves real time face to face or voice to voice conversations that allow instant feedback   
  2.  WRITTEN COMMO   
  Written commo comes in many forms from letters, memos, outlines, reports, books, etc. 
 
  Some written commo is formal & some is informal as in notes on a bulletin board or an email 
 
  3.  NONVERBAL COMMO INCLUDES BODY LANGUAGE   
  Written commo is disadvantaged compared to verbal commo in that it has no nonverbal commo attributes 
 
  Nonverbal commo is AKA body language, which includes nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, gestures, posture, placement of limbs, proximity to others, nature of eye contact, tone & volume of voice, etc. 
 
 
 Nonverbal language is generally inaccurate, & difficult to understand & most understanding occurs subliminally, i.e. below the awareness level 
 
  4.  INTERPERSONAL COMMO   
  While every commo is, in the abstract, interpersonal commo in that it is one person communicating w/ another, there are clearly degrees of  interpersonal commo   
  Interpersonal commo is strongest / closest when it is two people communicating directly to each other w/o any mediating people or tech as in a typical conversation   
  Interpersonal commo is the most distant when, for  example, we read or  interpret commo from another in the past, from a different culture, in a different language, & certainly this must be mediated by some tech such as writing, recording, etc., & often must also be mediated by a 3rd party, ie a translator, etc  
  Much orgl interpersonal commo lies somewhere btwn personal & distant in that we get email, memos, etc from a supervisor who is targeting several wkrs at once   
 
 5.  LISTENING
 
  Listening involves the receiving, decoding, & understanding all types of commo 
 
  Listening often involves 
- active listening, i.e. asking for clarification 
- being aware of the sender's culture, personality, etc. 
- choosing an appropriate medium 
- initiating feedback 
 
  6.  ORGL COMMO  
  Orgl commo often involves formal commo channels, which are the channels that result from an org's org structure which indicates who is to commo w/ whom on particular tasks or in particular situations 
 
  Orgl common involves formal downward commo, formal upward commo, formal horizontal commo, & informal commo 
 
  7.  FORMAL DOWNWARD COMMO OFTEN INCLUDE: 
1.  the vision 
2.  the mission 
3.  strategic goals 
4.  policies 
5.  rules & procedures 		   6.  incentives 
  7.  job designs 
  8.  delegation of authority 
  9.  development 
10.  feedback 		 11.  performance appraisals 
12.  solutions 
13.  staffs' advice 
14.  training 
 
  8.  FORMAL UPWARD COMMO OFTEN INCLUDE: 
a.  feedback 
b.  request for assistance 
c.  reports 		 d.  recommended solutions 
e.  problems 
f.  complaints 
 
  9.  FORMAL HORZ COMMO OFTEN INCLUDE: 
a.  coordination efforts 
b.  requests for assistance 
c.  feedback 		 d.  info about clients 
e.  info about support, suppliers, etc. 
 
  10.  INFORMAL COMMO   
  Informal commo channels (ICCs) include any commo that is not formalized, but in practice when people engage in interpersonal commo, there is a mixture of formal & informal commo 
 
  11.  NETWORK COMMO   
  Network commo involves multiple, simultaneous or nearly simultaneous, serial or parallel commo w/ individuals & groups 
 

 
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 Outline on the Communications Process
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 There are SEVEN components in the communications process that all interact 
1.  Sender  6.  Receiver 
2.  Message  7.  Feedback Loop 
3.  Encoding  8.  Communications Environment 
4.  Medium  9.  Noise
5.  Decoding 
 
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 The Figure on the Communications Process shows that communication is usually 2 way, & is a relatively fragile process   
 
 1.  THE SENDER IS AN INDIVIDUAL, GRP, OR ORG THAT NEEDS TO COMMUNICATE   
 
 The sender is the individual, group, or org that needs or wants to share info w/ some other individual, group, or org in order to accomplish one or more of the functions of communications 
 
  2.  THE MESSAGE IS THE TRUE MEANING OF WHAT ONE WANTS TO COMMUNICATE   
 
 The message is the info the sender needs or wants to share w/ others 
 
 
 Messages should be as clear & complete as possible to be effective 
 
 
 A message is clear when in contains info that is easily interpreted or understood 
 
 
 A message is complete when it contains all the info necessary to achieve a common understanding btwn the sender & receiver 
 
 
 If a message is vague or one is unsure about what a message should be, communications are likely to be ineffective 
 
  Commo in orgs should provide accurate info w/ the appropriate emotional overtones to all members who need the communication system & that is is clear who can utilize the info that is available   
  Providing accuracy, emotional overtones, & the appropriate target audience is an impossible goal for commo in orgs   
  Feldman & March, 1981, claim that orgs gather more info than they use, & they continue to ask for more   
  The control of more info creates more legitimacy   
  3.  ENCODING OCCURS WHEN THE MESSAGE IF FORMED BY THE SENDER & THE MEDIUM INTO SPOKEN, WRITTEN WORDS OR SOME OTHER FORM 
 
 
 To send a message, the sender must engage in encoding 
 
 
 Encoding is the translating of the message into symbols or language that the receiver can understand 
 
 
 Typically to encode, the senders need basic writing & oral communication skills 
 
 
 The sender must take care to use words the receiver understands 
 
 
 Effective communication can be affected by the use of jargon 
 
 
 Jargon is specialized terminology or language that members of a profession, occupation, or other group develop to aid communications among themselves 
 
 
 The use of specialized language & jargon facilitates communication w/in an occupation or org because a single term can be used to describe a complex idea 
 
 
 But the use of specialized language & jargon usually leads to ineffective communication when receivers are outside the occupation or profession 
 
 
 4.  THE MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION IS OFTEN THE SPOKEN OR WRITTEN WORD VIA PERSONAL COMMO, TV, RADIO, INTERNET, NEWSPAPERS, ETC.   
 
 The encoded message is transmitted to the receiver through some medium 
 
 
 The medium is the pathway through which an encoded message is transmitted to a receiver 
 
 
 Verbal communications is the sharing of info by the means of works, either spoken or written 
 
 
 Verbal communications can take the form of face- to face oral communications; oral communications over the phone & written communication using memos, letters, & reports that can be transmitted electronically 
 
  Each medium has advantages & disadvantage   
  Choose a medium the receiver monitors   
  People differ in the media they prefer; some prefer face to face communications & others prefer seeing things in writing   
  The best way to get a message across is to use the medium the receiver pays the closest attention to   
  Select a medium appropriate for the message   
  Some types of messages are best conveyed face to face   
  A complex message is best conveyed in written form so that the receiver can refer back to it   
  Use multiple media when necessary   
  An important message should be given face to face & then followed up w/ a memo   
  Nonverbal communication is the sharing of info by means of facial expressions, body language, & even mode of dress   
  Nonverbal communication is used when people feel uncomfortable about expressing part of a message verbally   
  People tend to have less control over their nonverbal communication than over their verbal communication   
  It is difficult to conceal insincerity   
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 Nonverbal communication is also a good medium for communicating support, acceptance, and a sense of camaraderie   
  5.  DECODING OCCURS WHEN THE MESSAGE IF FORMED BY THE RECEIVER & THE MEDIUM INTO SPOKEN, WRITTEN WORDS OR SOME OTHER FORM   
  The words we hear, the images we see all have a meaning for the receiver that may be different from that of the sender, based on such variables as experience, context, nationality, etc.   
  Some messages that include a dialect, jargon, etc. are esp difficult to decode & errors are more likely to occur   
  Leaders often can only speak in generalities & must avoid details because of the difficulty of decoding; the audience does not have enough knowledge or context to meaningfully decode a complex message   
  6.  THE RECEIVER IS THE INDIVIDUAL, GROUP, OR ORG WHO RECEIVES THE MESSAGES   
  The receiver may or may not be the intended receiver; i.e., some people may receive the message who were not intended to receive the message, or who do not need the message   
  Any receiver must decode the message   
  Decoding is interpreting or trying to make sense of a sender's message   
  Decoding is easy if the message is clear but difficult if the message is ambiguous   
  When messages are ambiguous, they are subject to the receiver's interpretation & are more likely to be influenced by the receiver's own beliefs, attitudes, values, moods, perceptual biases, and so on   
  6.  THE FEEDBACK LOOP INCLUDES THE INTENTIONAL & UNINTENTIONAL MESSAGES THAT RECEIVER SENDS BACK TO THE SENDER UPON RECEIVING THE MESSAGE   
  The feedback is the communication that the receiver sends back to the sender indicating that they have received the message & demonstrating their interpretation of the message   
  Once the message is decoded, the receiver has to respond to it, thereby starting the feedback loop   
  A variety of types of feedback are available   
  One type of feedback is acknowledging the receipt of the message   
  One type of feedback is ignoring the receipt of the message   
  One type of feedback is responding to the message w/ the requested info   
  One type of feedback is asking for clarification   
  During feedback, encodes their feedback, chooses the medium the original sender monitors   
  During feedback the original sender decodes the response & determines whether the receiver properly interpreted the initial message   
  If the sender believes the receiver did not properly interpret or decode the original message, then the communication process usually continues until both parties are confident they have reached a common understanding   
  7.  THE COMMUNICATIONS ENVIRONMENT INCLUDES ANY FEATURES IN THE ENV THAT AFFECT COMMUNICATIONS   
  The communications environment includes any features in the env that affect communications   
  The env may enhance or degraded the communications process   
  Factors in the env that affect communications include everything from physical noise, the competing messages, to irrelevant messages to social factors such as language, dialect, beliefs, etc.   
  Part of the communications env includes the social relations in the env   
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 The social relations in the process involve & affect senders & receivers & their reciprocal effects on each other as they are communication 
 
  8.  NOISE INCLUDES MESSAGES OR OTHER EFFECTS WHICH CHANGE OR ENHANCE THE MESSAGE  
  Noise often includes factors that degrade the communications process   
  Noise sometime may include factor that enhance the communications process as when music is played to enhance, highlight, or otherwise improve verbal commo   

 
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Figure on the Communications Process

The Figure on the Communications Process shows that communication is usually 2 way, & is a relatively fragile process 


 
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Examples of nonverbal communication 

A hug can help reduce stress, raise self confidence, & make people feel connected w/ those around them 
Studies of newborns, the elderly, & children in orphanages have shown that touch is necessary for psychological well being 
Hugs can be used to express powerful emotions & feelings 


 
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Examples:  The social relations in the process involve & affect senders & receivers 

If a sender is intimidated by a receiver, the message itself & the interpretation of it will be affected 
Status differences, 
perceptual models, 
sex appeal, 
gender, 
age, 
etc. 
can enter the communications process & lead to clarification or distortion of the message 


 
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 Outline on the  Styles of Communication
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  THE STYLES OF COMMO INCLUDE SELF DENYING, SELF PROTECTING, SELF EXPOSING, SELF BARGAINING, & SELF ACTUALIZING 
 
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 Figure:  Model of Interpersonal Communications Styles   
  The Figure:  Model of Interpersonal Communications Styles demonstrates that commo styles vary along the dimensions of openness & feedback   
  1.  THE SELF DENYING STYLE OF COMMO INVOLVES ACTORS WHO ARE ISOLATED FROM OTHERS, W/DRAWN & INTROVERTED 
 
  The self denying style of commo actor is more prone to this style than is the extrovert 
 
  Self denyers are low on openness to & from others & low on giving feedback 
 
  2.  THE SELF PROTECTING COMMUNICATOR PROBES / MAKE COMMENTS TO OTHERS 
 
  The self protecting style of commo refers to actors who probe others or make comments to others  
  The motivation of self protectors  in giving feedback is often a defensive measure to prevent the possibility of self exposure & comments from others about themselves 
 
  The self protectors is hi on giving feedback to others but low on openness to & from others 
 
  3.  THE SELF EXPOSING COMMUNICATOR ATTEMPTS TO GET THE FOCUS ON THEMSELF BY ASKING FOR REACTIONS 
 
  The self exposing style of commo refers to actors who attempt to get others to focus on them by constantly asking for reactions to their behavior  
  W/ the self exposing style of commo there is likely to be little internalization of the feedback 
 
  Feedback to a self exposer is like "water off a duck's back" 
 
  The self exposing style is low on giving feedback, but high on openness to & from others 
 
  4.  THE SELF BARGAINING COMMUNICATOR GIVES FEEDBACK & OPENS UP IF THE OTHER OPENS UP 
 
  The self bargaining style of commo refers to actors who are willing to give feedback & open up in direct relation to the same process taking place w/ others in the interaction  
  Actors in a self bargaining interaction use themselves as a point of  bargaining or negotiation 
 
  The self bargaining style of commo is moderate on giving feedback as well as moderate on openness to & from others 
 
  5.  THE SELF ACTUALIZING COMMUNICATOR REVEALS SOME INFO, ASKS FOR FEEDBACK, & GIVES FEEDBACK  
  The self actualizing style of commo refers to actors who spontaneously provide the appropriate amt of info about themselves, ask for feedback, & provide feedback in a constructive & non defensive manner   
  The self actualizing style of commo is hi on giving feedback as well as hi on openness to & from others   
  Under ideal conditions, the self actualizing communicator is one very effective & enjoyable; however, even if we desire to produce the self actualizing style, we may experience situational factors that motivate us  to use some other style   
  The key situational factor in common is the approach that others take in communicating w/ use   
  If a superior is not receptive to receiving feedback, we may be reluctant to give feedback   
  Although it would be simplistic & unrealistic to suggest that there should be only one commo style for all situations, our biases, which are based on some knowledge & personal values, lead us to conclude that the self actualizing style is one that should be developed & practiced whenever possible   

 
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Figure:  Model of Interpersonal Communications Styles
 
Giving Feedback
Low                                                                                                                                    High
High
 

Openness to 

 Self Exposing  

Self
  

Self Actualizing


Bargaining
& from Others
 

Low

 Self Denying
Self Protecting
The Figure:  Model of Interpersonal Communications Styles demonstrates that commo styles vary along the dimensions of openness & feedback

 
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 Outline on  Individual Factors in Communication
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  PERCEPTION IS A KEY FACTOR IN COMMO   
  As is demonstrated in the communications process, the perceptual process is a key element in communications  
  Zalkind & Costello, 1962, note that even simple physical objects may be perceived differently
 
  Zalkind & Costello note that perceivers respond to cuesthey are not aware of, may be influenced by emotional factors, may use irrelevant cues, may weigh evidence in an unbalanced way, or may fail to identify all the factors on which their judgments are based  
  Personal needs, values, & interests enter the perceptual process
 
  How one perceives the "other" affects how a person perceives the communication
 
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 The Image of Internal Factors Affecting Communications depicts numerous factors including filters, physiology, internal representations, values, beliefs, language, memories decisions, time coding & metaprograms  
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 The Image of Social Communication Competencies depicts numerous factors including processing & executive functions, social cognitive abilities, language abilities, & conflict resolution skills  
  Interactions & perceptions are affected by the expectations of what another person will look like
 
  Perception that is uniform across all info recipients is impossible in any given situation
 
  Communications in an org are basically transactions btwn individuals
 
  IMPRESSIONS ARE A MIXTURE OF PRECONCEPTIONS & EXPERIENCE WHICH IMPACT COMMO  
  The impression that the receiver has of the communicator is crucial in how the message is interpreted
 
  These impressions are not created out of thin air; they are based on the receivers past knowledge & experience
 
  The sender & receiver use their own learned responses to interpret the message
 
  THE SETTING IS THE IMMEDIATE ENV IN WHICH THE COMMO OCCURS   
  The setting also can impact the message
 
  CATEGORIZATION IS STEREOTYPING PEOPLE BASED ON OUR KNOWLEDGE & EXPERIENCE, AS WELL AS THE WIDER CULTURE   
  The perceptual process requires putting ideas & people into categories, so messages are subject to "instant categorization" as are people
 
  The role of a person in an org affect ow communications are perceived or sent
 
  People are subordinates in one communication & superordinates in another
 
  THE ROLES OF THE SENDER & RECEIVER IMPACT COMMO   
  Communication behavior differs according to one's position in a role set
 
  Unfamiliar roles create awkward communications
 
  Athanassaides, 1974, found that women who suffered discrimination had a lower feeling of autonomy than others in the same role
 
  STEREOTYPES AFFECT COMMO AS THEY SET EXPECTATIONS FOR THE COMMO, WHICH MAY OR MAY NOT BE ACCURATE  
  A stereotype is where one assumes that the characteristic of a person is like those of the group  
  Stereotyping can occur before any communications or interactions has taken place
 
  Common stereotypes in orgs include:  labor, management, minority group or any other group membership   
  Common stereotypes are usually, but not always, gross distortions  
  Stereotypes often involve the imposition of negative characteristics on the members of the communication system  
  The reverse situation, attributing socially approved characteristics, also occurs   
  THE HALO EFFECT IMPACTS COMMO IN THAT ONE ASSUMES THE OTHER IS LIKE THEMSELF   
  The halo effect is the projection of characteristics:  assuming that others are like you; often involves altering inconsistent information to put it in line w/ the conceptual framework already developed  
  Zalkind & Costello promote FOUR methods to improve communications:  
  a.  Know oneself  
  b.  One's own characteristics affect the characteristics that are likely to be seen in others  
  c.  The person who is self accepting is more likely to be able to see favorable aspects of others  
  d.  Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single or simple skill  

 
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Image of Internal Factors Affecting Communications

The Image of Internal Factors Affecting Communications depicts numerous factors including filters, physiology, internal representations, values, beliefs, language, memories decisions, time coding & metaprograms

 
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Image of
The Image of Social Communication Competencies depicts numerous factors including processing & executive functions, social cognitive abilities, language abilities, & conflict resolution skills

 
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 Outline on  Formal & Informal Communication
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  ALMOST ALL INFO IN AN ORG IS CARRIED BY BOTH FORMAL & INFORMAL COMMO CHANNELS   
 
 All orgs exhibit both formal & informal communication (commo) channels & depending of the nature of an org, or the particular situation, either orgl commo channel may be stronger & more important, or weaker & less important 
 
  FORMAL COMMO CHANNELS ARE THOSE OFFICIALLY DETERMINED BY THE ORG STRUCTURE & MGT   
 
 Formal commo channels are mgt designated pipelines used for official commo efforts that run up, down, & across the orgl struc 
 
 
 Mgrs are charged w/ creating, using, & keeping these channels open & available to the org 
 
 
 Formal org commo channels act as connections btwn orgl actors & outsiders & as paths through which official commo flows
 
 
 An org's orgl chart reveals who is connect to whom, & therefore, in which directions commos flow
 
 
 An imp part of any orgl structure is the delineation of the commo channels in that while it may be clear that commos need to move up, down, & across the org, it is not always clear which info (all, some, none) should be shared, w/ whom it should be shared, & how far the info should move in the org
 
 
 While formal orgl commo structures attempt to clarify which info should move in an org, to whom it should go, how far it should move, & how much should move, it is sometimes unclear what to do w/ info in a particular, unique situation
 
 
 INFORMAL COMMO CHANNELS CARRY CASUAL, SOCIAL, & PERSONAL MSG ON A REGULAR BASIS IN OR AROUND THE ORG 
 
  ICCs also carry formal orgl info, but it is carried outside the official org channels; therefore, official info may go to actors who are not designated to receive it  
 
 ICCs are often called the grape vine, the rumor mill, gossip, water cooler chatter, etc.
 
 
 ICCs disseminate rumors, gossip, accurate as well as inaccurate info, & on occasion, official msgs
 
 
 Anyone inside or outside the org can initiate a grapevine msg & may use official channels such as face to face commo, telephone, email, fax, etc. 
 
 
 ICCs may convey personal or business info
 
  ICCs exist w/in orgs, btwn orgs, among industries, & btwn an org & its env  
  Actors w/ personal connections to someone in a competing or client org may spread info before it is publicized   
  INFORMAL COMMO IS USED BECAUSE FORMAL COMMO DOES NOT MEET EVERYONE'S NEEDS   
 
 Msgs transmitted through ICCs usually result from 
1.  incomplete info from official sources
2.  envl influences in the org
3.  basic human needs to socialize		 4.  the desire of people to stay informed
5.  the desire of people to share info
6.  the desire for excitement
 
 
 When changes occur, people like to speculate about what they mean
 
 
 People feel insecure or fearful about orgl events on which they are uninformed
 
  INFORMAL COMMO IS HAS ADVANTAGES OVER FORMAL COMMO SUCH AS 
SECURITY, SPEED, ANONYMITY, RESILIENCE, & ACCESSIBILITY		  
 
 The characteristics of the grapevine include that it: 
1.  can penetrate the tightest security
2.   is fast
3.   carries msgs from anonymous sources		 4.  has msgs that are difficult or impossible to stop
5.  is, to some extent, accessible to every person in an org
6.  can be supportive or detrimental to orgl efforts
 
 
 In most orgs, relatively few actors disseminate most of the grapevine msgs
 
 
 People create informal networks through which the msgs are carried
 
 
 Mgrs & other orgl actors need to be attuned the the grapevine in relation to the msgs it carries, & the people who control it
 
  Mgrs & other orgl actors should make good use of ICCs which sometimes provide factual tips that aid decision making  
  ICCs may provide feedback on actors' attitudes & on outside matters  
 
 Inaccurate msgs in the formal or informal commo systems should be countered w/ the truth as soon as possible
 
 
 The ICC may bypass or supplement the formal orgl commo channels
 
  The challenge of ICCs is to discern when info transmitted by the grapevine is accurate & when it is misleading  

 
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 Outline on Downward Communication
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  THE ELEMENTS OF DOWNWARD COMMO INCLUDE: 
a.  COMMON JOB INSTRUCTIONS 
b.  RATIONALE FOR THE TASK 
c.  INFO ON PROCEDURES 		 d.  FEEDBACK 
e.  INDOCTRINATION 
 
  Katz & Kahn, 1978 identify FIVE Elements of Downward Communication
a.  Common Job Instructions       d.  Feedback
b.  Rationale for the Task            e.  Indoctrination
c.  Info on Procedures		  
  a.  COMMON JOB INSTRUCTIONS OCCUR WHEN A SUBORDINATE IS TOLD WHAT TO DO BY A MGR OR SET OF INSTRUCTIONS  
  Common job instructions occur when a subordinate is told what to do through direct orders, training sessions, job descriptions, etc.  
  The more complex & uncertain the task, the more general the instructions  
  The more highly trained the subordinate, the more general the instructions because it is assumed they will bring an internalized knowledge on how to operate along w/ job related knowledge & attitudes  
  b.  THE RATIONALE FOR THE TASK IS THE OVERALL MEANING OF THE TASK AS SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED BY THE ORG   
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 The rationale for the task & its relationship to the rest of the org is affected by members different philosophies of life & this affects their communication  
  All orgs have, to a varying extent, hidden agendas at some point in time  
  Hall assumes that if the total rationale for all action were know to all, chaos would ensue since not all member are able to understand & accept the info at the cognitive & emotional levels  
 
 There can be too much info, just as there can be too little info  
 
 Too little info may result in an inability to perform correctly, lack of understanding of both the narrow purpose of the tasks as well as the overall goals of the org thus creating alienation from the work, the org, other workers, the product, etc.
 
  The mgt belief that sharing the total rationale for actions w/ lower level employees would create chaos because they are unable to understand or accept the info is in the tradition of patriarchal, hierarchical, old boy type admin  
  Studies have shown that lower level employees are more highly motivated, & more efficient when the have more strategic & mid level info   
  See Also:  Democratic Orgs  
  c.  INFO ON PROCEDURES & PRACTICES DEALS W/ NON PRODUCTION PROCEDURES; E.G. HR POLICIES   
  Info on procedures & practices is slightly different than common job instructions except that it deals w/ non production procedures:  how to take a day off, how to do an org wide mailing, etc.
 
  d.  FEEDBACK ON PERFORMANCE USUALLY INVOLVES OFFICIALLY DETERMINED EVALUATIONS   
  Feedback on performance is always a problematic type of communication because it involves evaluation, rewards, etc.  
  Feedback is more difficult in human centered orgs where people build socio emotive ties  
  Feedback is automatic in strictly routinized jobs:  did you produce 100 units today?  
  In non routinized activity assessment is difficult because there are no clear criteria on which to base it  
  e.  INDOCTRINATION IS THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZING MEMBERS TO THE OFFICIAL OPERATION, AS WELL AS THE CULTURE OF THE ORG   
  Indoctrination of subordinates & new members helps members function more efficiently if they accept & believe the orgs goals & have a personal commitment to the org's goals  
  For 1st line supervisors & subordinates, these elements are often depicted as being quite simple; however, this is the level at which commitment is most problematic  
  One reason that it is problematic is because most orgs today are designed to function w/ little or no commitment from subordinates  
  It has only been since the 1960s than any attention has been paid, in America, to the benefits of lower level employees' commitment  
  Hall believes that indoctrination / commitment is more complex at the top of the org  
  THREE LEVELS OF THE ORG WHICH HAVE DIFFERING DOWNWARD COMMO OBJECTIVES INCLUDE THE INSTITL, MGRL, & TECHL LEVELS   
  Talcott Parsons, 1960, categorizes orgs into THREE levels, all of which have differing downward commo objectives   
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 a. The institutional level is concerned w/ connecting the org to the outside world to ensure that it continues to receive support from its constituency, other orgs, etc.  
 
 b. The managerial level deals w/ internal administration of the org  
 
 Management is concerned w/ making strategic decisions & implementing them  
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 c. The technical level is involved w/ the translation of this info into job descriptions & direction  
 
 Communication must be translated & interpreted as it crosses levels  

 
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Examples:  b.  The Rationale for the Task 

Phil:  keep org members dumb & happy
Subordinates are unable to comprehend the info
Subordinates would misuse the info by introducing variations into their performance
     based on their own judgment of how the task should be done


 
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Examples:  a. The Institutional Level

Boards of Directors
Trustees
COllege/university president
Fund-raising units
Legislative lobbying units


 
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Examples: c. The Technical Level

Usually called Staff
HR Dept.
& myriad other Depts. that support, mostly mgt., but sometimes the workers too
Computer Info systems


 
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 Outline on Upward Communications
External
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  OFFICIAL UPWARD COMMO IS LESS COMMON THAN DOWNWARD COMMO, BUT IS OFTEN CRITICAL FOR MGT TO HEAR   
  Members of an org are unlikely to pass info up the hierarchy if it will be harmful to them or their peers
 
  People are more likely to pass on good news than bad news
 
  Subordinates who do not regularly interact w/ others may shun communication
 
  Subordinates who do not regularly interact w/ others may be especially reluctant, nervous, ineffective, etc. in their communications w/ superiors 
 
  Info moving down the org becomes more detailed & specific
 
  Info moving up the org becomes more condensed & summarized
 
  An important function of mid management is to filter & edit info going to the top
 
  Routine info, reports, etc. move up the hierarchy w/ relative ease, though subordinates often are in the dark as to the purpose to which superordinates put the info
 
  Non routine info is the most important, & frequently that flow of info up the org is blocked because of the assumption that lower level employees may only communicate w/ that which they are routinely expected to communicate
 

 
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 Outline on Horizontal Communication
External
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  HORZ COMMO IS THAT WHICH OCCURS BTWN PEOPLE IN THE SAME LEVEL IN THE ORG   
  The most communication w/in an org occurs horizontally; i.e. among units of a relatively equal level in the org
 
  It is "more natural" or automatic for people to communicate w/ others on their own level
 
  It is easier to communicate w/ those on your own level
 
  Because most assembly units / work units pass the product or info from one horz level to another, this necessitates horz communications
 
  Those at the same level are apt to share common characteristics
 
  W/IN GRP COMMO IS HORZ COMMO W/IN A SINGLE ORGL UNIT   
  Katz & Kahn, 1978, found that w/in unit communication is "critical for effective system functioning"
 
  W/in unit communication is the level of the work team
 
  HORZ COMMO IS BENEFICIAL FOR THE ORG BECAUSE IT AIDS IN EFFICIENCY & IS GOOD FOR MORALE  
  While orgs have consistently tried to anticipate every contingency in a task (e.g. Taylorism), they have never been able too, thus good work team communication is vital for establishing efficiency & morale  
  In highly Taylorized / routinized settings, communications can be nearly non existent
 
  Highly routinized communications creates worker isolation & alienation  
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 Katz & Kahn, 1978, believe that groups will become dysfunctional unless the job is providing a challenge
 
  Katz & Kahn imply that some task oriented communication should be left to the group so that counterproductive communications do not arise
 
  While this is probably true in nearly all orgs today, it is not to say that it always must be true
 
  HORZ COMMO MAY BE USED BY LOWER LEVEL WKRS TO COMBAT ALIENATION, BOREDOM, ETC., & / OR TO DEAL W/ MGT INEFFICIENCY, CORRUPTION, UNSAFE PRACTICES, EXPLOITATION, ETC.   
  Counterproductive communications may not occur in a work team in an org that respects lower level employees, eradicates alienation & exploitation, & is free of the many problems of hierarchy, bureaucracy, ownership by capital, etc.
 
  Work groups develop a collective response to the work around them, i.e. a group culture
 
  Work groups can develop collective distortions of communication that is entirely apart from what was intended
 
  But as lower level work teams attempt to decipher the actions of those higher up in the org, they often times are accurate, even though this may oppose the interests of the org / owners / mgrs., & oft times inaccurate
 
  BTWN UNIT COMMO IS HORZ COMMO THAT OCCURS BTWN DIFFERENT UNITS THAT OFTEN IS SUPPOSED TO GO UP, THEN DOWN THE HIERARCHY, BUT INSTEAD GOES DIRECTLY FROM UNIT TO UNIT 
  One type of horz communications (discussed above) is communications w/ peers who are essentially w/in the same subunit
 
  Another type of horz communications (discussed below) is communications w/ peers who are in different subunits
 
  In general, such communications are not formalized, & thus are not supposed to occur
 
  Communications is supposed to go through the hierarchy: 1st up, then down to a parallel subunit if mgt. concurs  
  Purely horizontal communications leaves mgt. out of the loop  
  Hall believes that horz communications btwn subunits occurs rarely  
  An advantage of horz communications is that it does not jam up the system  
  WHILE MUCH OF HORZ COMMO IS FOR WKPLACE ENTERTAINMENT, & / OR OFFICIAL PURPOSES, IT IS ALSO OFTEN A CONDUIT FOR WKPLACE CONFLICT   
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 Much horz communication is based on conflict; e.g. when professionals or experts in parallel subunits look at a task, they often arrive at different conclusions causing conflict  
  Parallel subunits often conflict, & may be even said to be talking a different language;  'The others just do not see the "true picture"'  
  While this depicts the fact that parallel communications often contain the seeds of conflict, we must recall that they also contain the flowers of conflict  
  Conflict among any members of an org has the ability to change the org for the better  
  Conflict among parallel subunits may produce a melding of new ideas  

 
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Quote:  Katz & Kahn, 1978, believe that groups will become dysfunctional

The mutual understanding of colleagues is one reason for the power of the peer group.  Experimental findings are clear & convincing about the importance of socio emotional support for people in both organized & unorganized groups.  Psychological forces always push people toward communication w/ peers:  people in the same boat share the same problems.  Hence, if there are no problems of task coordination left to a group of peers, the content of their communication can take forms which are irrelevant to or destructive or organizational functioning.
(Italics in original) (Katz & Kahn, 1978, p. 445, in Hall 0509)


 
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Examples:  Much horizontal communication is based on conflict

In a petroleum company, the geologists, engineers, lawyers, public relations people may all come to different conclusions about starting a new drilling operations
In wildland fire, people on the fire line are generally less aggressive than those who do not go to the fireline, but remain in camp


 
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 Outline on Communications Networks
External
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  NETWORK COMMO PATTERNS INCLUDE THE WHEEL, CIRCLE, ALL CHANNEL, & UNORGANIZED   
  THREE primary communications networks btwn members of work groups have been studied
 
  a.  THE WHEEL PATTERN OF COMMO HAS A CENTRAL INFO PROCESSOR WHICH ALL UNITS COMMO W/   
  The wheel pattern of network communications is where people at the periphery send their communications to the hub
 
  The wheel pattern is a relatively flat hierarchy, & those at the periphery generally cannot send messages to each other
 
  b.  THE CIRCLE PATTERN OF COMMO OCCURS WHEN ALL UNITS COMMO W/ EACH OTHER IN A LINEAR MANNER   
  The circle pattern of network communications permits each member to talk to those on either side, w/ no priorities
 
  c.  THE CHANNEL PATTERN OF COMMO FOLLOWS PARTICULAR PATHS OF COMMO, WHICH ARE WELL ESTB   
  The all channel system of network communications allows every to communicate freely
 
  Research has found (surprise!) that the wheel is the most effective in the typical org structure today
 
  The circle & all channel patterns can become just as effective if they are developed in a hierarchy
 
  Katz & Kahn, 1978, & Blau & Scott, 1962, note that the more complex the task, the more time required for communications to become structured
 
  Whether communications is vertical or horizontal, hierarchical patterns emerge
 
  In the vertical situation, the hierarchy is already there, although a formal hierarchy can be modified through power or expertise or personal considerations
 
  In horizontal communications, a hierarchy will spontaneously emerge
 
  d.  UNORGANIZED COMMO OCCURS WHEN CHANNELS OF COMMO ARE UNORGANIZED OR EVEN RANDOM   
  Networks are more susceptible to unorganized commo because networks themselves are characterized by loose ties & all connections btwn them may be unorganized   

 
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 Outline on  Functional & Dysfunctional Communication w/in a Hierarchy
External
Links
 
 THE LEVEL AT WHICH COMMO OCCURS IN AN ORG IMPACTS IT'S EFFECTIVENESS / INEFFECTIVENESS 
 
  All interactions, of which communications is one type of interaction, w/in an org are affected by the levels in the hierarchy that are affected
 
  1st level supervisor's communications are often spontaneous contacts
 
  Even when top level people faced new situations, spontaneous communication did not occur
 
  Top level people deal routinely w/ non routine tasks & they therefore have a clear sense of direction for most random events
 
  O'Reilly & Roberts, 1974, found that favorable info is passed upward while unfavorable info, as well as more complete, more important info tends to be squelched or passed laterally, rather than up or down the hierarchy
 
  O'Reilly & Roberts, 1974, also found that trust btwn super & subordinates lessens the impact of hierarchy
 
  Blau & Scott, 1962, cite FIVE dysfunctions of hierarchy
 
 
 a.  PEOPLE AT THE SAME LEVEL OF THE ORG INTERACT MORE THAN W/ THOSE AT OTHER LEVELS 
 
  One is more likely to communicate w/ a peer than w/ super or subordinates   
  After commo at the same level, commo from above & commo to those below is the most common   
  b.  LOWER STATUS PEOPLE DIRECT FRIENDSHIP OVERTURES UP THE HIERARCHY   
  People in lower status positions look up to & direct friendship overtures toward those in higher status positions 
 
  Directing friendship overtures increases the flow of socioemotional messages upward, but leaves those at the bottom receiving little of this type of input
 
  c.  DIRECTING FRIENDSHIP OVERTURES UPWARD INSTEAD OF AT PEERS LOWERS OVERALL ORG SATISFACTION   
  Those in higher status positions direct socioemotional communications upward rather than reciprocating to their subordinate, thus reducing satisfaction for all parties
 
 
 d.  APPROVAL IS SOUGHT FROM SUPERIORS RATHER THAN PEERS 
 
  Approval & disapproval enters the system from peers, but this level of assessment becomes secondary to super subordinate assessment
 
  Therefore subordinates ignore peer approval & engage in apple polishing, etc.
 
  e.  ERROR CORRECTION IN COMMO IS LESS LIKELY TO HAPPEN IN UPWARD COMMO   
  The error correcting function of normal social interaction sorts out errors, but this is much less likely to happen in upward communication
 
  Subordinates are unlikely to tell a superior they are wrong
 
  Since rank is a structural fact, it carries w/ it a strong tendency to stereotype
 
  Manager, worker, student, staff, etc. are generally value loaded terms associated w/ rank which affects communication
 
  Hage, Aiken, Marrett, 1971, found that the presence of experts in an org increases horizontal communication  
  TALL HIERARCHIES W/ LOW DIFFERENTIATION ARE BEST FOR DOWNWARD COMMO   
  A tall hierarchy w/ a low level of differentiation functions well where there is a need for extensive downward communication   
  Peter & Hull, 1969, found that when superiors are more competent than subordinates, & this is recognized & legitimated by them, some hierarchical problems are minimized   
  Hage, 1980, believes that the most obvious contribution of hierarchy is coordination   
  It is up to the superior to decide who gets what kind of info   
  The superior is the distribution & filtering center   

 
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 Outline on Communications Problems
External
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  SERIOUS COMMO PROBLEMS ARE RARE, BUT THERE ARE MANY EVERYDAY ERRORS   
  Remember that an analysis from the communications model shows that messages are transformed or altered as they pass through the system   
  The fact that messages are transformed in the communications process means that the receiver receives something different than what was originally sent
 
  The transformation of a message may or may not destroy the effectiveness of the message
 
  The transformation of a message may or may not enhance the effectiveness of the message  
  Guetzkow, 1965, suggests that there are TWO forms of transformation:  omissions & distortions
 
  a.  OMISSION INVOLVES THE DELETION OF ASPECTS OF THE MESSAGE   
  Omissions occur because people may not grasp the content, the communicators may be overloaded, the communicators may intentionally omit info because they want to distort the message or because they think it is unnecessary 
 
  Omission is most evident in upward communications because generally messages are filtered
 
  If communications problems are to be avoided, it is vital for people to know the criteria for filtering
 
  b.  DISTORTION REFERS TO ALTERED MEANINGS OF MESSAGES   
  People are selective, intentionally or unintentionally, because people have different points of initiation, experience, frames of reference, etc. (Guetzkow)
 
  Selective omission & distortion, or coding (Katz & Kahn) occurs in all communications systems
 
  People code because a unique language allows the group to establish a group identity
 
  OVERLOAD OCCURS WHEN SENDERS OR RECEIVERS EITHER HAVE TO MUCH TO DO OR TOO MANY MESSAGES TO TRACK   
  Overload is perhaps the most common type of communications problem today
 
  Overload leads to omission & contributes to distortion
 
  Katz & Kahn, 1972, note that there are adaptive & maladaptive adjustments to the overload situation 
 
  Omission & distortion are maladaptive & common
 
  Queuing lines up the message, usually on a 1st come 1st served basis
 
  Queuing may fail when the queue gets so long that not all communications are dealt w/ or when some messages are critical, but ignored
 
  Filtering is the process of queuing where message are prioritized based on some criteria  

 
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 Outline on   Information Processing in Orgs
External
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  VIEWING ORGS AS INFO PROCESSORS REVEALS PROBLEMS OF INFO OVERLOAD, UNANALYZABLE INFO, EQUIVOCALLY, & INFO SHORTAGE  
  Daft & Macintosh, 1981, examined info processing in work units as delineated by Perrow's, 1967, technology framework
 
  INFO OVERLOAD IS A COMMON PROBLEM & IS SOLVED BASED ON 'SORTING WHEAT FROM CHAFF'   
 
 D & M found that when orgs had a large variety of problems to consider, a large amt of info processing was present
 
  Not many decades ago, info shortage was a common problem for orgs, but today info overload is a more common problem   
  The most common info problem today is info processing itself where necessary info is sorted from unneeded info   
  INFO MAY BE UNANALYZABLE UNTIL THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM / QUESTION IS DETERMINED   
  When there was uncertainty in regard to the determination of the cause & effect of a problem, a dimension which they call analyzability, there was less info processing
 
  There was less info processing when problems were not analyzable because there was difficulty in developing orgl coding systems to cope w/ the uncertainty
 
  That is to say, there was less info processing when problems were not analyzable because there was no standard process, nor any standard terms or concepts that fit the situation under examination
 
  SOME INFO / PROBLEMS ARE AMBIGUOUS & CANNOT BE ANALYZED UNTIL THE EQUIVOCALITY IS ELIMINATED   
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 See the Figure on the Equivocality & Orgl Info Processing  
  The Figure Equivocality of Information Processing suggests a that in many orgs, depending on the analyzability of a situation, i.e. the equivocality, info processing may range from low to medium to high amt
 
  Ambiguous situations, i.e. those that have a low level of analyzability, vary along the dimension of equivocality
 
  Equivocality is the degree to which a situation or commo may have two interpretations, or is of an uncertain outcome, origin, worth, or doubtful nature
 
  Equivocation is a fallacy arising in a formally correct statement from the ambiguity or multiplicity of possible interpretations
 
 
 Orgs should design their structure, commo. & dec making processes to increase analyzability by routinizing unique situations so that the org has a language to describe & analyze the problem
 
  INFO SHORTAGE IS A COMMON PROBLEM THAT ORGS ARE UNAWARE OF UNTIL IT REVEALS A PROBLEM   
  Orgs can almost always get the info they need, if they realize they need it   
  It is usually unanticipated problems that require more info, in that orgs are unaware of a problem, then the problem is revealed, & the org realizes that it needs more info   
  Savvy decision makers recognize that there is always the potential of an unrecognized problem / need for info & thus even when they are experiencing info overload, they continue a high level of situation analysis to determine what other problem / need for info might be out there   
  The concept of making decisions w/ bounded rationality signifies for the savvy dec mkr that there is always an info shortage  

 
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Figure on the Equivocality & Orgl Info Processing
Daft, & Macintosh, 1981
  Low variety of tasks/problems High variety of tasks/problems
Unanalyzable
tasks or
problems		 Craft Technology
High equivocality
Low amt of info processing

Small amounts of qualitative info, past work experience & observation, occasional face to face & group exchanges

 Non routine Technology
High equivocality
Moderate amt of info processing

Moderate to large amounts of primarily qualitative info.  Frequent face to face & group exchanges, unscheduled meetings, also trial & error experience 
Analyzable
tasks or 
problems		 Routine Technology
Low equivocality
Moderate amt of info processing

Moderate amounts of clear, often quantitative info, written reports, rules & procedures, schedules, some statistical data reports

 Engineering Technology
Low equivocality
High amt of info processing

Large amounts of primarily quantitative info, large computer data bases, written & technical materials, frequent statistical reports
The Figure Equivocality of Info Processing suggests a that in many orgs, depending on the analyzability of a situation, i.e. the equivocality, info processing may range from low to medium to high amt 

 
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 Outline on the Methods to Enhance Organizational Communications
External
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  - Project:  Your Methods to Enhance Communications 
Link
 
 There are TEN methods to enhance orgl methods
1.  Build in redundancy
2.  Be aware of biases
3.  Utilize communication specialists
4.  Utilize consensus oriented meetings
5.  Utilize a matrix system		   6.  Utilize work teams
  7.  Utilize project groups
  8.  Utilize a communication friendly org structure
  9.  Direct info to the correct people
10.  Utilize appropriate media
 
  1.  BUILD IN REDUNDANCY  
 
 Downs, 1967, suggests building in redundancy & allow more people to see a message
 
 
 Redundancy can be accomplished by the use of info sources external to the situation, i.e. reports generated outside the org
 
  2.  BE AWARE OF BIASES  
 
 Downs, 1967, suggest that people be aware of the biases of communicators & develop their own counter biases
 
 
 To avoid bias, the superior may bypass intermediates & subordinates & go directly to the source
 
 
 Bypassing intermediates & subordinates may limit distortion, but lower the morale of those bypassed
 
  3.  UTILIZE COMMUNICATIONS SPECIALISTS  
 
 Adding communications or coordination & control specialists improves communication
 
 
 Hage, 1974, recommends that to improve communications, critical boundary spanning members have a responsibility as communicators
 
  4.  UTILIZE CONSENSUS ORIENTED MEETINGS   
 
 Meetings are described by Kanter, 1977, as having the potential to yield common meanings & achieve consensus which has the effect of improving communications
 
 
 One of the most common complaints in orgs is that meetings can become so common as to prevent task accomplishment
 
  5.  UTILIZE A MATRIX SYSTEM   
 
 Matrix systems are designed to increase communications
 
  6.  UTILIZE WORK TEAMS  
 
 Work teams are designed to increase communications
 
  7.  UTILIZE PROJECT GROUPS  
 
 Project groups or task forces are designed to increase communications
 
 
 Work teams & project groups have the advantage that it allows people to work closely together
 
 
 The disadvantage of  work teams & project groups is that the groups may become isolationist 
 
  8.  UTILIZE A COMMUNICATION FRIENDLY ORG STRUCTURE  
 
 The orgl structure should be designed to enhance communication
 
 
 Units can be increased or decreased in size
 
 
 Particular lines of communication can be developed, etc.
 
  9.  DIRECT INFO TO THE CORRECT PEOPLE  
 
 The correct people should get the correct info
 
  10.  UTILIZE APPROPRIATE MEDIUM  
 
 The media of communication should b appropriate for the message
 
 
 Daily instructions may be given over the phone or by email while evaluations should be done in person, etc.
 

The End
 
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