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 Review Notes on  LU 4:  Union Structure & Governance
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  Syllabus 
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Outline on LU 4:  Union Structure & Governance
 
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UNION STRUCTURE & GOVERNANCE   
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        Local Union Structure  
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        Local Officers & Leadership  
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        Stewards  
  TYPES OF UNIONS   
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        Independent Unions  
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        National Unions  
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        International Unions  
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        Public sector unions  
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UNION STRATEGIES & PHILOSOPHIES   
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        Union Democracy  
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        The Labor Mvmt & Wkplace Democracy  
  UNIONS   
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        The AFL CIO  
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        AFSCME  
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        IAM  
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        IUOE  
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        Teamsters  
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        UAW  
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        Solidarity  

 
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 An Overview of Union Structure & Governance
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  It is important not to confuse social structure w/ orgl structure   
  Social structure is the organization of society, including institutions, social positions, the relationships among social positions, the groups or orgs that make up society, & the distribution of scarce resources w/in the society   
  Social structures are all composed of groups or organizations   
  The social structures in the core nations today include: 
1.  Peers 
2.  Family 
3.  Religion 
4.  Economy 
5.  Government 
6.  Military 
7.  Charity 
(acronym:
8.  Education 
9.  Media 
10.  Leisure 
PF REG M CEML) 
 
  Each of the social structures, PF REG M CEML, is composed of orgs, & orgs w/in each of the social structures has similar structures that are unique to that social structure   
  The Labor Mvmt, i.e. the type of labor mgt relations that exist in the core nations, are so ingrained into the core nations' econs that it is indeed part of the soc struc of the econ   
  To say that current labor mgt relationships are part of the core nations' econ structure is to say that these relationships are expected to be in place, they are taken for granted, they are a normal part of society, they are generally accepted, & they are necessary for the functioning of the system   
  To say that current labor mgt relationships are part of the core nations' econ structure is NOT to say that these relationships are inevitable & immutable in that soc struc can & do change over time   
 
Thus the current state of affairs in labor mgt relationships is changing & it is not clear whether the entire social struc of the econ & labor mgt relationships will continue or change radically 
 
  Social scientists wonder if contemporary labor mgt relationships have reached a turning point where organized labor as we know it today becomes a thing of the past as some of the relationships in this structure of labor mgt fade while others become integrated into other institutional practices   
  Orgl structure is the formal reporting relationships, groupings, & systems of an org   
  Orgl structure is the distributions, along various lines, of people among social positions that influence the role relations among these people (Blau, 1974, p. 12 )   
  Orgl structure is the established pattern of relationships among the various parts of an org & among the various workers in the org   
  Most orgs in the core nations are organized as bureaucracies, in the shape of a pyramid, w/ authoritarian lines of command & control, w/ minimal input from wkrs   
  In the US, the primary authority in the lab mvmt is vested in the national unions, organized on a craft or industrial basis   
  Unions & the Labor Mvmt are generally organized as loosely coupled networks   
  Unions often are forced to structure their union based on the structure of the org they are unionizing   
  Unions vary on their bureaucratization, hierarchy, authoritarianism, & input from members depending on many factors such as size, traditions of democracy, geographic concentration or dispersion, etc.   
  Union structure is different from typical businesses in that the local unions have a large proportional amt of power compared to the nationals or internationals, which are essentially networks of local unions   
  Some locals may not even belong to a national or international union   
  The major components of union orgl structure include:   
  - Local Union Structure   
     Local Officers & Leadership   
 
   Stewards   
  - Union Democracy   
  - Independent Unions   
  - National Unions   
  - International Unions   
  - Union Strategies & Philosophies   
  Some Major Unions:   
        The AFL CIO   
        AFSCME   
        IAM   
        IUOE   
        Teamsters   
        UAW   

 
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 Outline on  Local Union Structure
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  Local unions, often called locals, are the smallest unit of labor organization  
  A local represents the wkrs in a particular plant, neighborhood, city, or other area  
  It is usually the local union that bargains w/ an employer, though the national union may assist  
  Locals vary in size from less than a dozen wkrs to many thousands of wkrs  
  The size of a local depends on the structure of the firm being organized in that some firms have relatively small shops w/ varying work conditions while other firms have relatively large shops w/ homogenous work conditions  
  Like any small org, small locals find it difficult to survive because of the basic costs of operation; thus, most unions prefer to have at least 50 members in a local, though many are smaller  
  Many local unions employ one or more people called business representatives or business agents  
 
Union employees, e.g. business reps, work full time for the union to administer the union's contract & to handle grievances
 
  Locals are structured to handle day to day activities of the membership  
  Much of the local's efforts in the wkplace involve policing the contract & handling grievances  
 
The union members in each division of a company elect one of the members to serve as shop steward
 
 
The steward helps workers deal w/ mgt & ensures that union rules are followed in the dept
 
  Most local unions also elect an executive board that includes a president, a secretary, & a treasurer  
  Some locals may be independent or stand alone types of unions, whereas today most are affiliated w/ other locals, or w/ a national or international union  
  If a local is affiliated w/ other locals, a national, or intl union, it will take some guidance from that org & will probably allocate some of its dues to that org  
  Regardless of its affiliation, the locals are generally the seat of all power in the Labor Mvmt because even when they belong to large nationals or intls, they elect representatives who govern at that level of the org  
  Locals vary along all the dimensions of orgl struc in that they have differing levels of bureaucratization, hierarchy, lines of authority, & participation in that some are very bureaucratic & some are not, etc.   
 
The Local may be defined along FOUR dimensions
 
  a.  crafts & industrial jurisdictions
 
  b.  geographic areas
 
  c.  specific staff support activities
 
  d.  level of union govt:  union hierarchical level asserting jurisdiction
 
  There are SEVEN characteristics of crafts & industrial jurisdictions
 
  a.  relatively small close knit
 
  b.  work for one employer
 
  c.  larger, mixed occupations
 
  d.  semi or unskilled jobs
 
  e.  skilled trade union
 
  f.  professional local
 
  g.  often chartered & affiliated w/ national union or directly w/ AFL CIO
 

 
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 Outline on  Local Officers & Leadership
External
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  -  Project:  Local Officers' Leadership 
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  While the econ & overt power of union leadership is not widely recognized, their power is substantial & at times in history, has been pivotal  
  One example of the power of labor leaders occurred during the Great Depression (1929) which left millions of workers jobless  
  The Great Depression & the activities of the 'robber barons' changed the attitude of many Americans toward the labor movement  
  Before 1929, most people regarded business executives as the nation's leaders and union members as dangerous radicals  
  But people lost faith in business leaders after business could not relieve the depression  
  Another example of the pivotal role of labor leadership occurred when, faced with growing opposition to labor in the 1930s, the AFL & the CIO began to consider joining forces  
  One of the major differences between the AFL & the CIO was their attitude toward Communism  
  The AFL was strongly anti Communist, but many officials of the CIO either were Communists or supported Communist ideals  
  These Communist leanings became a problem after World War II, when intense anti Communist feelings swept through the nation  
  Many CIO unions overthrew leaders whom they believed were Communist sympathizers  
 
Typical Local Officers:
- President
- Vice President
- Secretary
- Financial Secretary
- Treasurer
- Sergeant at Arms
- Trustees
 
  Other Local Union Leadership Members:  
  The business agent has TWO major roles
 
  a.  ensuring the contract is being followed  
  b.  referring members to available employment  
  The business agent is most likely to appear when the local is engaged in organizing a new unit or when there are multiple bargaining units w/in same local  
  The Executive Committee is made up of the local's officers & the Negotiation Committee
 
  The Executive Committee has the TWO major functions of:   
  a.  establishing local policy  
  b.  serving as a liaison btwn among the state, national, &  international offices  
  The Negotiation Committee has the FIVE functions of  
  a.  focusing on the negotiation of the collective bargaining agreement  
  b.  negotiating over contract changes  
  c.  reviewing grievances  
  d.  negotiating w/ mgt. over grievances  
  e.  administering the collective bargaining agreement  
  The Steward  
  Local Officers  
  Local Officers are elected by the local members
 
  The success of LOs is strongly related to their success w/ bargaining issues
 
  Dissatisfaction w/ a LO is related to the success of an insurgent candidate
 
  If the union has several bargaining units w/ separate contracts, things are more complicated
 
  It is possible to have several occupational groups w/in the same firm
 
  The situation of several occupational groups w/in the same firm occurs under the RLA because it requires bargaining units based on occupation  
  The majority occupation may rule the union & bargaining issues
 
  The domination by one occupation may create conflict among the occupational groups w/in the firm
 
  This conflict is often called fractional bargaining  
  Fractional bargaining is when one group of workers from a bargaining unit, or from a separate firm dominates & there is conflict over the administration of the contract  
  LOs are accustomed to dealing w/ different types of workers w/ different needs  
  A local union may also have contracts w/ several firms  
  LOs are generally granted leaves of absence in larger units
 
  LOs remain attached to their employers
 
  Like the Stewards, the LOs have a dual commitment
 
  The dual commitment of the LOs is to the national union & to the local membership
 
  The fairness of the national union elections is lower than for the local elections
 
  Leadership & Political Activities:  
  Political activities are an important part of the Labor Mvmt  
  Union officials urge workers and their families to vote for candidates who are sympathetic to union goals  
  Because of the ability of union leaders to influence votes, most elected officials listen carefully to what labor leaders want  
  In this way, organized labor influences the city, state, and federal government.  

 
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 Outline on Stewards
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  -  Project:  The Role of the Steward 
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  The steward is the elected or appointed shop floor union representative responsible for interpreting the contract for union members & processing grievances
 
  Etymology of Steward
 
  Originally during the Middle Ages, the position of the steward was "the ward of the hall" 
 
  The steward was one who managed the financial wealth & domestic affairs of another who was often a noble
 
  In the Middle Ages, the steward had considerable discretion & confidentiality  
  In the Middle Ages, the steward could exert full control during absence of owner  
  Today "stewardship" connotes prudent & conscientious handling of the interests of another  
  Weber suggest that the ideal mgt. structure was controlled by stewards rather than owners  
  Weber believed stewards were more likely to be objective, consistent, & technically competent  
  The Orgl Env of the Stewards:  
  Stewards operate at the work unit level  
  Stewards are either elected by the membership or appointed by union officers  
  There are more stewards than other kinds of union officers  
  The position of the steward is a "middle mgt" type of position in that they are:   
  a.  responsible to membership  
  b.  responsible to union leadership  
  c.  seen as a buffer btwn members & mgt  
  Stewards communicate needs & info of the membership of each local union to all the other locals in the union, & to the union officers  
  Thus stewards are activists who fulfill one of the most important roles in union leadership  
  There are FIVE Roles of the Steward  
  A role of the steward is to:  
  a.  represent both the union's & workers' interests in the administration of the contract
 
  b.  ensure that supervisors comply w/ the contract
 
  c.  act as spokespersons in presenting grievances  
  d.  collect dues  
  e.  solicit participation
 
  Stewards have super seniority  
  The rights & obligations of the steward make it a powerful, but vulnerable position  
  Therefore the steward is always awarded seniority so that she or he has the most seniority of any member of the unit  
  Private sector mgrs & stewards have more power than public sector mgrs & stewards because there is more latitude for decision making
 
  The dual commitment of stewards is seen in the steward being both a full time worker & a union representative  
  The commitment of the steward to the union is related to
 
    a.  perceived immobility
 
    b.  the belief that union should use grievances to punish the employer
 
    c.  involvement in union activities & decision making
 
    d.  employment in larger firms
 
  The unilateral commitment of the Steward to the Union is related to
 
    a.  low pay
 
    b.  involvement in the union
 
    c.  lack of support from employer  
  The commitment of the Steward to the Employer is related to
 
    a.  tenure
 
    b.  immobility
 
    c.  supervisor support
 
    d.  promotion opportunities
 
    e.  influence w/ employer
 
    f.  the amount of work experience in a smaller firm
 
  The dual commitment of the Steward to the Employer & the Union is related to
 
    a.  a positive perception toward supervisors
 
    b.  promotional opportunities  
    c.  the union's influence w/ the firm  
    d.  positive beliefs about union decisions  
    e.  low job opportunities w/ other firms  
    f.  a belief that grievances are not a punishment  

 
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 Outline on Independent Unions
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  Independent Local Unions
 
  Independent unions may be defined as not having affiliations w/ large unions  
  Independent unions are the exception rather than the rule
 
  That is to say there are many more affiliated unions than independent unions
 
  Independent unions may be defined as not having affiliations w/ large unions, international unions or umbrellas orgs such as the AFL CIO
 
  Independent unions continue to exist & have their roots in the pre Wagner era when paternalistic owners formed company unions via America Plan
 
  An example of a company union is TRW who had a very strong company union
 
  An example of an independent union is the Teamsters which was independent, then joined the AFL, then broke away from the AFL CIO, & then rejoined, & broke away again in 2005  
  Therefore, in 2005, the Teamsters are now an independent union
 
  In early 2000, a grp of doctors in Detroit voted to unionize & be represented in labor relations & contract negotiations by Physicians for Responsible Negotiation (PRN)  
  PRN is a nat labor org formed by the Am Medical Assoc  
  The PRN is the first independent national labor org serving physicians only  
  In the Soviet Union & other countries of E Euro, the role of labor unions changed in the late 1980s  
  The unions in Soviet Block had existed mainly to support the aims of govt planners & to help meet production goals  
  The Soviet govt determined wages & hours, & the power of unions to bargain on behalf of their members was severely limited  
  In the late 1980's, independent labor orgs emerged in E Euro, & wkrs regained the right to strike  
  Solidarity is a Polish independent union which fought for its independence from Polish, Communist domination, & then successfully fought for Polish independence from the Soviet Union in the 1980s  

 
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 Outline on National Unions
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  National unions are made up of local unions throughout the US  
  Many national unions are called international because they include Canadian locals  
  National unions promote legislation favorable to their members  
  They also organize new workers, especially in industries or geographical areas w/ little union representation  
  A few national unions, including those in the clothing & steel industries, carry on industry wide bargaining  
  Bargaining done by the nationals sets wages & hours for the industry, regardless of local conditions  
 
Power in the Labor Movement clearly resides in the nationals labor unions  
 
Locals & federations, especially the AFL CIO, derive their authority from the nationals  
  While locals are structured to handle day to day activities of the membership, nationals deal w/ strategy, national bargaining, coordination, public policy, etc.  
  While much of the local's effort involves policing the contract & handling grievances, a national may address grievance policy across the nation once a local determines what the policy should be through negotiation  
  A national union may be compared w/ the corporate staff division of a large company  
  At the national level, policies are developed, actions are audited to ensure conformity to policy, advice is given to generalists in plants ( or locals ) on specific issues  
  While the convention has the power, many national presidents have broad powers to take interim actions & to influence the delegate composition of future conventions  
 
National Officers & Delegates  
  Officers in national unions are full time
 
 
Departments in national unions have officers elected at conventions  
 
Unions are required by law to have a convention every 5 yrs  
  The delegates to the convention are chosen by each local & sent on a per capita basis  
  Convention delegates may also be union officials & field reps, who provide org services to locals  
  There are TWO goals of national unions
 
  a.  to organize increasing numbers of workers & a greater share of labor force
 
  b.  to serve needs & enhance status of membership
 
  Nationals are thus removed from the locals
 
  Locals have a hands on experience w/ the workers & owners
 
  The success of the Labor Movement depends on Locals effectively influencing the nationals so that goals are met & effectiveness is achieved
 
  Why National Unions Outgrew Locals
 
  Nationals grew because as industry grew, locals could not challenge the power of national firms
 
  Only national unions could do this by striking a whole industry, or a significant part of it
 
  Thus as business grew, locals lost power and nationals gained power
 
  National Union Jurisdictions
 
  National union's jurisdiction originally covered either craft businesses or industrial businesses
 
  - craft          AFL
 
  - industrial   CIO
 
  Then they merged, blurring these lines  
  National unions define their jurisdiction in their constitution  
  The largest nationals have broad jurisdictions:  
  Examples of Nationals  
  The Teamsters are one of the most important & influential nationals  
  The Teamsters traditionally organized truckers & warehouse workers, but they now organized in many other areas  
  NEA:  public & private teachers at primary, secondary, & post secondary schools
 
  UAW:  also include non teaching workers in colleges & universities
 
  AFSCME:  broad spectrum of nonfederal & private non profits  
  International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers was a craft only union; now they have also organized electrical equip manufacturing  
  National Structure  
 
National unions depend on membership in locals  
  National unions are governed by conventions, to which each local sends representatives  
  The conventions meet every one to five years  
  A president, a secretary treasurer, & an executive council manage union affairs between gatherings  
  In addition to these officers, most groups have a staff that includes lawyers, public relations experts, & editors  
  Membership levels in nationals depend on FIVE factors, including:  
  a.  resistance to unionization  
  b.  employment patterns  
  c.  laws & regulations  
  d.  political environment  
  e.  Business climate
   i. demand
   ii. quality of labor supply
   iii. foreign factors
   iv. politics
 
  The factors which affect membership levels also influence union goals  
  Some union goals can be achieved primarily internally, e.g. workplace goals  
  Some union goals can be achieved primarily by public policy, e.g. external goals  
 
National Local Relations  
  National unions are supported by dues, initiation fees, & other charges paid by members  
  Union dues vary from one to two hours' wages a month  
 
Locals provide FIVE  resources to nationals:
 
  a.  members  
  b.  delegates  
  c.  info  
  d. $  
  e.  officers  
  Nationals provide FIVE parameters for locals, including:
 
 
a.  chartering
 
 
b.  permission to strike
 
  c.  permission to ratify a contract   
  d.  rules & regs to reduce inter union competition  
  e.  rules & regs to increase discipline  
 
Nationals jaw bone locals around many public policies, including: 
-  equal pay in general
-  equal pay btwn newer & older wkrs
-  comparable worth
-  the right to choose
-  harassment in the workplace
 
  Some public policies, such as the right to choose, cause conflict w/in the Labor Mvmt which parallels the conflict in society  
  Nationals have supported many policies to protect wkrs from globalization including  
  -  restricting employment cutting in the face of out sourcing, technology, etc.  
  -  closure laws which would slow a plants closing allowing wkrs & communities more time to adjust  
  -  bankruptcy laws which would not allow firms to declare bankruptcy to abrogate their obligations to wkrs & communities  
  -  pension laws ensuring viable pensions, esp as it relates to unfunded obligation  
  -  treaties such as NAFTA, GATT, etc., lobbying for fair treatment to all wkrs  
  -  content legislation which allows consumers to see where & how products are produced  

 
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 Outline on  International Unions
External
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  -  Supplement:  Trade Union Density in International Comparison.  Hagen Lesch.  Retrieved Jan 17, 2012.
Link
  INTERNATIONAL UNIONS 
 
  Most national unions are international because they have members in Canada & US, but many are still just called national   
  Internationals are the unit in which authority is vested w/in union mvmt 
 
  Most locals are chartered by parent nationals or internationals 
 
  Many local activities are constrained or must be approved by the national 
 
  There are 135 national bodies 
 
  There are 78 nationals affiliated w/ AFL CIO 
 
  57 nationals are not affiliated 
 
  Affiliated nationals have 80% of US membership of 16.3 mm or 13.4 mm 
 
  36 unions have more than 100,000 members 
 
  The median number of locals affiliated w/ a national or international is 350 
 
  Over half of all union members belong to one of 7 largest national or international unions 
 
  Even international unions have NOT reached that truly international stage of development in that most have affiliates in only a few nations   
  International businesses established multinational conglomerates decades ago   
  Businesses are now considered global in that national boundaries have ceased to be much of an obstacle   
 
Union structure is thus about a century behind business in reference to globalization 
 
  INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:   
  Representatives of labor groups from about 55 nations, including the American CIO, founded the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) in 1945   
  But the CIO withdrew from the WFTU in 1949, after orgs from Communist countries gained control of the federation   
  That same year, representatives of the AFL, the CIO, and other labor groups from non Communist countries established a new federation   
  The org created to oppose the Communist policies of the WFTU, was called the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)   
  The WFTU's goals included the promotion of free unions & better wking conditions throughout the world   
  EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL UNIONS:   
  The United Food and Commercial Workers International Union serves as a craft union for skilled butchers in stores   
  But it is an industrial union in the meat packing industry, where it represents all wkrs regardless of the work they do   
  The International Brotherhood of Teamsters is the largest international   
  In the 1990's, the US. govt took control of several unions, including the Teamsters in an attempt to reduce union corruption   
  In Canada, labor unions are usually called trade unions   
  The history of labor in Canada is similar to that in the US, and unions in both nations are much alike   
  Most Canadian unions are in a federation called the Canadian Labor Congress (CLC)   
  It includes the Canadian locals of international unions that in the US belong to the AFL CIO   
  A smaller federation, the Confederation of National Trade Unions (CNTU), consists mostly of French speaking unions from Quebec   
  INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS:   
Link
The Table on International Comparisons in Union Membership shows that the US has the lowest rate of unionization of all the industrialized Western nations & that Sweden & Denmark have the highest rate   
  Unionization in the US has declined, & the US currently has the lowest rate of unionization of all the industrialized Western nations   
  Slower workforce growth, more gradual industrial restructuring, a tighter labor mkt, & more efficient organizing strategies all suggest the stabilization or reversal of this trend of the declining unionization rate (McDonald, 1992)   
  There is a large reserve of wkrs in the US who want to be unionized but who do not have a union in their wkplace   
  Among wkrs who do not have a union, 33% say they would vote in favor of union representation   
  The US has always had the least friendly Labor laws, which has limited unionization   
  The US has always had the most aggressive anti Labor corps which has limited unionization   
  All other major industrialized nations, except Japan, have Labor Parties which serve to increase the power of Labor   
  All other major industrialized nation manage to estb strong unions & very efficient wkforces   
  Labor Mvmts are weak in many developing countries because corps are able to use anti Labor tactics that are not allowed in the West, as well as violence   

 
Top
 
Table on International Comparisons in Union Membership
HS 0306
 
Percent of Total Civilian Wage & Salary Employees
Year
  US
Canada
Australia
 Japan
Denmark
Germany
  Italy
Sweden
  UK
Average
1955
33
31
64
36
59
44
57
62
46
48
1960
32
30
61
 33
63
40
34
62
45
44
1965
28
28
46
36
63
38
33
68
45
43
1970
27
37
43
35
64
37
43
75
50
46
1975
22
34
48
35
72
39
56
83
53
49
1980
22
35
47
31
86
40
62
88
56
52
1985
17
36
47
29
92
40
61
95
51
52
1990
16
36
43
25
88
39
65
95
 46
50
1995
14
37
35
24
80
29
44
91
33
43
2000
15
32
32
23
77
29
39
86
33 
 41*
2005
15.4
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2007
12.4
                 
The Table on International Comparisons in Union Membership shows that the US has the lowest rate of unionization of all the industrialized Western nations & that Sweden & Denmark have the highest rate (Lesch*)

 
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 Outline on  Public Sector Unions 
External
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  Public sector unions are those which represent workers in fed, state, city, or county govt or public employees 
 
  Two of the biggest public sectors unions are the Service Employees International Union (SEIU), the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees (AFSCME), but public sector employees are represented by other unions such as the Clerical Workers at Indiana University who are represented by the Communication Workers of America (CWA
 
  Many public sector employees such as teachers, police, & firefighters cannot form unions because it is illegal for them to strike; therefore, they often form associations such as the National Education Association (NEA) who conduct collective bargaining & other union functions for their employees 
 
  See Also:  Unions   
  By the 1970s, public sector unions were growing very fast 
 
  In the 1960s, less than one third of fed employees belonged to labor organizations, but by 2000 almost two thirds were union members 
 
  From the 1960s to the 2000s, union membership among state, county, & local employees increased from one to five million bringing the unionization rate among eligible govt employees above 40%, higher than any private sector industry 
 
  A majority of states now utilize final & binding arbitration for some or all state employees 
 
  Arbitration allows collective bargaining in the public sector WITHOUT the use of strikes that might disrupt public services 
 
  While it is illegal for many public employees to strike, when collective bargaining breaks down, they often conduct "sick outs" or work slowdowns 
 
  Not all states have laws recognizing state workers' rights to join unions & negotiate their conditions of employment 
 
There are FOUR types of nonfederal public sector labor orgs, including: 
1.  all public sector unions 
2.  mixed public & private sector unions 
3.  state & local associations 
4.  unions & associations representing uniformed protective services 
 
 
Examples of all public sector unions include the Intl Assoc of Fire Fighters (IAFF) & the Fraternal Order of Police (FOP
 
  Examples of major mixed sector unions include the Service Employees Intl Union (SEIU) & the Teamsters   
  The Am Fed of State, County & Municipal Employees, (AFSCME) represents state & local unit wkrs   
  The Am Fed of Govt Employees (AFGE) represents fed wkrs   
  Postal service wkrs are represented by several national unions, such as the Am Postal Wkrs Union (APWU) & the National Assoc of Letter Carriers (NALC), but some postal unions have recently merged w/ larger primarily private sector unions   
  Because early on public wkrs did not have any unionization rights, many public sector bargaining units: 
began as profl assoc 
were involved in estbing standards 
were involved in estbing occupational licensing requirements 
lobbied for improved funding & facilitie
began as civil service assocs 
were involved in meeting & conferring w/ mgt 
 
  Some unions, like Ca State Employees Assoc (CSEA) are large enough o exercise pol influence through large blocks of voters   
  Assocs are most prevalent where laws forbid bargaining, but where legislative lobbying representing numerical strength is imp   
  Prof assoc are usually organized on occupational bases & have begun to bargain in response to unions who demand bargaining rather than the meet & confer tactic   
  Most nat unions, such as the Nat Ed Assoc (NEA)  bargain at state & local levels organize along a fed model   
 
Because laws vary by state & even district, most bargaining by the NEA is done at local school board levels 
 
  Other state level services primarily involve lobbying & negotiating assistance   
  Public sector locals seldom need approval from the nat un for contract ratification & strikes   
  Membership in public sector unions increased in the 90s & 00s, while private sector union declined   
  About 40% of public sector wkrs are union members   
  Mgt resistance to unionization is lower in the public sector   
  Future unionization in the pub sect depends on the amt of growth of services in the pub sec, which declined in the Clinton admin, grew at unprecedented rates during the Bush Jr admin, & had significant declines during the Obama admin   
  While privatization has slowed the growth of the public sector, much reduction of fed level services has transferred to the state level, & the general trend is toward growth   
  Duty to bargain laws have the greatest effect in increasing pub sect unionization   
  Pub sect un have a strong interest in promoting soci programs, ed,  municipal services, & uniformed protection because it increases employment & because these wkrs understand the efficacy of such growth   
  Pub sect un have success by linking bargaining issues /w the broader concerns of the public, such as smaller class sized & their relationship to ed outcomes, or the fact that the greatest asset to public safety is more police on the streets, or the type of welfare system that is needed to break the welfare cycle, or the effectiveness & ineffectiveness of proper & improper regulation of industry   
  Active support of candidates at the state & local level is a powerful tool for public sect unions   
  Pub sect unions support those candidates who are sympathetic to pub sect un interests, which is also helpful during negotiations   

 
Internal
Links

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 Outline on Labor Movement Strategies & Philosophies
External
Links
  -  Project:  Uplift Unionism v. Business Unionism 
Link
  Union strategies & philosophies have evolved over time 
 
  In any org, there is no strict dividing line btwn any of the types of strats or phils, rather, each org has it's own unique blend that ultimately defines it's character 
 
  Today it is generally accepted that labor mgt relations are essentially a combination of corporatist & business unionism 
 
  The corporatist philosophy & business unionism were arrived at during the struggle to establish Labor as a legitimate social actor & essentially came to be accepted through what has been called the Great Labor Compromise ( GLC )   
  The GLC held that unions deal only with traditional areas including wages, hours, benefits, & working conditions, & will not form a Labor party   
  UNION PHILOSOPHIES: 
 
  The corporatist strat holds that the employment agenda is jointly governed by unions, employers & the govt 
 
  The corporatist strategy is well established in Europe but has receded in US  
  The uplift unionism strat focuses on social issues & seeking improvement for working class
 
  An example of uplift unionism is seen in the practices of the NLU (Nat Labor Union) of the mid 1800s  
  The revolutionary unionism strat creates an alternative to the cap system through worker ownership of major means of production
 
  An example of rev unionism is seen in the practices of the IWW (International Workers of the World) in the US; as well as, Marx, Rosa Luxemborg, et al in Europe in the 1800s  
  The business unionism strat has an emphasis on short term, tangible objectives; aka bread & butter issues such as
     wages retirement
     working conditions health care
     job security disability
 
  An example of the biz union strat is seen in the practices of the AFL & Gompers, who lead  from 1886- 1924, wherein the AFL adopted a posture that came to be known as “business unionism.”   
  Following Gompers, who lead the AFL from 1886 - 1924, when he died, Am labor embodied a corporatist, business union philosophy
 
  The predatory unionism strat is seen in the practice of gaining members from other unions or worker orgs or of gaining strategic goals of the union at the expense of some or many members
 
  An example of the predatory unionism is seen in the practices of the UMWA & competing unions during many UMWA strikes  
  Today a common union focus is on:
-  wages & other "traditional issues"
-  helping the working class in general
-  & much less on creating a workers' owned system
other?
 
  Today a common union method includes:
 
  -  the individualist tactic called action by action, whereby the union is expanded on a strike by strike basis
 
  -  national actions & international actions
 
  -  political lobbying: whereby the Labor Mvmt supports the passage of laws supporting the union focus, or to create trilateral systems to manage employment relationship
 
 
NATIONAL UNION STRATEGY & PLANNING  
  Unions have been closely examining strategy since before the Reagan admin (1980) because of loss of membership  
  Unions have taken on the best strategic planning methods known  
 
Strategic planning often conflicts w/ the democratic process because democratic processes are often short term in focus while strategic planning is often more long term in focus  
 Link
See Also:  Figure:  A Union Strategic Planning Model  
  The Figure on the Union Strategic Planning Model delineates a clear, sophisticated planning process similar to those used by most modern, rational orgs  
  Alternative Representation  
  Alternative representation occurs when unions create associations and other forms of bargaining units w/ a variety of employees who have a varying level of union affiliation
 
  W/ alternative representation, associated members pay only service fee
 
  Alternative representation is popular among professionals, public sector workers, part time wkrs, et al
 
  Alternative representation addresses new issues which concern wkrs
 
  Alternative representation often a good precursor to unionization
 
  See Also:  Types of Bargaining Structure Units  
  Some Unions Strategies:  
  Corporate campaigns occur in difficult organizing situations, when Labor pressures a corp, w/ PR campaigns, as well as those corps whose officers are members of the boards of the target corps 
 
  Corp campaigns are often used on the banks of target corps
 
  A political action committee (PAC) is formed when employers, unions or whatever org raise & disburse $ to support political candidates & initiatives
 
  Unions which utilized PACs believe they need to move off of firm level bargaining as a principal mission towards a broader approach
 
  For unions which move from firm level bargaining, other strategy types include:
-  collective bargaining at the industrial level
-  legislation, & other legislative actions
-  mutual insurance
-  confrontation, including strikes, picketing, educating, boycotts, etc. at the ind level
 
  Most orgl analysts believe that strategy determines structure  
  Most orgl analysts agree that structure should ultimately be determined by strategy, though in many orgs there is a dysfunctional disjunction btwn the two  
  Strategy & structure are determined by goals  
  Goals must take into account the orgl mission & the env  
Link
Figure:  A Model of the Key Determinants of Union Organizational Structures  
  The Figure on a Model of the Key Determinants of Union Organizational Structures demonstrates the relationship btwn the orgl env, the orgl goals & how they should dictate the nature of the org's strategies & structure (which should "match each other"), all of which are the determinants of performance & efficiency  
  In determining orgl structure, the orgl env often includes such factors as the characteristics of bargaining partners or competitors, the legal env, the product mkt, the political env, & the history of the org  
  In determining orgl structure, goals often include the wkplace goals, as well as external goals which may include the goals of shareholders, mgt, & other stakeholders  
  In determining orgl structure, strategy often includes collective bargaining strat, mutual insurance, legislative actions, confrontation w/ wkrs, mkt strat, R & D strat, etc.  
  In determining orgl structure, structure often includes the nature of the orgs horz & vert structure, i.e. the division of labor, bargaining structure, etc.   
 
THE BUSINESS APPROACH  
  From the days of the AFL, most major unions have taken a business approach  
  The business approach attempts to enhance econ outcomes & address grievances  
  Unions have ceded the right to make innovations in the workplace to the firm  
  Unions have not intruded on the property rights of owners & mgrs  
  Firms make hiring decisions w/o union intervention except when union supplies workers (building trades)  
  Union have strongly pushed the regulation of health & safety OJT  
  Unions pushed legislation for the regulation of health & safety in the workplace  
  Unions have negotiated for some rules related health & safety in the workplace  
  Unions generally do not include health & safety regulation in the contract  
  Why not do it all as contract rules?   
  The Great Labor Compromise ( GLC ) established a form of the corporatist approach to labor relations   
  In the Am corp approach, employers, unions & govts are all actors in the evolving employment relationship
 
  Prior to the Railway Labor Act ( RLA ) of 1926, w/ the exception of WW 1, employers & unions used their sheer bargaining power to deal w/ each other w/o govt involvement
 
  During this period, employers had more power & relied on property rights as enforced by the courts, to crush unions, except where workers controlled access to the acquisition of skills
 
  In 1926, the RLA established the National Mediation Board ( NMB ) which brought the govt into the labor relations in the transportation sector  
  In 1936, the Wagner Act established the legitimacy of unions for non transportation employees  
  In 1947 the Taft Hartley Act shifted the corporatist approach more toward employers advantage & established the FMCS  
  US labor relations have repeatedly seen the waxing & waning of the corporatist approach
 
  Federal govt involvement in labor relations generally increased through the passage of the the RLA, the Wagner Act, & the Taft Hartley Act
 
  The courts have generally held that property rights take precedence over the right to organize & collectively bargain
 
  Juridical decisions awarding supremacy of property over labor have limited fed govt involvement in labor relations  
  At the same time that property won supremacy over labor, the courts & statutory law increasingly endorsed the legitimacy of unions & the role of collective bargaining in resolving labor mgt disputes
 
  Fed govt involvement in labor relations was at its peak btwn WW2 & the mid 1970s
 
  During WW 2 all wages & prices were administered, & strikes were prohibited
 
  Thus during WW2 mgt & labor needed the approval of the Govt for all agreements, & disputes had to be settled w/o strikes even if govt intervention was required
 
  Taft Hartley laid the ground work for more Fed involvement in labor relations through the FMCS & national emergency dispute procedures
 
  Over the next 20 years, ( 1947 - late 60s ), Presidents have followed Truman & invoked cooling off periods, but only on a limited basis
 
  In labor disputes, before or during a cooling off period, it is common to call parties to Washington to "jawbone" them into settling  
  This corporatist approach worked reasonably well during the period in which productivity was growing at an annual rate of 3 % & inflation was low  
  By the end of the 1960, labor relations enter the Post Industrial Era, & inflation became an issue because it eroded the earning power of the average worker & thus began the unraveling of the GLC & the corporatist approach  
  In the Post Industrial Era, the parties began taking a harder line in negotiations  
  Labor was not willing to adhere to the wage & price controls of the Nixon administration  
  While it was not then readily apparent, the globalization of the econ was beginning, fueled by the Arab oil embargo of 1972 - 73  
  See Also:  Deindustrialization  
  See Also:  Globalization  
  The Western econ was becoming more integrated, bringing in labor & product competition from Europe & Japan  
  The Western econ was becoming more closely tied to the rest of the world, the second (developing ) & third world ( undeveloped )  
  The corporatist approach essentially ended w/ the election of Reagan in 1980  
  Reagan reduced the regulatory role of govt by cutting the number of govt workers  
  Mgt. had already begun taking a harder line since the late 1960s, but w/ Reagan, mgt. became even more aggressive   
  While mgt had taken a harder line on economic issues since the 1960s, they became even more aggressive & aggressively stepped up the tactics of union avoidance & union decertification  
  Reagan fired & replaced striking Federal Air Traffic Controllers w/ private sector employees  
  The confrontation w/ air traffic controllers threw down of the gauntlet to Labor since the controllers were both fed wkrs & skilled labor  
  No significant legislation or regulations have been enacted since Taft Hartley in 1947, & the Presidents following Reagan, ( Bush, Clinton, Bush ) have taken a laissez faire approach to labor relations thus leaving the corporatist approach balanced as Reagan designed it  

 
Top
 
Figure:  A Union Strategic Planning Model
1.  Define the mission & purpose 2.  Scan the environment 3.  Identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats
4.  Develop objectives, goals, targets 5.  Form strategy & an action plan 6.  Evaluate & reiterate
The Figure on the Union Strategic Planning Model delineates a clear, sophisticated planning process similar to those used by most modern, rational orgs

 
Top
 
Figure: A Model of the Key Determinants of Union Organizational Structures
The Figure on a Model of the Key Determinants of Union Organizational Structures demonstrates the relationship btwn the orgl env, the orgl goals & how they should dictate the nature of the org's strategies & structure (which should "match each other"), all of which are the determinants of performance & efficiency

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on  Union Democracy
External
Links
  LOCAL UNION DEMOCRACY 
 
  Local union democracy has a quality similar to municipal politics 
 
  Elections generate moderate to low interest 
 
  In union elections, incumbents are usually reelected unless a critical issue is at hand/mishandled 
 
  Union locals have regular business meetings which are open to all members 
 
  Business meetings often have low attendance:  equates w/ relative satisfaction 
 
  A contentious workplace may lead to suppression of dissent w/in union in order to maintain a united front 
 
  FUNCTIONAL DEMOCRACY 
 
  Functional democracy denotes that although an org may not have regular elections & other features of a democratic system, democracy is maintained through some democratic structures, but more importantly through a value commitment to democracy   
  W/ reference to democracy, unions do not typically have a party system 
 
  Unions must apply the contract equally to all workers as required by the Taft Hartley Act of 1947   
  Union elections are every 3 yrs as required by the Landrum Griffin Act of 1959   
  With reference to democracy, workers generally want representation not participation 
 
  Members do have the right to become involved & to offer alternative priorities or candidates   
  Union locals may be less democratic than municipal politics, but union members are probably less diverse & thus more satisfied w/ less democracy   
  MEASURING UNION DEMOCRACY
 
  Union democracy can be measured by measuring the degree of control members have over SIX types of major decisions related to: 
a.  contracts 
b.  contract administration 
c.  service to members 
d.  union administration 
e.  political activities 
f.  communities 
 
  There are FIVE types of control members have which can be used to measure the level of democracy, including: 
a.  complete control 
b.  limited  control 
c.  consultation control 
d.  veto control 
e.  or no control 
 
  DEMOCRACY IN PRACTICE 
 
  National unions are required by law to hold a convention at least every 5 yrs   
  Unions which elect executive board on geographic basis are less responsive to factions   
  At large elections results in leadership responsive to factions 
 
  Most leaders come up through the ranks   
  Less democratic appearing unions manage to exist because of a general consensus of ideas   
  EXAMPLES   
  Unions support democracy through the general support of programs that give people an effective voice in govt, community, region, & society in general   
  The CA Federation of Teachers developed a set of lesson plans for teaching about the role of trade unions in resolving wkplace conflicts   
  A large majority of people approve of unions, & the union image has increased since 1980   
  Unions are taking active roles in other social mvmts & NGOs such as the United Way, NAACP, NOW, Greenpeace, & more   
  Unions support the increase of internal democracy in both unions & corps   
  A study of the International Typographical Union (ITU) revealed a strong & dynamic role of internal political parties in unions as long ago as the 1950s (Lipset, et al., 1956)   
  The Teamsters, who was connected to organized crime, has developed an internal group called the Teamsters for a Democratic Union (TDU)   
  The TDU has over 9,000 members in 35 chapters, publishes its own newspaper, runs an opposition slate of candidates at conventions, & holds 30 local elected offices (Friedman, 1982)   
  In the UAW, the New Directions Movement has fostered an internal debate over increasing union & corp democracy   
  Organizing campaigns using greater member participation are laying the groundwork for greater internal democracy in new & emerging unions   

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on the  Labor Movement & Workplace Democracy
External
Links
 
-  Project:  Democracy, the Labor Mvmt, the Workplace 
Link
  BECAUSE OF THE INCREASING SOPHISTICATION OF WORK THERE IS THE NEED FOR A BROADER ROLE FOR UNIONS TO DEVELOP WORKPLACE DEMOCRACY  
  Historically, the Labor Movement is the most developed in the manufacturing sector, & therefore Labor has advanced workplace democracy the most in the manufacturing sector 
 
  Unions have focused on increasing the participation of workers in managing work & setting orgl goals (Appelbaum et all, 2000) 
 
  The UAW negotiates w/ the auto makers for training programs jointly managed by the union & the firm 
 
  Workers are trained to learn the skills needed to participate in devising strategies for the efficient use of new technology 
 
  In the GM Toyota joint venture in Fremont, CA, the participation program includes daily meetings of senior union representatives & plant managers about the operation of the plant, as well as a role for teams of workers & supervisors who meet to increase efficiency at every level of the org 
 
  In Ford plants, UAW workers have originated over 1,150 proposals for change in design & production methods 
 
  The Ford participation program is coupled w/ a profit sharing plan that results in a bonus of up to $1,200 annually for each worker (Schlossbergy & Fetter, 1986) 
 
  As part of the package of workplace democracy, the UAW Ford contract stipulates that Ford cannot lay off workers if the reduction in force results from transferring employment to overseas subsidiaries or suppliers 
 
  Union goals in the manufacturing sector include improving the quality of work life, as well as product quality 
 
  Most social scientists agree that a quality of work life results in increases in long term productivity 
 
  In a joint UAW Harman Industries worker participation experiment in Bolivar, TN, 30 shop floor committees of workers made changes at the plant, which makes rear-view mirror assemblies 
 
  In the UAW Harman Industries worker participation experiment, suggestions included 
- a credit union 
- a community child care center 
- painting the walls to redesigning the assembly line to starting 
- a school open to workers, their families, & community members 
- a "compensatory leave time" arrangement for accumulating overtime credits (in place of overtime pay) 
 
  The success of UAW Harman Industries worker participation experiment rested on input from workers, rather than those of mgrs or consultants about what would improve efficiency & the working environment (Zwerdling, 1980) 
 
  UNION INVOLVEMENT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WKR PARTICIPATION IS BENEFICIAL BECAUSE EVEN WKR PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS CAN DEGRADE WKRS' INTERESTS IF NOT DESIGNED TO ENHANCE WKRS' INTERESTS   
  While Labor has a strong interest in worker participation programs, they have reservations stemming from a concern w/ job security 
 
  If worker participation programs are to succeed, wkrs must be assured that wkr initiated improvements which increase productivity are NOT used to reduce the wkforce or create speed ups 
 
  While wkrs support piece rate pay in theory, experience has taught them that mgt will either reduce the wkforce or decrease the piece rate of pay 
 
  Large corps are engaged in antiunion campaigns at the top levels of strategic planning (Appelbaum & Batt, 1994) 
 
 
Antiunion campaigns call for moving plants to regions of the country less hospitable to unions or even building new facilities overseas to avoid unions   
 
An antiunion strategy is a poor env in which to originate & foster wkplace democracy, yet it is frequently the env in which Labor finds it must operate  
  Labor finds that local mgt is a willing partner in participation programs that fulfill productivity objectives but that top mgt. is simultaneously undercutting American jobs & wages by moving facilities to lower wage areas & even overseas (Parker & Slaughter, 1994)   
  Wkplace participation programs are often a short run strategy to get more work out of wkrs prior to layoffs   
  Quality Circles & other workplace participation programs are used to encourage wkrs to spy on each other & report union organizers & sympathizers to mgt  (Grenier, 1988)   
  Quality Circles can be a carrot w/ a stick since increased productivity & increased quality are essential for the long term survival of high paying jobs   
  Because wkplace democracy is used against wkrs, labor seeks to increase the rights of wkrs over investment decisions   
  Investment rights can be manifested through various forms of wkr ownership   
  In 1988, 400 union wkr bought out their failing shipbuilding company in Seattle & the company emerged from bankruptcy w/ wkrs in control of the common stock & the board of directors   
 
In the wkr owned ship building firm in Seattle, the Union President became the CEO (Egan, 1988) 
 
  ALTERNATIVE GOVERNANCE FORMS INVOLVE PARTICIPATION IN MGT OR ORGL ADMIN   
  Union mgt cooperation changes both the production process & wkplace governance   
  EI in dec mking shifts the focus of collective bargaining from structural rules to processes   
  Traditional collective bargaining offers less participation than other forms of governance   
Link
The Table on Joint Governance & Other Governance Forms shows that the relationship btwn indl relations practices & various EI programs influencing governance in the wkplace is complex & multidimensional   
  UNION POLITICAL PROCESSES AID IN THE DIFFUSION OF CHANGE OF MANY ASPECTS OF THE WKPLACE, INCLUDING EI PROGRAMS   
  An adversarial indl relations climate is antithetical to collaboration in the wkplace   
  Major political changes are necessary to implement cooperation at nat & local union levels   
  A stable plant env & progressive mgt are necessary to ensure the safety net of union leaders need to the advocate change to EI programs   
  Unions adopt one of FIVE different approaches to innovative wkplace changes including:   
  a.  "just say no"   
  b.  let mgt lead & see what happens   
  c.  become involved to protect the union politically   
  d.  cooperate & collaborate   
  e.  use EI to assert union interests  
  Local union defensiveness is not irrational because mgrs interpret cooperation as a willingness to make concessions & increase productivity, even as mgt efforts to undermine the union continue   
  When unions see themselves in an unequal power relationship w/ mgt, cooperation is hared to introduce   
  At Western Airlines, participation became effective only when unions gained power to constrain mgt rights & jointly formed a vision for survival   
  Union leaders can take advantage of commo about econ problems to further wkr interests   
  Cooperative programs offer an opportunity to negotiate permanence for EI in contracts   
  EI development is enhanced by intl union ed & the willingness of locals to be involved   
  Participation programs can benefit unions since active participants are more satisfied w/ their unions & involved in union activities   
  Union support is not undermined by member participation in EI programs per se, but may be if the union allows such programs to be developed only through mgt initiatives   
  Proactive behavior of leaders toward EI increases member commitment to the union, but members who are negative toward the firm & the union before EI programs are not changed regardless of the success of the programs   
  MGT STRATEGY IN RELATION TO EI PROGRAMS IS OFTEN TO SEEK PRODUCTIVITY, PROFIT, ETC. & EVEN TO USE IT TO ELIMINATE OR DEGRADE UNION INFLUENCE  
  Labor mgt cooperation programs are often implemented at the plant level although there are some corporate wide strats such as the Ford UAW EI program   
  Mgt may encounter situations in which wkrs, across plants, are represented by several different intl unions, each w/ its own approach toward union mgt cooperation   
  Research on mgt strats toward collective bargaining, cooperation, union avoidance, & firms performance suggest that firms improve profitability through extensive collaboration btwn mgt & labor   
  Performance is also improved by closing existing unionized facilities & opening or acquiring new nonunion plants   
  Deunionizing efforts in any existing plant has a negative effect on performance & destroys the trust necessary to foster joint labor mgt EI strats   
  Steel mills, like many firms, follow either a cost reduction or product differentiation strat   
  Cost reduction strats are associated w/ labor mgt conflict & the use of formal grievance procedures   
  Product differentiation requires flexible manufacturing & is associated w/ wkr commitment, collective bargaining, & the informal solution of problems   
  Wages in steel mills following a production differentiation strat are higher & wkrs add more value to the products   

 
Top
 
Table: Joint Governance & Other Governance Forms 
External
Links
Dimensions
Hi Involvement
Nonunion System
Traditional
Collective
Bargaining
Trad
Labor Mgt
Committees
Labor Reps
On the Board
German Style
Work Councils
Mutually Agreed
Joint Governance
 
Conflict vs. Coop Heavy emphasis on coop; only interpersonal avenues for conflict resolution Formal conflict resolution procedures w/ limited emphasis on cooperation Cooperative forum w/ no decision making role & no formal conflict resolution procedure More of a cooperative forum; some room for expressing conflict Potential for cooperation;  conflicts can be taken to labor courts Potential for cooperation & room for surfacing & resolving conflicts  
Procedural v. Substantive Work Rules Few formal work rules; heavy emphasis on informal resolution Heavy reliance on substantive rules enforced by the grievance procedure Procedural rule making Procedural decision making Heavy emphasis on procedural decision making Heavy emphasis on procedural decision making  
Direct v. Indirect Participation Heavy emphasis on direct participation Mostly indirect; little emphasis on direct participation Mostly indirect; little emphasis on direct participation Indirect Indirect; informal direct participation Indirect; creates pressure to introduce direct participation  
Admin v. Political Skills Admin skills taught to employees at all levels Mgt concentrates on admin skills; union on political skills Some overlap, but lack of decision making role prevents further diffusion Labor reps develop admin skills bu only marginal diffusion of political skills among mgt Labor develops admin skills; plant mgt develops political skills Labor develops admin skills; mgt dev political skills  
Joint & Equal Decision Making Power No Yes, but in bargainable issues & at bargaining time only May contain equal number of labor & mgt reps, but equality is less significant because the role is mostly advisory No, w/ the exception of the German law of 1951 covering the iron, steel, & coal industries Yes Yes  
The Table on Joint Governance & Other Governance Forms shows that the relationship btwn industrial relations practices & various EI programs influencing governance in the wkplace is complex & multidimensional   

 
Internal
Links

Top

 Outline on the AFL CIO 1955 - present
External
Links
  -  AFL CIO Website:  http://www.aflcio.org/
Link
  The AFL had formed in 1869 as a federation of craft unions  
  The CIO had formed in 1935 as it broke away from the AFL to form the first industrial union  
  The AFL CIO is similar to a trade association, a chamber of commerce, or a national association of manufacturers  
  It coordinates activities among the Nationals & amplifies their voices  
  The federation of the AFL CIO's prime functions are information, integration, and advocacy  
  It's greatest areas of autonomy relate to legislative & political processes  
  NINE factors set the stage for the merger of the AFL & the CIO into the AFL CIO in 1955
 
 
One of the factors that set the stage for the AFL CIO merger was that:  
  1.  late in the 1940s there were strong economic conditions w/ higher wages & profits & living standards 
 
  2.  mgt. & Labor were working for peaceful labor relations
 
  3.  in 1952, both William Green (AFL) & Philip Murray (CIO) died   
  4.  successors to the AFL & the CIO, George Meany (AFL) & Walter Reuther (CIO) were able to close ranks as predecessors would have found impossible 
 
  5.  in 1954 the new leaders of the AFL & CIO signed a no raid agreement
 
  6.  the declining growth of membership made Labor pull together
 
  Unionization as a fraction of labor peaked in 56 at 1/3   
  7.  the passage of the 1947 Landrum Griffin Act 
 
  8.  Labor corruption could be more easily dealt w/ if Labor pulled together  
  9.  one of the urgent tasks facing the AFL CIO was the elimination of corrupt elements from the Labor Movement  
  A Brief History of the AFL CIO:  
  In the 1960s the AFL CIO supported the New Frontier & the Great Society domestic programs of presidents Kennedy & Johnson
 
  The support of the AFL CIO contributed to legislative successes in civil rights, voting rights, housing, education, health & medical care, urban redevelopment, & poverty programs
 
  But the AFL CIO failed to get section 14b of the Taft Hartley Act repealed
 
  The AFL CIO opposed much of Nixon's agenda, especially his anti inflationary wage & price controls
 
  Never the less, Labor was neutral in the Nixon - McGovern election of 1972, the first time that a Democratic candidate did not gain support & $$ from Labor
 
  After the Nixon election & Watergate, the AFL CIO moved quickly for its reassertion of influence in the Democratic Party & of the impeachment of Nixon
 
  In 1974 the AFL CIO had 13 mm members, w/ the two biggest unions being independent: the Teamsters & the UAW
 
  While Labor had stabilized in the 1950s, by the mid 70s, the trend was one of decline  
  George Meany retired in 1979 & was succeeded by Lane Kirkland  
  Under Kirkland, the UAW which was disaffiliated in 1968, reaffiliated in 1981  
  1982 is considered the Centennial Year of the AFL CIO  
  The Teamsters, who were ejected in 1957, were reaffiliated in 1987  
  In 1994, Sweeney takes the Presidency & advocates more militancy  
  The Org Structure the AFL - CIO:  
  The AFL CIO merger did not change in any fundamental way the decentralized & essentially economic nature of the Labor Movement  
  The AFL CIO consists of about 100 national & international trade & industrial unions w/ a total membership of about 13 mm  
  The nationals are self governing, but cooperate w/ one another within the federation  
  Each national union has local union in the US & its territories  
  Each international unions also have local unions in Canada, Puerto Rico, & Panama  
  The national & international labor unions have more than 60,000 local unions  
  States & Local Central Bodies
AFL CIO interacts w/ 800 state and local central bodies
These orgs are mostly political/lobbyists
 
  All affiliated unions are entitled to representation at the AFL CIO's convention every two years  
  The convention is the supreme governing body  
  Delegates are appointed based on size of the national union from which they come  
  The delegates are elected or appointed according to the national's policy  
  Other delegates come from directly affiliated locals, state & city bodies, national industrial & trade dept.  
  The Convention elects the President, the Secretary Treasurer, and 33 vice Presidents who make up the Executive Council (ExCo)  
  The ExCo determines policy btwn conventions & carries out policies established by the convention  
  The AFL CIO has central bodies (federations) in all 50 states & Puerto Rico, and over 700 local central bodies  
  There are EIGHT trade & industrial depts. in the AFL CIO  
  a. Building & Construction 
b. Industrial Union Trade
c. Metal Trades
d. Union Label & Service Trades
e. Maritime Trade
f. Food & Allied Service Trades
g. Professional Employees
h. Public Employees Depts
 
  The AFL CIO constitution established committees & depts. to deal w/ 
a. legislation
b. civil rights
c. political education
d. ethical practices
e. international affairs
f. education
g. social security
h. economic policy
i. community services
j. housing
k. research
l. public relations
m. safety & occupational health
n. veterans' affair
o. organization
 
  The Activities & Policies of the AFL CIO:  
  Assists its unions in organizing work, legal assistance in court, represents affiliates in govt, & nongovt agency dealings  
  The AFL CIO does not itself engage in collective bargaining or issue strike calls (w/ minor exceptions)
 
  This power resides, as it always has, in the autonomous national & international unions 
 
  Maintains research, information, & publicity services  
  Publishes an official magazine:  The American Federationist, & a weekly paper, The AFL CIO News, & pamphlets & organizing information  
  In the legislative field, the AFL CIO works for enactment of desired legislation on the national & state levels  
  Immediately after the merger, the AFL CIO created a single political arm: The Committee on Political Education ( COPE )  
  The AFL CIO re entered politics w/ $$ & person power in close alliance w/ the Democratic Party  
  In civic affairs, it promotes the activity of union members in such community projects as campaigns for voter registration, better schools, more hospitals, elimination of slums, & aid in combating juvenile delinquency  
  Internal Maintenance of the AFL - CIO:  
  The AFL CIO has a direct relationship w/ almost 800 state & local central bodies  
  These bodies reflect the composition of the parent AFL CIO and the particular industrial mix of their geographic areas  
  The state & local centrals are directly responsible to the AFL CIO, not to the internationals  
  The AFL CIO tries to resolve certain types of disputes among its member unions  
  The AFL CIO developed rules for unions to submit interunion disputes for mediation & adjudication  
  When  they merged, the power of the AFL CIO did expand to include the authority to expel unions for corruption or domination by Communist, Fascists, or other totalitarian forces
 
  The AFL CIO developed an Ethical Practices Code  
  The AFL CIO adopted a vigorous anti discrimination vow  
  The AFL CIO developed rules to avoid dominance by non democratic ideologies in any union  
  Policies of the AFL CIO:  
  Meany became the new President of the AFL CIO & re endorsed Gompers concept of "more" as it applied to the standard & quality of living  
  Meany reiterated the business unionism approach  
  Meany was unwilling to involve Labor in mgt & thereby forestalled in move toward employee participation, workplace democracy, etc.  

 
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 Outline on the American Federation of State, County, & Municipal Employees ( AFSCME )
External
Links
  -  AFSCME Website    http://www.afscme.org/
Link
  AFSCME is the nation's largest & fastest growing public service employees union  
  In 2005, AFSCME has 1.4 mm members   
  AFSCME organizes for social & economic justice in the workplace & through political action & legislative advocacy  
  AFSCME is an industrial type union asserting jurisdiction over nonelected public employees outside the fed govt
 
  AFSCME also organizes private, nonprofit public service orgs
 
  AFSCME's President & Secretary Treasurer are elected at the biennial convention
 
  There are also 31 international vice presidents elected from 24 legislative districts
 
  At the national level are 63 regional councils responsible for coordinating bargaining & political activities among locals in their regions
 
  AFSCME's unique structure is a result of TWO factors  
  a.  AFSCME organizes under a variety of govt jurisdictions 
 
  b.  AFSCME bargains under many different laws  
  Unlike most industrial unions, locals in AFSCME do not require the national's approval of their contract settlements or the decision to strike
 
  All Locals affiliate w/ a regional council which are operated w/in jurisdictions relating to the bargaining laws associated w/ the occupations represented
 
  AFSCME's national services include:  research, legislative, legal, organizational, organizing, educating, public relations, etc.
 
  AFSCME spends 10 to 33 % of its total budget on lobbying & other political activities
 
  Since most members are in the public sector, influence on state legislators & county & municipal elected officials & administrators is very important
 
  Job security issues are very important 
 
  AFSCME members become part of a local union (also called a local) consisting of the coworkers in an office, institution, dept or community  
  AFSCME has more than 3,500 local unions in 46 states, the District of Columbia & Puerto Rico  
  Each local writes its own constitution, holds regular membership meetings & elects its own officers & stewards  
 
 
  Under federal law, union dues cannot be used directly to fund political candidates, although they may be used to support some state level candidates  
  AFSCME members have a voluntary, independent political organization called PEOPLE — Public Employees Organized to Promote Legislative Equality  
  PEOPLE is the union's political, legislative and fundraising arm  
  It is supported by voluntary donations by members & is one of the biggest political action committees in the nation  
  PEOPLE is run by AFSCME members who participate in committees at the local, state & national levels  
  PEOPLE committees raise funds & work to elect politicians responsive to the needs of public service & health care  

 
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 Outline on the International Association of Machinists ( IAM ) estb. 1888
External
Links
  -  IAM Website:  http://www.iamaw.org/
Link
  The International Association of Machinists & Aerospace Workers (IAM) was estb in 1888 when 19 machinists met in a locomotive pit at Atlanta, GA, & voted to form a trade union  
  When the IAM was estb, machinists earn 20 to 25 cents an hour for a 10 hour day  
  The IAM affiliated w/ the AFL in 1895
 
  The IAM has expanded from machinists to include metal trades, railway employees, auto mechanics, airline workers, electronic workers, & aerospace workers
 
  The IAM consists of several conferences & departments 
 
  There are several staff departments that provide services to the the National, the Locals, and members
 
  The membership peaked at more than 1 mm in 1968 & is now about 700,000
 
  History of the IAM:  
  The IAM was estb in 1888  
  In 1889, 34 locals are represented at the first machinists convention, held in Georgia State Senate Chamber.  They elect Tom Talbot as Grand Master Machinist & a monthly journal is started  
  In 1890, the first Canadian local is chartered at Stratford, Ont. The union is named International Association of Machinists. They set up headquarters in Richmond, VA.  Membership is at 4,000  
  In 1891, IAM Local 145 asks $3 for a 10 hour day  
  In 1892, the first railroad agreement is signed w/ Atcheson, Topeka & Santa Fe RR  
  In 1895, the IAM joins the American Federation of Labor (AFL), & moves their headquarters to Chicago  
  In 1898, IAM Local 52, Pittsburgh, conducts the first successful strike for 9 hour day  
  In 1899, time & a half for overtime becomes prevalent & IAM moves it's headquarters to Washington, DC  
  In 1903, specialists are admitted to the membership & the drive begins for the 8 hour day  
  In 1905, apprentices are admitted to membership. There are 769 locals. Railroad machinists earn 36 to 43 cents an hour for 9 hour day  
  In 1911, women are admitted to the membership w/ equal rights  
  In 1948, IAM membership opened to all regardless of race or color. The IAM convention endorses Harry Truman for President  
  In 1964, IAM convention endorses LBJ for President, after a personal appearance. Delegates vote to change name to International Association of Machinists & Aerospace Workers. Membership at 800,000  
  In 2004, the IAM Executive Council marches with thousands of trade unionists in Miami to protest Free Trade Area of the Americas  
  Vice presidential candidate Senator John Edwards from North Carolina appears at an IAM convention rally after a unanimous endorsement of Senator John Kerry & Senator Edwards by the delegate  
  The Goals of the IAM:  
  - achieve cost of living raises so that wage rates rise w/ living costs  
  -  increase purchasing power to provide a higher standard of living  
  -  achieve paid sick leave & life insurance for workers; employer paid hospital, medical, dental & eye care benefits for workers and their families  
  -  establish equal pay for equal work regardless of sex, race, or national origin  
  -  create a safe, healthy workplace  
  -  establish a shorter work week with double time for voluntary overtime  
  -  restrict subcontracting.   
  -  establish employer paid insurance for worn, broken, or stolen tools  
  -  open a joint apprentice training and retraining on the job  
  -  make pensions portable w/ optional early retirement benefits  
  -  make severance pay & supplemental unemployment benefits the norm  
  -  establish union shop  

 
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 Outline on the International Union of Operating Engineers ( IUOE )
External
Links
  -  IUOE Website:  http://www.iuoe.org/index.asp
Link
 
IUOE stands for the International Union of Operating Engineers
 
  The IUOE is a progressive, diversified trade union that primarily represents operating engineers, who work as heavy equipment operators, mechanics, & surveyors in the construction industry, & stationary engineers, who work in operations & maintenance in bldg & industrial complexes, & in the service industries  
  The IUOE also represents nurses & other health industry wkrs as well as significant numbers of public employees engaged in a wide variety of occupations  
  The IUOE primarily represents heavy equipment operators, mechanics, & surveyors in the construction industry
 
  The IUOE also represents stationary engineers operating equipment in building & industrial complexes  
  The IUOE also represents health care workers & public employees
 
  There are about 170 locals in the US & Canada
 
  Most locals cover large geographical areas
 
  The IUOE has about 400,000 members & is the 12th largest union in the AFL CIO
 
  Most union services are provided at the local level through nearly 100 joint union employer apprenticeship programs
 
  The Government Accountability Office (GAO), the fed govt's top investigative agency, has released a report confirming the existence of serious problems in nonunion apprenticeship programs, & in the Department of Labor's mgt of the nation’s apprenticeship system  
  As an integral part of IUOE's commitment to provide highly skilled heavy equipment operators & stationary/facilities engineers to the construction, stationary & envl industries, the IUOE developed & implemented comprehensive training programs that are widely recognized as the best in those industries  
  The IUOE has cooperative working agreements w/ the US Depart of Energy to administer & operate the nation’s foremost hazardous materials (HAZMAT) training program & the International Environmental Technology and Training Center, both located at the IUOE National Hazmat Project in Beckley, WV  
  The IUOE also participates in the Job Corps program, a training program for young people, age 16 - 24  
  The IUOE has training agreements w/ the US Depts of Labor & Agriculture to administer & operate pre apprenticeship training programs at various Job Corps training centers throughout the US  

 
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 Outline on the Teamsters 1903
External
Links
  -  Project:  The Teamsters Strategy & Corruption 
Link
  -  Video:  Jimmy Hoffa:  The Man Behind the Mystery     A & E Biography     50 min      1993 
Link
  -  Teamsters Website:  http://www.teamster.org/ 
Link
  The Teamsters were chartered by the AFL in 1899 as the Team Drivers' Union 
 
  The groups split into two unions, which reunited at Niagra Fall, NY, in 1903, the official date of the founding of the Teamsters Union 
 
  The union grew rapidly under presidents David Beck & James Hoffa in the 1950s & 1960s 
 
  The Teamsters are the largest labor union in the US w/ 1.66 mm members   
  The Teamsters are organized into 800 locals   
  THE TEAMSTERS ARE RENOWNED FOR THEIR AGGRESSIVE ORGANIZING STRAT:  A.  ORGANIZE MANY TRADES & IND;  B. AGGRESSIVE FOCUS ON RAISING WAGES;  C. ESTB AFFILIATIONS W/ OTHER CONSTITUENCIES   
  a.  The Teamsters organize the many trades & industries, including: 
-  truck drivers                   -  garage & service station workers 
-  dairy workers                 -  food processing workers 
-  brewery workers            -  people who work w/ autos 
-  chauffeurs                       -  soft drink workers 
-  industrial workers           -  airline workers 
-  warehouse workers        -  public service employees 
-  auto salespeople             -  & more 
 
  b.  The Teamsters generally go w/ their strength of raising wages, knowing this only satisfies workers for a while   
  c.  The membership drives can be based on "revolving door:" or peripheral affiliations outside of the core constituencies   
 
THE POSITIVES & NEGATIVES TO THE TEAMSTERS AGG ORG STRAT ARE ( + ) RAISING WAGES; FULL SERVICES; & ( - ) NOT RESPONSIVE TO WKRS; WKRS EXPECT INCREASING WAGES & THEN  IMPROVEMENT ON OTHER ISSUES; DECERTIFICATION DRIVES 
 
 
1.  The aggressive organizing strategy is positive for workers because Teamsters are good at raising wages 
 
  2.  The Teamsters' membership drives can be based on full services:  meeting all needs   
 
3.  The aggressive organizing strategy is negative for workers because they are not responsive to worker input 
 
 
4.  Wkrs get used to higher wages; then want to move on to other issues but the Teamsters are not responsive, so they decertify them 
 
 
5.  Teamster unions are often the subject of decertification drives 
 
 
CORRUPTION IN THE TEAMSTERS HAD DELEGITIMIZED THEM TO THE WIDER PUBLIC 
 
  The ultimate effect of the Teamsters' corruption, of corruption of unions in general, is to discredit the Labor Mvmt, thus justifying the corporate position of anti unionism   
  The Teamsters were expelled from the AFL CIO in 1957 due to corruption & was reaffiliated in 1987 after they had reformed 
 
  See Also:  Corruption in the Labor Movement   
  The Teamsters are well known for its alleged corruption & its leadership by the Hoffas  
  Under examination by the Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor or Management Field of 1957, the Teamsters took the lion's share of the accusations   
  The Senate Select Committee was chaired by John McClellan of AR, w/ other significant members such as JFK & Barry Goldwater  
  JFK & Bobby Kennedy continued to lock horns w/ the Teamsters, & rumors have circulated that there may be some connection to JFK's assassination   
  There were FIVE types of corruption engaged in by the Teamsters: 
a. reprisal violence 
b. financial manipulation 
c. repression of members' democratic rights 
d. racketeering 
e. sweetheart contracts:  substandard benefits 
 
  Dave Beck had converted union funds to his own use, borrowed money from employers, & received kickbacks from labor "consultants"   
  Jimmy Hoffa was accused of breaking Teamster strikes & covertly running his own trucking operation   
  "Sweetheart" contracts w/ substandard benefits & guaranteeing labor peace were uncovered in the NY area Teamster locals operated by racketeers   
  All this has led Teamsters to support Republican Presidential candidates   
  In 1989, the Teamsters & the Dept. of Justice reached an out of court settlement of a federal racketeering lawsuit that was filed against the union 
 
  Some Teamster official had long been suspected of being tied to organized crime 
 
  The agreement changed election procedures to enable union members to vote directly for top union officials 
 
  Previously, these officers were elected by delegates to the union's international convention 
 
  The agreement also called for creation of a three member board to oversee union activities 
 
  One member would be appointed by the US Attorney General, one by the Teamsters, & another by mutual consent of both 
 
  In 1998, even after the govt oversight the Teamsters were found guilty of financial malfeasance 
 
  Teamsters President Ron Carey was seen as the clean-up man of the Teamsters after its govt oversight   
  Carey was found guilty of laundering in his re-election $$ in 1997  (under appeal) 
 
  Carey was barred from holding office   
  In 1993-95, the Teamsters were found guilty under fed law of 104 cases of embezzlement 
 
  Jimmy Hoffa, Jr. is now President   

 
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 Outline on the United Auto Workers  estb. 1935
External
Links
  -  Supplement:  Can this man save Ford?
Link
  -  Supplement:  My goal is to fight Toyota
Link
  -  Project:  The Role of the UAW in the Auto Industry Restructuring
Link
  -  UAW's Website:  http://www.uaw.org/
Link
  UAW stands for the United Auto Workers  
  The UAW was founded in Detroit in 1935 after the Flint Sit Down Strike by the CIO  
  Walter Reuther was the important founding President of the UAW  
  Reuther was a skilled auto worker, a tool & die machinist  
  Reuther recognized that a transition to unskilled work was taking place in the auto industry  
  Reuther organized unskilled & was reviled by other skilled auto workers & others  
  Reuther & his brother visited USSR  
  The UAW was an early, important member of the CIO
 
  The UAW was part of the CIO merger w/ the AFL in 1955
 
  The UAW w/drew from the AFL CIO in 1968 but rejoined in 1981
 
  The UAW is one of the largest unions in the US w/ over 1,200 locals
 
  The UAW organizes auto workers, aerospace workers, agricultural implement workers, electronics workers, household appliance workers, allied metal working trades
 
  The UAW has more recently branched into services such as banking, insurance, hospitals, legal services, local govts, & universities
 
  Around 1980 virtually all US made autos were assembled by American Motors, Chrysler, Ford, & GM  
  Since then BMW, Honda, Mazda, Mercedes, Mitsubishi, Nissan, & Toyota have opened US assembly plants  
  Chrysler has acquired American Motors & recently merged w/ Daimler Benz  
  To serve members in a consistent manner across these major manufacturers, the UAW established national departments  
  Because US based domestic auto makers facilities were almost 100 % unionized, national departments concentrated on representation rather than organizing activities   
  Each UAW national department has a council consisting of delegates from that department's locals  
  Councils form subcommittees based on common interest of the members such as seniority & work rules  
  Subcommittees designate members to take part in the national negotiation council from that department  
  Staff departments provide information for the national departments & also assist local through international representatives  
  Besides having a "product line" approach in its national departments, the UAW is also broken into geographical regions based on the concentration of UAW members in a given area  
  Regional staff conduct organizing drives and assist remote local unions or those not closely affiliated w/ national departments in negotiation, administration, & grievance handling  
  Regional staff may also have experts in health & safety, industrial engineering, etc.  
  The centralized orgl makeup of the UAW is a function of employer concentration & the level at which economic bargaining occurs  
  As a result of the closure of many auto plants as their jobs were to other countries, locals have traded local economic concessions for job security  

 
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 Outline on  Solidarity
External
Links
  -  Project:  Solidarity & Democratic Movements 
Link
  -  Solidarity's Website:  http://www.solidarnosc.org.pl/ 
Link
  IntroductionSolidarity, an organization of trade unions, helped bring about free elections in Poland & the establishment of a non Communist govt   
  In the 1960s, Polish intellectuals protested against govt limits on freedom of expression, & new disputes erupted between the govt & the Catholic Church   
  In 1970, strikes & riots broke out in Gdansk & other cities, & Gdansk was a center of protest against the Communist govt in Poland   
  Thousands of Poles demanded better living conditions & econ & political reforms   
 
After days of riots, Gomulka resigned, & Edward Gierek became the Communist Party leader 
 
 
Gierek's leadership brought better relations between the govt & the Catholic Church 
 
 
Although Poland remained a loyal ally of the Soviet Union, its govt took steps during the 1970s to improve relations with non Communist countries 
 
 
In 1978, Karol Cardinal Wojtyla, a Polish cardinal & the archbishop of Krakow, was elected pope of the Catholic Church, taking the name John Paul the II 
 
 
Wojtyla became the first Polish pope in history & the first non Italian pope since 1523 & he called on Poland's govt to allow greater freedom to its people 
 
  Poland struggled w/ high prices & shortages of food & consumer goods   
  In 1976, Poles rioted after the govt announced big increases in food prices so the govt then deferred the increase   
  Econ conditions worsened in Poland in the late 1970s   
  In 1980, strikes in Gdansk & other cities led to the creation of Solidarity, an organization of trade unions   
 
 
 
During the summer of 1980, thousands of workers in Gdansk & other cities went on strike 
 
 
Strikers demanded higher pay, free trade unions, & political reforms & the Communist leaders promised to meet many of the demands 
 
 
In September, the Central Committee forced Gierek to resign & elected Stanislaw Kania to replace him 
 
 
In November, the Polish govt recognized Solidarity, an org of free trade unions 
 
 
This was the first time a Communist country recognized a labor org that was independent of the Communist Party 
 
 
Lech Walesa headed Solidarity 
 
 
In 1980, Walesa was chosen as provisional head of Solidarity, an org composed of about 50 Polish trade unions 
 
 
Walesa's negotiations w/ Poland's govt that year led to the recognition of Solidarity 
 
 
Walesa was elected chairman of Solidarity in 1981 
 
 
The Polish labor mvmt faced growing hostility from Poland's Communist Party & the Soviet Union 
 
 
In December 1981, Poland's govt established martial law & suspended Solidarity's activities 
 
  In December 1981, Jaruzelski  became Poland's leader when he was elected head of the country's Communist Party in 1981 & was the top leader of Poland from 1981 to 1989   
  Jaruzelski faced econ problems & protests against the Communist Party's political monopoly so he established martial law in an effort to restore order   
  The Jaruzelski administration established strict controls over the lives of the Polish people   
  It outlawed independent social orgs such as Solidarity, a free labor union led by Lech Walesa   
  Walesa & hundreds of other union leaders were imprisoned   
 
In Oct 1982, the govt outlawed Solidarity & Walesa was released in Nov & the other prisoners were freed over the next several years 
 
  Martial law was officially ended in 1983 but the govt kept many controls over freedom   
  In 1989, the govt reached an agreement w/ Solidarity that led to the legalization of the union & to changes in the structure of the govt   
  It also allowed the freest elections to Parliament since the country became a Communist state in 1945   
  In the elections, non Communist candidates backed by Solidarity had the greatest success   
  Almost every candidate who was endorsed by Walesa & Solidarity won a seat in Parliament   
  In June 1990, Solidarity split into several groups & Walesa won a runoff election & became Poland's president from 1990 to 1995   
  After the election, Walesa resigned as head of Solidarity   
  In 1997 elections, Solidarity won the most seats in parliament & defeated the former Communists who had been in control   
  Solidarity formed a new coalition govt with the Freedom Union   
  Also in 1997, the country's new constitution went into effect   
  In 1999, Poland became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance of Western nations   
  In 2000, Kwasniewski was reelected president   
  Poland's most important political orgs include the Democratic Left Alliance, the Freedom Union, the Polish Peasant Party, & Solidarity Electoral Action   
  The Freedom Union & Solidarity Electoral Action favor a free enterprise econ   
  Solidarity Electoral Action is the political arm of Solidarity, which is an org of trade unions   
  The Democratic Left Alliance is a Communist party, & its members are in favor of more govt control of the economy   
  The members of the Polish Peasant Party want agricultural reform to aid small landowners, and they think Poland should slow its move to a free enterprise econ   

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