Rev IS 1 Intro to Soc Pers, Th, & Method

	Examples of Social Science Research
Link	The Social Causes of Teen Pregnancy
Link	The Social Causes of Juvenile Delinquency
Link	Puritan Boston & Quaker Philadelphia
Link	Durkheim on Suicide
	- Table on Durkheim's Four Types of Suicide	bank
Link	An Introduction to Methods
Link	Research Design
Link	The Scientific Method
Link	Qualities of the Scientific Method
	Validity & Values in Social Science Research
Link	Hume 1711 - 1776
Link	Weber on Values & Other Problems in Research
Link	Gender & Research
Link	An Intro to Ethics & Research

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on What is Society?

External
Links

SOCIETY IS A GROUP W/ IDENTITY, W/ SHARED AUTHORITY, W/ COMMON AREA, IN AN ENVIRONMENT

Society is the people & sum of inventions, institutions, relationships, created & reproduced by humans

SOCIETY HAS THE EIGHT QUALITIES OF GILAGECS

1. SOCIETY IS MADE OF GROUPS

We will see the menagerie of social institutions, made up of groups....
And yet we see our culture as ONE
In some respects, we are groups of groups of groups... a group is its own society

2. SOCIETY HAS A DISTINCT IDENTITY

Self awareness is an important part of consciousness

A society, a culture must recognize itself before anyone else can recognize it

3. SOCIETY HAS A COMMON LANGUAGE

Language once was one of the most powerful indicators of what society someone belonged to, but today, language is less & less important

The globe is experiencing a 'concentration of languages,' i.e. many languages are disappearing & a few are coming to dominate

4. A SOCIETY HAS A SHARED AUTHORITY

Most societies rely on political authority, & there is a general transition from violent / authoritarian authority to rule of law / democracy & bureaucracy

5. SOCIETY HAS A COMMON GEOGRAPHIC AREA

Today, most societies have an identity w/ national borders, but nations & societies are socially permeable, i.e. not exact

Geography & location is becoming less of a factor on societies as technology & transportation expand

We now have a "world society" in that some parts of society are known the world over

6. SOCIETY IS IN, AS WELL AS SHAPED BY, THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

While all species are shaped by the environment, there is wide debate on how much our environment shapes us

7. SOCIETY HAS CULTURE WHICH IS THE MANIFESTATION OF KBVN

Society has culture which is the content of society & culture is made up of a society's shared knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms ( KBVN )

8. SOCIETY HAS SOCIAL STRUCTURE WHICH IS THE FORM OF SOCIETY AS MANIFESTED IN PF REG M CEML

The physical environment influences the nature of social structures in society ( PF REG M CEML )

Peers	Military
Family	Charity
Religion	Education
Economy / work	Media
Govt	Leisure / recreation

Below are three examples of how various social structures are located in particular geographic areas & are actually shaped by the physical environment

Peers	Races, ethnicities, regional types
Wk / econ	H-G, Agriculture, Herding, Extraction, etc.
Leisure / recreation	Swim, ski, etc.

THE PRIMARY DIFFERENCE BTWN MODERN & NON MODERN SOCIETY IS RATIONAL & TRADITIONAL AUTHORITY, RESPECTIVELY

Modern society:
- is relatively self contained
- is aware of it's identity
- has a common geographic area
- has a shared authority, which is primarily rational authority

Non modern society is essentially the same as modern society except it is smaller, more ethnocentric, & has traditional authority

The concept of society is an abstraction in that society is not something you can see or touch because is is not just people, but their relationships

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on What is Sociology?

External
Links

SOCIOLOGY STUDIES THE DYNAMICS OF OUR RELATIONSHIPS W/ EACH OTHER, & HOW THESE RELATIONS AGGREGATE TO FORM MASSIVE SOCIAL PROCESSES & STRUCTURES

Sociology is the
the systematic study of
society,
human social activity, &
social groups

While the study of society has been in conducted since the 1600s, August Comte ( 1798 - 1857 ) coined the word 'sociology'

Sociological questions
How is society possible & how does it work?
How is the individual created in society?
How are groups, orgs, institutions, etc. created in society?
What is the nature of the relationship among individuals & the various parts of society?

One of the greatest debates in sociology concerns the relative influences of the forces of change versus the forces of stability

The focus of sociology is on
- society,
- social institutions ( family, church, work, education, etc. )
- groups
- individuals
-& reactions to these through culture,
i.e. by creating common knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGY ARE THAT IS USES THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, IS HOLISTIC, & EXAMINES BOTH MACRO & MICRO LEVELS

a. Sociology uses the scientific method of the processes theory construction, observation, generalization, & interpretation / theory validation

Prediction in sociology is based on probabilities

b. Sociology is one of the social sciences & is the most holistic w/ an emphasis on human activity & social formations

A sociologist who wanted to know something about which marriages will succeed and which will end in divorce might look at the US Census to see what types of people get divorced, examining factors such as socioeconomic class, age when first we marry, and religion of both married and divorced couples

c. Most sociology operates at the macro level of analysis; i.e., analysis of relatively large scale phenomenon, & is not focused on an individual, through there are some micro level sociological theories

The macro level analysis generally examines everything from groups to societies to the global level

d. Micro level analysis generally examines everything from individuals to groups

Major areas of study in sociology
( Those in red are requirements of the Sociology Major at UVaWise )
Criminology
Deviance
Environmental Sociology
Sociology of Gender
      Feminist Theory
      Marriage & the Family
Sociology of Race
Social Psych
Organizational Sociology
Social Work
Social Theory
Social Methods
       Quantitative
       Qualitative
Popular Culture
Social Psychology
Social Work
Stratification
Urban Sociology

Minor areas of study in sociology
One of Dr. Withen's Areas of Specialization:
Organizational Sociology
    Work & Occupations
           High Reliability Orgs
                 Firefighters
                       Wildland
                       Urban
                 Medical
                 Military
                 Some industry: power, chemicals, airlines...
     Industrial Sociology
     Political & Economic Sociology

THERE ARE THREE PARADIGMS (PERSPECTIVES) IN SOCIOLOGY, INCLUDING FUNCTIONALISM, CONFLICT THEORY, & SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

a. Functionalism

b. Conflict theory

c. Symbolic interactionism

Each of the paradigms & areas of sociology may be classified as either

a. Academic sociology focuses primarily on teaching or research

b. Applied sociology solves problems, designs policy, and obtain information in order to make decisions

Applied sociology is the use of sociology to solve problems, design policy, and obtain information in order to make decisions

	Sociology has SIX commonalities w/ the other Social Sciences
	1. THE COMMONALITIES OF PSYCH & SOCI ARE THE ENV, COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUSNESS, IMPRINTING, & HIGHER NEEDS
	Sociology & behavioral psych both hold that we are "influenced," socialized, by the environment
	Sociology & psychoanalytical psych both hold that there is a collective unconsciousness & it is more or less accessible to us all
	Sociology and cognitive psychology both hold that we have behavior imprinted
	Sociology & humanistic psychology both hold that we continue to develop as adults and have "higher needs" for achievement, etc.
	2. THE COMMONALITIES OF ECON & SOCI ARE AGGREGATION, DOMINATION BY SOC INSTITS, & REGULATION
	Sociology & the pure capitalism of Adam Smith both note that individual behavior aggregates / interacts as a whole to develop unique characteristics
	Sociology & the economist Karl Marx both hold that society is dominated by our social institutions
	Sociology & the economist John Maynard Keynes both hold that we can regulate our social institutions
	3. THE COMMONALITIES OF POLI SCI & SOCI ARE A FOCUS ON CONFLICT & COOPERATION
	Both political science and sociology hold that there is simultaneously conflict / struggle and cooperation in society
	4. THE COMMONALITIES OF ANTHRO & SOCI ARE THE EXAMINATION OF CULTURAL DETERMINATION & HISTL INFLUENCE
	Sociology & anthropology note that culture "determines" behavior & we cannot understand our present if we do not understand our past
	5. THE COMMONALITIES OF CRIMINOLOGY & SOCI ARE THAT 'NORMALITY' IS DETERMINED BY SOCIETY
	Criminology holds that we must understand the relationship btwn normal & abnormal behavior of which each is acceptable or not acceptable depending on your social position in society
	6. THE COMMONALITIES OF CULTURAL GEOG & SOCI ARE THAT PHYS ENV IMPACTS SOCIETY, & SOCIETY IMPACTS PHYS ENV
	Cultural geographers hold that we must understand our relationship to the land / the environment & that this relationship may best be understood as a dynamic feedback loop

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Ways We Understand the World

External
Links

- Project: The Common Sense Quiz

Link

SOCIOLOGY IS ONE WAY TO UNDERSTAND THE WORLD

Sociology is one of the ways of understanding the world which utilizes the methods of the social sciences

What are other ways of understanding?
What are some ways we understand the world/ our existence?

A. COMMON SENSE UNDERSTANDING IS PRACTICAL COMPREHENSION THAT OFTEN IS NOT COMMON

Common sense is the ability to see & act upon what is obvious

Common sense is great for some things, but in many other situation it is totally inadequate

B. RELIGIOUS UNDERSTANDING IS MORAL / ETHICAL COMPREHENSION OF SECULAR LIFE & A COMPREHENSION OF 'THE SACRED BEYOND'

Many people understand the world through "traditional religions" such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, etc.

Many people understand the world through "non-traditional religions" such as Paganism, Wiccan, etc. or any form of "personal spirituality" or philosophy

Many people understand the world through superstition

Review: World Religions: some have different ways of understanding

C. TRADITIONAL / AUTHORITARIAN UNDERSTANDING IS THAT WHICH IS ACCEPTED BECAUSE IT WAS HANDED DOWN FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION

We understand the world based on what others traditionally believe & on what others 'force' us to believe

D. UNDERSTANDING BASED ON EMOTION IS THAT FEELING OR SENSE THAT PROVIDES CERTAINTY OF KNOWLEDGE

Aesthetics the study of / understanding of life through poetry, literature, art, theater, etc.

The concept of the emotional quotient ( EQ ) denotes that some people can sense or understand their own / another's emotion w/ great accuracy & clarity

Some people can sense the emotion of a large group of people

One way of understanding is religious ecstasy which is emotionally based religion

E. SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING IS THAT BASED ON TRIAL & ERROR / EXPERIMENTAL TESTS

Science is the dominant approach to understanding reality in modern industrial societies

One of the major qualities of the modern age is understanding based on the modern invention of the scientific method

Many of the other methods of understanding utilize some aspects of science

See Also: Stratification

According to Macionis, there are three different types of nations in the world, including the world's
a. high income countries are industrialized nations in which most people have relatively high incomes
b. middle income countries have limited industrialization and moderate personal income
c. low income countries have little industrialization and most people are poor

Macionis' view of global strat is vastly oversimplified because each country has poor people & for exam in the US while our poor are "much richer" than mid income people in middle income nations, the US poor are much worse off, some having conditions similar to the poorest of the world's poor

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills

External
Links

- Project: Sociological Imagination: Marriage & Divorce

Link

- Video: Social Insight: Families

Link

- Project: Video: Social Insight: Families

Link

A SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION IS THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND THE FORCES OF BIOGRAPHY & HISTORY ON ONE'S OWN LIFE & ON SOCIETY

C. Wright Mills developed the concept of the sociological imagination (Soc Im )

Mills described how sociology helps us to see how social situations shape our private realities.
He called this the sociological imagination

What factors influence our lives?

We each have individual experiences of common patterns in life

Individual experiences of
common patterns of life:

      family life
      parents lifestyle
      educational experience
      regional setting
      etc., etc., etc...

History

We each live our life as bounded by a particular history

For Mills, the sociological imagination can be thought of as the intersection of biography & history

Our biography, our life is set w/in a history / social conditions over which we have very limited power

If we are caught up in a world event such as a war, disaster, major econ event, etc., then our life may be totally inundated by these forces

For many Westerners, our lives exist partially w/in / or are influenced by histl forces, but a large portion appears to exist outside of these forces

For a very few people, there is little or no impact of histl / social forces on their lives, though this is rare as in the case of a hermit or a very independent person

THE SOC IMAGINATION IS THE ABILITY TO UNDERSTAND ONE'S BIOGRAPHY / LIFE IN THE CONTEXT OF HISTL FORCES

The sociological imagination is the quality of mind which helps each person
- use information
- to develop reason
- in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on
- in the world
- and what is happening in themselves

The sociological imagination is an understanding, a feeling of the impacts of social forces shaping peoples' behavior

The sociological imagination is the insight that is gained through sociology

There are questions to ask to develop your sociological imagination

a. WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY AS A WHOLE?

     What components?
     How are they related?
     How does it compare to other social orders?

b. WHERE DOES THIS SOCIETY STAND IN HUMAN HISTORY?

Top? Bottom? Middle?

c. WHAT VARIETIES OF MEN & WOMEN NOW PREVAIL IN THIS SOCIETY?

Farmers, industrial workers, hep cats, tech workers, soccer moms, yuppies...

d. WHAT VARIETIES OF PEOPLE ARE COMING TO PREVAIL?

Who are the people & what are their lifestyles that are "behind the times?" Dinosaurs?

Who has embraced the new... & is running w/ it?

SOC IMAGINATION CONCEPTS ALLOW ONE TO SEE THE GENERAL IN THE PARTICULAR; TO UNDERSTAND HOW SOCIAL FORCES IMPACT EVERYDAY LIFE

In using the sociological imagination, we learn to distinguish personal trouble from social issues

1. TROUBLES ARE 'PERSONAL PROBLEMS'

Troubles are considered to be a private matter, a personal or individual problem in the sense that both the cause & the solution of the trouble lie w/in the control of a person

2. ISSUES ARE PUBLIC / SOCIAL / POLITICAL PROBLEMS

Issues are considered to be a public matter, a social or group problem in the sense that both the cause & the solution of the issue lie w/ societal level action

Issues are also known as contradictions or social contradictions

In using the sociological imagination, we learn to distinguish excuses from explanations

3. EXCUSES ARE RATIONALIZATIONS FOR 'PERSONAL PROBLEMS'

Excuses are reasons presented by individuals for a default of a duty or obligation, i.e. a trouble, as a defense, a pretext, or an apology

Only troubles may have excuses because responsibility lies only w/ the individual

4. EXPLANATIONS ARE THE MAKING CLEAR OF THE REASONS FOR PUBLIC PROBLEMS

Explanations are reasons presented by groups or representatives of societies or segments of societies for a default of a duty or obligation, i.e. an issue, as a defense, a pretext, or an apology

Only issues may have explanations because responsibility lies only w/ groups, segments of societies or societies

5. INDIVIDUALIZING IS THE ERROR OF TREATING ISSUES AS PERSONAL PROBLEMS

Individualizing is the personalizing of issues which have a social force component

A person who is individualizing views an issue as a trouble

In modern society, which is the most individualistic society in history, many people look only to the personal level for all problems

Many people look only at themselves:
Where did I go wrong?
Why did my spouse treat me that way?

6. COLLECTIVIZING IS THE ERROR OF TREATING PERSONAL PROBLEMS AS ISSUES

A person who collectives tries to avoid responsibility for a personal trouble by blaming it on social forces

Collectivizing is the socializing of troubles which have a person component

Since the 1960s there has been a trend away from individualizing toward collectivizing

7. FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS IS THE ERROR LIVING ONE'S LIFE W/ NO CONCEPTION OF HISTL / SOCIAL FORCES

The opposite of a sociological imagination is false consciousness

False consciousness occurs when we live out a biography w/o seeing impact of history or society

While the idea of false consciousness can be compared to the sociological imagination, Marx first developed the idea of false consciousness when he was trying to determine why workers support an oppressive system or tyrant

Today, many social scientists try to understand the phenomenon of false consciousness as seen when the people of Bosnia support Milsovic when the US was bringing him down in the early 1990s; or the people of the Middle East supported Sadam Hussein

False consciousness results in the inability to distinguish personal troubles from social issues

In using the sociological imagination we learn to distinguish personal troubles from social issues

EXAMPLE: WE OFTEN INDIVIDUALIZE UNEMPLOYMENT, SEEING THE ISSUE OF NO JOB AS A PERSONAL PROBLEM

Unemployed 1929 & 2004-- is it an issue or a responsibility?

Link

Mills' quote on unemployment

War creates recognizable personal troubles that most people can easily link to the impersonal social forces of war, though many veterans suffer because of the tendency to individualize their issues: medical & mental health care

Economic downturns create social issues that are more difficult to recognize & most people view these issues as troubles, thus individualizing the problem

Link

Can one of our most intimate relationships, marriage, be affected by social forces?
Or is marital bliss or marriage on the rocks attributable only to individual causes?

What are some of the factors affecting marriage & divorce?

Link

Differing social forces affected marriage & divorce in the 50's & the 00's

"College Women Faculty & Household Work in the US & China"

Using the sociological imagination, we can see that the US & China are very different, but housework is divided similarly in both countries in that wives do about 65% of housework with the rest being done by men & hired help

Using the sociological imagination, we can see that many gender relations transcend cultures supporting feminist claims that understanding gender relations is essential to understanding society

Top

C. Wright Mills

"In these terms, consider unemployment.
When, in a city of 100,000, only one man is unemployed,
that is his personal trouble,
and for its relief we properly look
to the character of the man,
his skills, and his immediate opportunities.

But when in a nation of 50 million employees,
15 million men are unemployed,
that is an issue,
and we may not hope to find its solution
within the range of opportunities
open to any one individual."

Top

Differing social forces affected marriage & divorce in the 50's & the 00's

1950s: 2.5 divorces per 1000 married women

1970s: 3.5 divorces per 1000 married women
1980s: 5.2 divorces per 1000 married women
1990s: 4.5 divorces per 1000 married women

Top

Factors affecting divorce

Some factors change everyone's risk of divorce:
   1. newly married
   2. lower income
   3. young
   4. wife earns more than husband
   5. different social backgrounds
   6. divorce is less ostracized by society

Top

Using the Sociological Imagination:
"College Women Faculty and Household Work in the US and China"

The US & China are very different, but housework is divided similarly in both countries w/ women: wives do about 65% of housework with the rest being done by men and hired help.

Many gender relations transcend cultures: this supports feminist claims that understanding gender relations is essential to understanding society.

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Paradigms: Shifting & Competing

Internal
Links

- Project: Paradigms

Link

- Video: Sociological Perspectives

Link

INTRODUCTION: THE SCIENTIFIC CULTURE OFTEN ACTS AS IF THERE ARE NO ANOMALIES

The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies

The values / beliefs of science include the ideas that:
a. there is progress
b. science is cumulative, "brick by brick" we construct science base upon agreed on facts

Theories are the infrastructure, But people are working on different buildings, i.e. paradigms

And all the bricks (facts) must be used

Facts that do not fit a theory are called anomalies

All theories have anomalies: i.e. they cannot explain everything

The scientific culture often acts as if there are no anomalies

A PARADIGM IS A SET OF THEORIES

Paradigms are sets of theories & assumptions that shape & underlie explanations, especially scientific explanations, including the general images & assumptions of reality which shape those theories

A paradigm is a set of assumptions that shape and underlie explanations of why society is the way it is

A paradigm or perspective can be defined as an overall approach or viewpoint toward a subject which includes the following aspects:

a. a set of questions to be asked about the subject

b. a general theoretical approach explaining the nature of the subject

c. a set of values relating to the subject

d. a set of theories concerning a common theme

There are many ways to understand something / reality, including common sense, religion, tradition / authority, emotion, & science and different paradigms generally have a focus utilizing one or two of these ways of understanding

PARADIGMS COMPETE W/ EACH OTHER -- TO ESTABLISH 'TRUTH'

Competing paradigms often shape & represent the competition of ideas within or between societies

Astronomy: collapsing universe vs. expanding universe
Paleontology: great comet vs. predation cold blooded vs warm blooded dinosaurs
Biology: Darwinians vs. evolutionary shock
Sociology: Functionalism vs. Conflict Theory vs. Symbolic Interactionism

PARADIGM SHIFTS OCCUR AS PARADIGMS 'WIN OR LOSE' & A NEW 'TRUTH IS ESTABLISHED'

Paradigm shifts occur when large groups, segments of societies, or societies see the old in a new light & see new things, period

Examples:
- world views changed from geo centric to helio centric
- polytheism to monotheism
- flat to round world
- earth centric to helio centric
- magic to science
- demons to mental illness
- creationism to evolution
- Newtonian physics to Einsteinian physics

Paradigms are also known as perspectives, schools, school of thought, etc.

Science does not embrace "one truth" because human truth is always contested & relative, rather, what is true is constantly changing, but we act as if science is one truth

Because there is no absolute truth, & because people have competing ideas on what is closest to truth, we have paradigms

Link

Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, & Disciplines

Sociology is a multiple paradigm science: functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism

Theories & paradigms provide a conceptual formulation that provides a logical explanation or framework for all the facts, i.e. the objective info gained through observation & experiment

Theories must be validated in the same way that a hypothesis is validated

SCIENTIFIC LAWS ARE FOUND W/IN FEW PARADIGMS

Paradigms & laws are not validated in the way that theories & hypotheses are validated

Paradigms & laws are validated when the consensus of the scientific community, when the preponderance of theoretical evidence supports them

While a single experiment or piece of evidence may serve to validate a theory of hypothesis, it takes evidence, theoretical validation, & the consensus of the scientific community to validate a paradigm or law

NATURAL LAWS APPEAR TO HAVE NO ANOMALIES

Basic principles or natural laws are theories that stand out as precisely predictable with no known exceptions: gravity, laws of thermodynamics, etc.

There seems to be only tenuous/contentious theories in the social sciences, but also in some physical sciences such as env science

Principles or laws are limited to those of chemistry, physics, etc.

FOR KUHN, PARADIGMS SHIFTS ARE 'SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS' THAT CHANGE PERCEPTIONS OF REALITY

Thomas Kuhn wrote about paradigm shifts wherein a veritable scientific rev occurs that essentially deposes an old paradigm, such as Newtonian physics, & replaces it w/ a new one, i.e. Einsteinian physics

Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962, in which he held that new paradigms displace old paradigms altering our significant portions of truth as defined by science, & possibly the general populations view of everyday existence

See Also: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

A paradigm shift is a new set of theories that comes along & explains all facts to a superior degree, displacing the old paradigm

An example of a paradigm shift is seen in where Einsteinian physics replaced Newtonian Physics because it could explained nuclear fission better & other anomalies better

As of the present there have been no paradigm shifts in the social sciences nor in some newer physical sciences such as ecology, though each has multiple, competing paradigms

Top

Chart on Paradigms, Theories, Laws, Disciplines

Paradigm

Set of theoretical assumptions that shape & underlie explanations of why society/the world is the way it is
Examples:
The Expanding Universe
Functionalism

Theory

Explanation of cause & effects that encompasses relationships btwn 2 or more facts
Examples:
Suicide is caused by isolation/lack of integration
Racism is taught/learned
Crime is caused by frustrated expectations
Poverty is caused by the concentration of wealth

Law

Theory or part of a theory that is well established & therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community
There are no laws in the social sciences
Examples:
Nothing can move faster than light
To every action, there is an equal & opposite reaction

Discipline

A recognized area of academic exploration
Examples:
sociology
biology
literature

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Epistemology & the Sociology of Knowledge

External
Links

INTRO: EPISTEMOLOGY & THE SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE ARE AN EXAMINATION OF WHAT KNOWLEDGE IS; HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT WE KNOW? WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE / TRUTH?
Social sciences, humanities & even the physical & life sciences struggle to understand how & what we understand:
What is knowledge?
What is the value of knowledge?
Is there a difference btwn truth & knowledge?
How do know something is knowledge? correct? "the truth?" etc.

EPISTEMOLOGY IS THE THEORY OR SCIENCE OF THE ORIGIN, NATURE, & LIMITS OF KNOWLEDGE

Epistemology is the theory or science of the origin of knowledge: how is it created? What are its fundamental components?

Epistemology is the theory or science of the nature of knowledge: what makes something knowledge or a representation of the truth?

Epistemology is the theory or science of the limits of knowledge: what can knowledge not tell us, for example about beauty, happiness, etc.?

THE CULTURE OF SCIENCE IS SUCH THAT IT EMPHASIZES ITS OBJECTIVITY & DENIES ITS SUBJECTIVITY

blank

In the West, the culture of science is such that science has become "all powerful" in our society, making its anomalies difficult to acknowledge

In our culture of science, we are socialized to believe that truth / knowledge is absolute

But the study of epistemology makes it is apparent that science / knowledge is not absolute or certain

People often confuse objectivity & subjectivity assuming they mean, respectively, certain & uncertain, just & unjust, true & false

Objectivity & subjectivity are distinguished simply by the way of understanding that creates it

Objective knowledge is almost always created via science

Subjective knowledge is usually created through common sense, emotional understanding, etc.

SCIENCE ITSELF HAS A SIGNIFICANT SUBJECTIVE COMPONENT

For most social sciences, knowledge is objective & subjective

Knowledge is not just facts, it is theories, & conjectures too

We often do not keep the "levels" of facts, theories, conjectures straight, we often confuse them

Facts are never as independent of theory as we would like them to be especially in the social sciences

Because even scientific knowledge has both an objective & subjective component, there are no absolute facts

Example: THE "Standard Kilogram" is made up of a brick of platinum & iridium, but it was found in the summer of 2003 that the Standard Kilogram seemed to be losing weight & this weight loss could not be explained

Example: Unemployment is 5.4%
The definition of "unemployed" frequently changes because it is a politically & socially sensitive measure. You cannot be unemployed if you are a student, out of work for more than 6 mos., a housewife, etc.

Subjectivity remains in science because knowledge is framed by the FOUR conditions of:
a. ideas
b. the senses
c. paradigms
d. social / political conditions

a. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON IDEAS

Link

One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on ideas

While facts are considered to be objective, theories, paradigms & conjectures are subjective, & yet the line btwn them is never clear

The line btwn the objective & subjective aspects of knowledge are not clear because facts are dependent for definition on theory

b. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON THE SENSES

Link

One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on the senses

Because of illusions & misperceptions, a researcher cannot trust the senses, & instruments affect what they measure

c. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON PARADIGMS

Link

One of the conditions of subjectivity is that knowledge is based on paradigms

We saw earlier that after a paradigm shift, many fundamentals of knowledge change

d. KNOWLEDGE IS BASED ON SOCIAL & POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Link

One of the conditions of subjectivity of knowledge is that social & political conditions affect the composition of knowledge

The subjectivity of knowledge can be seen in that the definitions of unemployment, marriage, race, etc. are always influenced by the soci historical politico context of that time, & thus change

The soci historical politico context of science does not necessarily affect sciences' validity, but it may be used as a cover for bias

Bias affects subjectivity & objectivity through THREE processes of preexisting culture, the stratification of knowledge, & the control of knowledge

THREE ANTIDOTES TO BIAS

a. QUESTION ALL KNOWLEDGE

A particular socio historical political context impacts what people in a society will & will not accept as knowledge or truth because of pre-existing knowledge, beliefs, values, & norms, i.e. culture

Do you believe in multiple dimensions? ghosts? UFOs? the Earth goes around the sun?

The antidote to socio historical political bias is to question knowledge itself, have no blind faith in science; Keep on Questioning "Question Authority"

b. WHO BENEFITS FROM KNOWLEDGE?

A particular soci historical politico context stratifies the value of knowledge

The knowledge about a stock may be of value to Martha Steward
The knowledge of how to make a gun full auto may be of value to the Crips
The knowledge of particular birth control methods is of value to women

Knowledge is controlled based on its value to conflicting groups in society

The antidote to the stratification of knowledge is to ask, "Who benefits from a given bit of knowledge?"

c. WHO CONTROLS A PARTICULAR SET OF KNOWLEDGE?

A particular soci historical politico context puts particular people, groups, societies in the position to create, destroy, control knowledge

The antidote to particular groups controlling knowledge is to ask: "Who controls or creates that knowledge?"

As a result of his extensive travels, Montesquieu recognized that knowledge was 'contextual'

The precautionary rule is a caveat to the scientific methods which holds that because evidence of harm is uncertain, & error costs are very high, it is acceptable to take precautionary action

Top

Examples: Knowledge is based on ideas
Facts are "objective"    256,000 mi to the moon:   planet orbiting black hole: space is bent
        Economics: unemployment   5.4% as defined by who?
Theories, paradigms & conjectures are subjective       Life begins at conception, 3 mos., viability, birth, 1 week
     Religion v. science / evolution

Top

Examples: Knowledge is based on the senses
Hume: Cannot trust senses: Stick looks bent in water
Cannot trust instrument readings: Measuring life on Mars: chemical reaction
Instruments may not measure what we think they measure
Instruments affect / impact / change what they measure: measuring cellular life, atomic events changes them
Observing people changes their behavior: from heart rate & BP to dating behavior

Top

Examples: Knowledge is based on paradigms:
Allegiance to a paradigm tends to blind one to anomalies: facts that don't fit the paradigm
    Theories of flat Earth actively suppressed any info that challenged it
    Conflict theorists see mostly conflict & little cooperation       Conflict can advance a group's interests
    Functionalists see mostly cooperation & little conflict          Conflict is dysfunctional

Top

Examples: Knowledge is based on social & political conditions:
The health of the economy is constantly redefined by parties, politicians, business leaders, etc.
The value of wolves in the wilderness is seen differently by different groups of interest: environmentalists, hunters, wilderness, etc.
Our knowledge of maleness & femaleness & our roles in society

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Social Sciences

External
Links

THERE ARE 3 MAJOR AREAS OF STUDY INCLUDING THE HUMANITIES, NATURAL SCIENCES, & SOCIAL SCIENCES

THE CATEGORIZATION OF ACADEME:

Phys Sci	Soc Sci	Humanities
Phys	Poli Sci	Phil
Physics	Econ	Hist
Chemistry	Psych	Arts
Life	Anthro	Literature
Biology	Soci
Medicine	Cul Geog

Link

a. There are SIX branches of the humanities

- Philosophy
- History
- Art
- Literature
- Languages
- Communication

b. There are TWO branches of the natural sciences & many disciplines
- Physical sciences
    Chemistry
    Physics
- Life sciences
    Biology
    Zoology

c. There are SEVEN branches of the social sciences

- Political science

- Economics

- Psychology

- Anthropology

- Criminology

- Cultural Geography

- Sociology

THE 5 COMMONALITIES IN THE SOC SCIENCES INCLUDE: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, PATTERNS, FACTS, LEVELS OF ANALYSIS, VARIOUS METHODOLOGIES

a. All use the scientific method, as do the natural sciences
The humanities do not use the scientific method, though some are adopting similar methodologies

b. All look for patterns in human behavior, as do the natural sciences & the humanities

c. All are based on systematic observation, generalization, & interpretation of social facts as are the natural sciences

d. All study different levels of human behavior (micro, middle, macro, grand, meta-)

e. All may use different methods, but each has its most widely used methods

Many of the social sciences have considerable methodological & theoretical overlap

The methods of the social science are based on the historically new belief that human behavior can be studied scientifically

The complexity of human behavior makes social sciences somewhat more difficult to study than the natural sciences

THE SOC SCIENCES ALL USE THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, BUT ALL HAVE SOMEWHAT DIFFERENT METHODS VARYING ON HOW THEY ARE DONE, & THE INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Sciences are, in many ways, defined by their methods & thus a social science is one in which the methods of science are used in order to study human social behavior

- Sociology uses the methods of the survey, census data, systematic observation

- Psychology uses the methods of systematic observation, interviews, analysis

- Political science uses the methods of polls (surveys), census data

- Anthropology uses the methods of field work (archeological digs), observation

- Economics uses the methods of data gathering & analysis

- Criminology uses the methods of statistical analysis

- Cultural geography uses the methods of field work (archeological digs), observation

Cultural geography is the study of the spatial organization of human activity & of people's relationships w/ their environments. All human activities have a spatial organization

While each discipline in the social sciences is considered distinct, the disciplines do overlap

The two types of science include the physical sciences & the social sciences

Even though a given project or scientist may strive to be one of these types or subtypes of the social sciences, various interests may appropriate or "use" their work as they please

PURE SCIENCE IS MORE OFTEN DONE IN THE LAB & HAS OBJECTIVE RESULTS WHILE APPLIED SCIENCE IS DONE IN THE FIELD & RESULTS ARE MORE OPEN TO INTERPRETATION

In both the physical sciences & social sciences, research may be more theoretically oriented or more practically oriented, & historically the former has garnered more status & research funding while the latter has produced more results

1. Pure or academic sci is done largely by university research institutes but more is done in biz labs, e.g. Bell Labs, every day

2. Applied sci is sci done in biz, by govt, for use or guidance

There are several subtypes of applied sci:

1. Policy analysis develops, implements & assesses a policy, strategy, plan of action, etc. related to a given product, issue, institution, etc.

Sci is a tool of competing pol & econ interests who often control funding

2. Assessment or evaluation research seeks to determining the effectiveness of a product, policy, procedure, institution, etc.

3. Risk assessment is the assessment of the risk & its mitigation

Science makes large assumptions on many issues & frequently can only give a probability of an event occurring

4. Cost benefit analysis examines the financial implications of a given product, issue, institution, etc. & may or may not include spill over costs & benefits

Science can function properly in each of the modes of physical or social, pure or applied, policy analysis or risk assessment

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Political Science Paradigms

External
Links

POLITICAL SCIENCE IS THE STUDY OF CITIZENS, THE STATE, & THE PROCESS OF GOVERNANCE WHICH INVOLVES POWER, CONFLICT & COOPERATION

Introduction: Political science is the oldest social science
One of the oldest social institutions in society is a political body, the tribe, & thus political science predates history

The pre- political science paradigms were religion & tribe based

Many political science paradigms predate the modern era

The variety of political bodies is immense & includes the
- tribe
- city state
- nation
- world systems

Political science is macro oriented

Fundamental questions of political science
How is society possible?
What is the nature of power?
What makes the ideal state?
Is democracy possible?

TWO fathers of political science:

HOBBES EMPHASIZED POWER & CONFLICT IN POLITICS, SEEING POLITICS AS WAR BY OTHER MEANS

Hobbes believed that
- in our natural state, life is a war of all against all
- the only way for society to exist is w/ govt
- the govt (the Leviathan (monster)) forces us to live together in peace

ROUSSEAU EMPHASIZED COOPERATION IN POLITICAL AFFAIRS BELIEVING THAT GOVT ITSELF WAS PROBLEMATIC

Rousseau believed that
- in our natural state, we lived in peaceful harmony.
- society existed before govt
- minimalist govt is best
- govt has derailed our natural peaceful tendencies.
- it is only in organized states (govts) that man makes war
- govt has derailed our natural peaceful tendencies

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Economics Paradigms

External
Links

ECONOMICS IS THE STUDY OF AFFAIRS OF COMMUNITY OR NATIONAL INCOME, EXPENDITURES, DEVELOPMENT OF RESOURCES; HENCE THE MATERIAL WELFARE

Economics involves the study of human behavior as it relates to the production, exchange, distribution, & consumption of wealth & income

Economics is important in all the social sciences because at its base, it examines the manner in which human needs & comforts are supplied

Economics is both micro & macro oriented

Economics is perhaps the oldest social science recognized as such. Economics developed in the 1600s. Economics has developed from a feudal command economy to pure capitalism to socialism to mixed capitalism to global capitalism to ..... ?

BEFORE ECON BECAME A SOC SCIENCE, MANY BELIEVED IN PREDESTINATION: THE WEALTH OR SITUATION OF A PERSON WAS PREDETERMINED & NOT THE RESULT OF THEIR OWN EFFORTS

Pre Economics Paradigms: What explanations were used to explain wealth & poverty?

One important pre economics paradigm was that of predestination, which held that the good were rewarded here on Earth & in heaven

The predestination paradigm, as it relates to economics, held that

- the king has sacred qualities & is, in fact, god's representative on Earth

- one's most important duty is to the king / god while individual need / duty is evil

- if one serves god & king, then one is rewarded

- one should not pursue individual or personal interests

- to follow one's own interests demonstrated greed & evil

THERE ARE SEVEN FUNDAMENTAL PARADIGMS IN ECON, & MANY SECONDARY MODELS, INCLUDING: HUNTER GATHERER, MILITARY, AG, CAPITALISM, SOCIALISM/COMMUNISM, MIXED CAPITALISM, GLOBAL CAPITALISM

1. THE HUNTER GATHERER ECON WAS BASED ON HUNTING & GATHERING (NO AG) & WEALTH WAS VERY EQUALLY DISTRIBUTED

2. MANY MILITARY BASED EMPIRES EXISTED IN ANCIENT TIMES, & SOME HAVE INFLUENCED DEVELOPMENT THROUGHOUT HISTORY

3. AGRICULTURAL BASED EMPIRES CAME TO DOMINATE IN ANCIENT TIMES, DISPLACING BOTH H-G & MILITARY ECONS, & DOMINATED UNTIL THE INDL REV

4. PURE CAPITALISM DEVELOPED AT THE DAWN OF THE INDL REV, USING THE 'INVISIBLE HAND' OF THE MKT TO COORDINATE DEMAND & SUPPLY

In 1776, Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations which delineated many of his ideas

Smith believed that the structures of capitalism turned the feudal command economy on its head

For Smith, under feudalism, the duty to king/god is the greatest & individual need/duty is bad while under capitalism, pursuing individual interests will result in the greatest good for society

Smith understood that under capitalism, people do not serve the king/govt, they followed their own interests

Smith developed the idea of the invisible hand which was his conception of how the laws of supply & demand regulated production & consumption in the economy

5. SOCIALISM/COMMUNISM AIMED TO ADDRESS THE FAULTS OF CAPITALISM, ESP INEQUALITY & MONOPOLIZATION

In the mid 1800s, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto

Marx saw Smith's pure capitalism developing into monopoly capitalism

Karl Marx considered himself to be a political economist, not a sociologist

Marx saw the poverty portrayed by Charles Dickens... “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times...”

Marx saw that the wealthier people got, the more poverty there was

Marx believed monopolies would take over & rule the world, enslaving us all

Marx saw virtually all societies as being shaped by a struggle btwn owners of the means of production & those who did not own the means of production

Marx thought socialism was the solution

6. MIXED CAPITALISM COMBINED QUALITIES OF SOCIALISM TO ADDRESS INEQUALITY, & GOVT REG TO ADDRESS MONOPOLIZATION

Keynes developed his economic theories in the early 1900s, & eventually worked for President FDR

Keynes understood Marx's economic theories & the effect of monopolies on capitalism

Keynes lived through & saw the effects of the Great Depression of 1929-1940

Keynes developed they system mixed capitalism to replace monopoly

For Keynes under mixed capitalism, the govt intervenes in the market to break up & regulate business

For Keynes under mixed capitalism, the govt tries to regulate business cycles by controlling:
- interest rates
- the money supply
- govt spending in the economy (deficit spending or surplus saving)
- the social safety net

7. GLOBAL CAPITALISM IS NOT NECESSARILY A NEW TYPE OF ECON, & CURRENTLY IT SEEMS CLOSER TO PURE CAP THAN MIXED CAP, BUT IT DOES CREATE A NEW HIERARCHY OF NATIONS WHO PRODUCE, TRADE, CONSUME, ETC. IN DIFFERENT WAYS

Wallerstein developed world systems theory

For some theorists, it is not clear that world systems theory is a competing paradigm

For Wallerstein, global capitalism is the completion of the development of capitalism

Contemporary economists include:

- John Kenneth Galbraith, who developed theories on contemporary mixed capitalism

- Milton Friedman, who is a contemporary free market capitalism advocate

- Paul Volker, who was a past President of Federal Reserve Bank

- Allen Greenspan, who was the President of Federal Reserve Bank from Reagan to Bush to Clinton to Bush Jr.

The President of Federal Reserve Bank is known as "second most powerful man on Earth"

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on An Intro to Psychology Paradigms

External
Links

PSYCHOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF THE MIND WHICH STUDIES ALL INTERACTIONS BTWN LIVING ORGANISMS & THE ENV

Psychology studies human behavior primarily on the individual level while sociology studies human behavior primarily at the aggregate level

There are FOUR major Schools of Psychology
a. Behavioral c. Cognitive
b. Psychoanalytic d. Humanistic

a. BEHAVIORAL PSYC HOLDS THAT ALL BEHAVIOR IS CONDITIONED BY THE ENV

Behaviorists are empiricists in that they base all theory on observed behavior & does not take into acct what the individual is thinking, feeling, etc.

Pavlov

Skinner

b. PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYC HOLDS THAT BEHAVIOR IS DETERMINED BY HUMAN INSTINCTS / ARCHETYPES

Psychoanalysts generally embrace a psycho dynamic model where they see the personality as the result of the interplay / dynamics among the various parts of the psyche, including various instincts & other parts

Freud

Jung

c. COGNITIVE PSYC HOLDS THAT THE BRAIN & NERVOUS SYSTEM ARE HARD WIRED IN PARTICULAR WAYS THAT AFFECT OUR BEHAVIOR

Cognitive psyc uses a cybernetic / computer type model that examines the manner in which areas of the brain & nervous system function, dysfunction, or impact each other

d. HUMANISTIC PSYC HOLDS THAT PEOPLE NEED TO STRIVE TO REACH THEIR FULL HUMANITY

Humanistic psyc generally embraces a psycho dynamic model, & supplements it w/ new, 'higher' functions which develop as we mature or experience life's challenges

Maslow

Rogers

THERE ARE SIXTEEN AREAS IN PSYC WHICH CROSS PARADIGM & THEORETICAL LINES AS IT ADDRESSES REAL HUMAN ISSUES

Abnormal

Clinical

Comparative

Counseling

Developmental

Educational

Gestalt

Industrial / Organizational

Learning

Motivational

Parapsychology

Perception

Personality

Socio-biology

Social psychology

Structuralism

Transactional analysis

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on An Intro to Anthropology, Physical & Cultural, Paradigms

External
Links

ANTHROPOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF THE ORIGIN, DEVELOPMENT (PHYSICAL & CULTURAL), CHARACTER, & VARIETIES OF HUMANKIND

Anthropology is concerned w/ the origin, development, & varieties of humankind & culture, emphasizing data from nonliterate peoples

PRE- ANTHROPOLOGY PARADIGMS VIEWED TRIBAL SOCIETY AS INFERIOR & W/O CIVILIZATION

The pre anthropology paradigm consisted of the innate human desire to experience & understand other cultures

Anthropology holds that cultures have always looked at other cultures

Cultures have always looked at each other frequently as friends, alien, dangerous etc., & continue to do so today

ANTHROPOLOGY HAS EXPANDED, APPLYING THE TOOLS IT HAS DEVELOPED BY STUDYING INDIGENOUS PEOPLE TO ALL SOCIETIES

Anthropology often focuses on the study pre modern societies & indigenous people

In many ways, anthropology may be thought of as the "sociology of pre modern societies"

Physical anthropology deals basically w/ human evolution

Cultural anthropology is the study of extinct & living cultures and linguistics & ethnology

Anthropology encompasses archeology

Anthropology has developed into looking at how we can view other, different cultures w/ respect

Anthropology is mostly micro oriented, but new innovative anthropologists are developing some macro analysis

Some anthropologists

- Henry Lewis Morgan

- Claude Levi Strauss

- Marcel Mauss

- Margaret Meade

- The sociologist Emile Durkheim worked extensively in the field of anthropology

Internal
Links

Top

Sociology has many commonalities w/ the other Social Sciences

External
Links

Link

See Also: The Social Sciences

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Development of Sociology

External
Links

SUMMARY:
Sociology began around the 1700s w/ influences from earlier social philosophy
St. Simon is known as the Father of Sociology
Sociology was influenced by Enlightenment ideals
Durkheim established sociology as an academic discipline
Around 1900, the 1st sociology dept. in the US was established in Chicago
The Chicago School focused on activism, social work & social reform
Functionalism developed during WW2 & reflected the conservatism of the nation
Conflict theory, which was more radical, developed during the Vietnam era
Today sociology focuses on many diverse areas

SOCIOLOGY BEGAN AROUND THE 1700s, INFLUENCED BY EARLIER SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

Early sociology was influenced by social philosophers such as Hobbes 1588 - 1679

Sociology began around the 1700s w/ influences from earlier social philosophy

Early sociologists began applying the scientific method to the study of society, groups, etc. & believed that society could be improved

Saint Simon 1760 - 1825 is considered the father of sociology

Auguste Comte 1798 - 1857 coined the term "sociology"

Comte believed that the major goal of sociology was to understand society as it actually operates

Comte saw sociology as the product of a three stage historical development including the:
a. theological stage, in which thought was guided by religion
b. metaphysical stage, a transitional phase
c. scientific stage, which we have not totally entered yet

The scientific stage would be guided by positivism: a way of understanding based on science

SEVEN SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTED THE EARLY SOC SCIENCES,
JUST AS SOC FACTORS AFFECT THE SOC SCIENCES TODAY

1. Population explosions

2. The Enclosure Movement & urbanization

3. Religious changes during the period of 1300 - 1700 resulted in unified Western Christianity being shattered at the hands of Luther, et al, in the 1500s in a social change called the Reformation

4. Growth of science

- Industrial Revolutions

5. Political revolutions, especially England, US, & France, affected the early social sciences

a. The political revolutions that affected the early social sciences were characterized by democratization, the fall of monarchy, & the rise of "the rabble," aka the middle class

b. Rise of capitalism

c. Rise of socialism in Europe, and especially in Russia: 1907-1917 and before

6. "Modern" social problems: Joseph Gusfield notes that Sociology emerged as a force to deal w/ social problems such as urbanization, poverty, crime, etc.

7. The Enlightenment, which was a 100 yr. span from English Revolution ( 1642 ) to the French Revolution ( 1789 ) affected the early social sciences

Sociology was influenced by Enlightenment ideals

Enlightenment thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, Wollstonecraft, et al were influential

Out of all of these factors, the 3 major social changes during the 17th & 18th Cs that were important to the development of sociology include:
a. the rise of industrial technology
b. the growth of cities
c. political change, including a rising concern w/ individual liberty & rights as manifesting in the US & French revs

EARLY SOCIOLOGY HAD 'AGREEMENT' ON NINE TENETS & THUS THERE WAS MORE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS THAT THERE IS IN THE CONTEMPORARY SOC SCIENCES

1. Society was seen as the most important unit of analysis

Society is more than individual

The individual is produced through socialization

2. The group was seen as an important unit of analysis & the most important units of analysis include the family & the workplace

3. The parts of society are interrelated through complex relationships on multiple levels

4. Social change is a threat

5. Society was functional & therefore there is little use in looking at the negative aspects of society

6. The small social units of society, e.g., the family, the workplace, religious groups, etc. are essential or vital for the operation of society

7. Industrialization, bureaucracy, urbanization, immigration, etc. disorganize society

8. The non rational is bad or dysfunctional for society

9. The social sciences, including sociology, should support the existing social arrangements, such as hierarchy, in society

DURKHEIM ESTABLISHED SOCI AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

Emile Durkheim was pivotal in founding sociology as an academic social science because he established the use of the scientific method to study social phenomenon such as suicide & founded the first sociology dept. in the University of Paris

Durkheim's pivotal study entitled Suicide, which examined the social factors contributing to 'the most personal act' was instrumental in helping people understand the influence of social influences & the thus the value of the soc sciences

THE CHICAGO SCHOOL WAS THE 1st AM SOCI DEPT, ESTBED SOC WK & ACTIVISM, & USED CHICAGO AS A LAB

In 1893, the first sociology dept. in the US was established in Chicago

The Chicago School brought sociology into America prior to & after 1900 & established the social work & activist directions

The Chicago School was also known as the Ecological School

At the Chicago School, the focus on social problems & the researchers used Chicago as a laboratory

The focus of the Chicago School on social problems predated functionalism & conflict theory

The Chicago School focused on social deviance, which was defined as a violation of society's norms or rules for appropriate behavior & became synonymous with the term social problems

The Chicago School focused on activism, social work & social reform

The theory of Chicago School held that:

- social problems were caused by factors external to the individual, that is, they were "ecological"

- the person had little or no control and little or no responsibility for social problems as seen in Chicago

- the cause of social problems was unhealthy social environment of inner city

- social problems can be solved by integrating the groups in the unstable areas into mainstream

- American life is a melting pot

FUNCTIONALISM FOCUSES ON THE REGULATING / HOMOGINIZING ASPECTS OF SOCIETY

Functionalism developed during WW2 & reflected the conservatism of the nation

Functionalism developed in the US & this period of conservatism in US occurred as radicalism in Europe developed

Harvard sociology reigned from the turn of the century to the 1950s & changed the direction of sociology from a social work / activist direction to one that was more conservative, keeping in times w/ the public attitude as a result of WW2, in the form of functionalism

CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSES ON THE COMPETITIVE ASPECTS OF SOCIETY THROUGH CLASS ANALYSIS

Conflict theory evolved from Marxism & was too radical for the US until it was toned down & began class analysis in the US in the 1940s

Conflict theory has roots in the US in the 1940s & 50s in the Am Left & such theorists as C Wright Mills, but did not become influential until the 1960s

Conflict theory, which was more radical, developed during the Vietnam era

The 1950s - mid 1970s saw the American form of Marxism arrive in the form of conflict theory, radicalizing sociology, questioning the conservative functionalism of the previous era

While conflict theory had been in Europe for decades, it arrives in US in the 1950s

Conflict theory reflects development of the Civil Rights Movement, Vietnam Protests, Feminist Movement, Environmental Movement, etc.

THE POST VIETNAM ERA AGAIN BROUGHT A RETURN TO A CONSERVATIVE DIRECTION FOR SOCIOLOGY

Since the Post Vietnam era:
- conflict theory & functionalism have both lost influence
- no clear replacement theory for conflict theory or functionalism has emerged
- most Sociology has become a hybrid of both conflict theory & functionalism

TODAY SOCIOLOGY FOCUSES ON MANY DIVERSE AREAS

From the 1980s to the present there has been the growth of a plurality of fields in sociology, including:
- feminism
- criminology
- post-modernism
- organizational sociology
- urban sociology
- environmental sociology, etc.

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Introduction to Functionalism

External
Links

FUNCTIONALISM VIEWS SOCIETY AS A LIVING ORGANISM

Functional theory is often traced from Durkheim to the Chicago School to Parsons & Merton

Early social thinkers likened the operation of society to that of a living organism, such as the human body, exemplifying the quality of consensus

LIKE AN ORGANISM, SOCIETY EXEMPLIFIES THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE: NEEDS, REPRODUCTION, COMPETITION, COOPERATION, & ORDER

Like an organism, society exemplifies the FIVE characteristics of life:
- has needs (need inputs)
- has ways to reproduce
- competes
- cooperates
- needs order or it is "sick" or has "cancer"

THE QUALITIES OF SOCIETY ARE THAT IT HAS PARTS CALLED SOCIAL STRUCTURES, THAT ARE INTERDEPENDENT, & THEY FUNCTION TO PRODUCE CONSENSUS & STABILITY

Link

Functionalism views society as having FOUR qualities:
Society has
- parts                                    ( social structures ) ( PF REG M CEML )
- that are interdependent         ( mutual interrelations )
- that function to produce       ( functional requisites )
- consensus & stability           ( society is in equilibrium )

FUNCTIONALISM IS A MACRO PARADIGM is a macro paradigm / perspective (set of theories)

Functionalism is a paradigm & is therefore contains many theories such as:
- order perspective - systems theory
- structural functionalism - neo-functionalism
- consensus theory

Top

4. Society is made up of interdependent parts:
The parts / components of society are termed Social Structures

1. Peers	6. Military
2. Family	7. Charity
3. Religion	8. Education
4. Work (economy)	9. Media
5. Government	10. Recreation/leisure
PF REG M CEML

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Introduction to Conflict Theory

External
Links

CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSES ON CLASS CONFLICT OVER CONTROL OF THE MEANS OF PRODUCTION (THE ECONOMY)

The conflict paradigm is a macro sociological perspective based on the key premise that society is made up of groups that compete, usually w/ unequal power, for scarce resources; conflict & change are seen as the natural order of things

PEDIGREE: Conflict theory generally runs from Marx to Mills to Dahrendorf & Collins

Link

SUMMARY of the principles of conflict theory:

1. Our human nature is that we labor / create	7. Conflict does not always mean violence
2. Economic relations are the "base" of society	8. Capitalism is destructive of humanity
3. People, groups, etc. have conflicting self interests	9. The upper class controls the economy, & thus all of society
4. There is class conflict	10. Culture is shaped by the economic base of society
5. Conflict is the energy of social change	11. Consciousness is shaped by the interaction of material (working)
6. Society is in state of struggle & social change	conditions & the dominant culture in which one finds oneself

THE QUALITIES OF SOCIETY INCLUDE CLASSES IN CONFLICT, OVER RESOURCES, OVER IDEOLOGY, IN A HISTL CLIMATE OF DOMINATION BY THE UPPER CLASS

Conflict theory focuses on FOUR qualities of society:
a. Society has 2 or more classes of people who are in conflict (competition)
b. Different groups in society are in conflict over control of resources
c. Different groups in society are in conflict over control of ideology
( Ideology is a world view, including knowledge, opinions, etc.)
d. Historically one group has dominated

MARX, THE FATHER OF CONFLICT THEORY, WAS A REPORTER, ACTIVIST, & ACADEMIC IN THAT HE WROTE & ABOUT & PARTICIPATED IN SOCIAL CHANGE IN HIS TIME

Modern conflict theory is largely an outgrowth of the theories of Karl Marx 1818 - 1883

Review: Marx

Marx was an advocate for the workers, a radical organizer, a newspaper writer, & was exiled from several countries in Europe

Again, the question is: "Why does the society take the form that it does?"

Off shoots of Marxism include conflict theory, neo Marxism, critical theory, Frankfort School, post modernism, class theory, pluralism

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Intro to Symbolic Interactionism

External
Links

INTRO: S - I FOCUSES ON HOW WE CREATE MEANING IN AN INTERACTIVE PROCESS W/ OURSELVES, OTHERS, & SOCIAL STRUCTURES

Symbolic interactionism is a micro oriented paradigm which holds that:
1. we create meaning in an interactive process w/ ourselves, others, & social structures
2. societal level actions are aggregated by the actions of individuals/groups
3. what people believe to be true, becomes true in its consequences
4. society sends messages, gives rules
5. these messages are imprinted on us (through socialization) from childhood on
6. the content of these impressions is culture
7. social processes / relationships are what construct the individual & society
8. there is a 3 way dynamic among the self, society, & the processes of the construction of the self & society
9. societies interact through symbolic processes w/ themselves & individuals
10. individuals interact through symbolic processes w/ themselves & societies

S - I metaphor:

"All the world's a stage,
And all the men & women merely players.
They have their exits & their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven stages."

William Shakespeare, As You Like It ( Act II Scene 7 )

The symbolic interactionist paradigm is a major micro sociological perspective stressing the importance of messages from others & society, how people understand & interpret these messages & how this process affects people's behavior

Societal level actions are aggregated by the actions of individuals or groups

FOR S - I, SOCIAL PROCESSES / RELATIONSHIPS ARE WHAT CONSTRUCT THE INDIVIDUAL & SOCIETY

Symbolic interactionism is the study of the processes
by which human interaction occurs
including the interactions
btwn individuals & larger society
& how that interaction creates society itself
& the individual itself

Symbolic interactionism holds that
Society,
social interactions,
& the self itself,
develop / are created through the use of
symbols, language, signs & gestures

THERE IS A 3 WAY DYNAMIC AMONG THE SELF, SOCIETY, & THE PROCESSES OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF & SOCIETY

Symbolic interactionist holds that there is a THREE way dynamic which constructs the self & society

a. The self (selves) creates social interactions

b. Social interactions create society

c. Society creates the self

Blumer coined the term symbolic interactionism in 1937

SOCIETIES INTERACT THROUGH SYMBOLIC PROCESSES W/ THEMSELVES & INDIVIDUALS

Societies do
- send messages
- give rules
- but it is on the individual level that these situations, messages, etc. occur

INDIVIDUALS INTERACT THROUGH SYMBOLIC PROCESSES W/ THEMSELVES & SOCIETY

Individuals also
- send messages
- give rules
- but most of these messages & rules are largely shaped by & constrained by society

Symbolic interactionism developed from social psychology, & still has a strong relationship w/ that field & has inspired a number of other important subfields: dramaturgy, exchange theory, neuro linguistic programming

In sociology, most of the ideas of symbolic interactionist are found in the study of socialization

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Social Causes of Teen Pregnancy

External
Links

RESEARCH DEMONSTRATES THAT THE ED LEVEL OF TEENS & THEIR PARENTS IS MORE DETERMINATIVE OF PREGNANCY THAT PARENTAL MARITAL STATUS

McLanahan, Sara, & Larry Bumpass. 1988. "Intergenerational Consequences of Family Disruption." American Journal of Sociology 94: 130-152.

McLanahan & Bumpass (M & B) asked what factors contribute to / cause teen parenthood

M & B verified many other researchers' findings that teenage girls from single parent homes are more likely than other girls to have babies

The hypothesis M & B want to test is
Single parent homes are correlated w/ a higher rate of teen pregnancy
Single parent homes :: Higher rate of teen pregnancy

Single parent homes	Higher rate of teen pregnancy
Two parent homes	Lower rate of teen pregnancy

But are single parent homes the primary cause, or even a cause at all?

M & B speculated that there are other possible factors influencing rates of teen pregnancy, such as: income level & education

M & B used education as a control variable & found the following relationships

Low education	Single parent homes Two parent homes	Higher rate of teen pregnancy

High education	Single parent homes Two parent homes	Lower rate of teen pregnancy

Holding education constant at a low level, M & B found that the rate of teen pregnancy was higher in both single & two parent families than in families w/ higher educational attainment rates

Holding education constant at a high level, M & B found that the rate of teen pregnancy was lower in both single & two parent families than in families w/ lower educational attainment rates

The correlation btwn single parent homes & rates of teen pregnancy is spurious, that is, there is an apparent, although false, association btwn two or more variables caused by some other variable

M & B found that the education level of the teen & of the teen's parents was the most important factor in teen pregnancy

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Social Causes of Juvenile Delinquency

External
Links

RESEARCHERS ORIGINALLY FOUND THAT DELINQUENCY WAS CORRELATED W/ URBAN CROWDING, BUT LATER DISCOVERED THAT THIS WAS NOT SO; DELINQUENCY IS MORE OF A FUNCTION OF THE INCOME OF URBAN ZONES

Social scientists of the Chicago School, circa 1900, were interested in urbanization & the social problems associated w/ it

Through years of research & hundreds of studies they eventually concluded that there is a correlation btwn population density & delinquency

Many Chicago theorists believed that crowding caused delinquency

And indeed even today we see that delinquency rates are high in densely populated neighborhoods

But as early as the 1930s, some social scientists began to question this result

In 1984, Fischer demonstrated that virtually all the correlation btwn crowding & delinquency disappears if income is controlled

Chicago School found that

Hi Crowding is correlated Hi Delinquency

Lo Crowding is correlated Lo Delinquency

Fischer found that

Lo Income :: Hi Crowding :: Hi Delinquency

Lo Income :: Lo Crowding :: Hi Delinquency

Hi Income :: Hi Crowding :: Lo Delinquency

Hi Income :: Lo Crowding :: Lo Delinquency

In other words, Fisher found that the level of income is correlated w/ the level of crowding, which is correlated w/ the level of delinquency

Fischer used a research technique called control, where he held constant all relevant variables except one in order to clearly see its effect

Fischer used Income as a control variable

Holding income constant at a low level, Fischer found that delinquency was high in both crowded & uncrowded areas

Holding income constant at a high level, Fischer found that delinquency was low in both crowded & uncrowded areas

The correlation btwn crowding & delinquency is spurious, that is, there is an apparent, although false, association btwn two or more variables caused by some other variable

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Puritan Boston & Quaker Philadelphia

External
Links

RESEARCHERS CONFIRMED WEBER'S THESIS THAT RELIGIOUS WORLD VIEWS IMPACT THE SUCCESS OF GROUPS OF PEOPLE / SOCIETIES

The award winning study, Puritan Boston & Quaker Philadelphia, by E. Digby Baltzell (1979) examined which regions in the US had produced more notable individuals, & why certain regions produced more notable individuals

Baltzell created his research topic through induction & serendipity

Baltzell happened to visit Bowdoin College in Maine & was surprised to see that in one year, 1825, Bowdoin had graduated three notables: Hawthorne, Longfellow, & Pierce

BALTZELL DEVELOPED A SIMPLE BUT EFFECTIVE MEASURE OF FAME BY COUNTING COLUMN INCHES IN 'WHO'S WHO' BOOK

Baltzell wondered how such a small college in a relatively small state could produce so many famous people

Baltzell decided to do an analysis of the Dictionary of American Biography, which was comprised of records of more than 13,000 men & women in 20 volumes

The Dictionary gave Baltzell a broad measure of who was great

Baltzell also needed a measure that would help him judge levels of greatness

To do this, he counted the number of lines in each record, assuming, as did the editors of the Dictionary, that the greater the person, the longer their record

Thus, Baltzell chose to examine the 75 men & women w/ the longest record in the Dictionary

Baltzell found:

Massachusetts had the most famous people: 21

Pennsylvania had 2

New England States had 31

Mid Atlantic States had 12

The Boston area had the most famous people

Baltzell found that Weber's theory as delineated in the Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism explained the variations in the locations of famous people

Weber believed that a person's life chances were largely the result of their religious beliefs

Boston was a Puritan settlement, founded by people dedicated to the pursuit of public achievement

Puritans celebrated hard work as a means to glorify god, & looked upon public prominence as a sign that one was in god's grace

Philadelphia was settled by Quakers, who shunned elitism & displays of achievement

Quakers believe that all people are inherently good & so saw little need for strong social institutions to "save" individuals from sinfulness

While many Quakers became wealthy, their egalitarian way of life made everyone look upon everyone else as a social equal

Quakers discourage one another from standing out by seeking fame or pursuing public office

Baltzell describes Boston & Philadelphia as "social test tubes" into which two different cultures were poured: Puritanism & Quakerism

For centuries later, we can see that different "chemical reactions" occurred in the "social test tubes" of Boston & Philadelphia

The two different belief systems of personal achievement shaped the history of each region

Even today, cultures seem influential in determining life chances / success

The Kennedy's, who are Catholic, demonstrate the Puritan pursuit of fame & leadership

Suggestions for further research suggested by Baltzell's work on fame & culture include

a. a comparison of regions by religion & achievement

b. a utilization of the entire 13,000 famous people in the Dictionary to determine whether the religion :: achievement correlation holds

Internal
Links

Top

Emile Durkheim on Suicide:
The Cult of the Individual

External
Links

DURKHEIM STUDIED SUICIDE TO SHOW THAT 'THE MOST PERSONAL ACT' HAD A SOCIAL COMPONENT RELATED TO THE DEGREE OF CONNECTION ONE HAS IN SOCIETY & THE AMOUNT OF CONTROL ONE EXPERIENCES

Introduction: Durkheim is known for establishing the 1st sociology dept.
This was at the University of Paris
Durkheim is known for establishing sociology as a social science
He did this through applying the scientific method to social facts in his study of suicide

Suicide was written by Durkheim in 1897

Durkheim conducted the research on suicide in order to establish sociology as a social science on par w/ psychology

Durkheim was the first to carry out a study involving the large scale collection of data to test a social theory

For Durkheim, suicide is perhaps "the most personal act" any human can undertake

Durkheim believed that if he could show that the most individual of acts, which had previously been attributed to psychological causes, had social causes, then he would validate the power & worth of sociology

In writing Suicide, Durkheim reviewed the literature, examined appropriate theory, & employed common sense:

Durkheim believed a society had to accomplish two major functions to be successful

a. INTEGRATION IS THE DEGREE TO WHICH COLLECTIVE SENTIMENTS (KNOWLEDGE, BELIEFS, VALUES) ARE SHARED BY MEMBER IN SOCIETY

The opposite of social integration is isolation in a society

b. REGULATION IS THE DEGREE OF EXTERNAL CONSTRAINT ON PEOPLE
Regulation is the common norms people live under
Regulation vs Lack of Regulation in a society

The widespread failure of integration or regulation in society yields societal collapse
The occasional failure of integration or regulation in society yields an increased rate of suicide

What are some common causes of suicide?
Why do some people commit suicide & others don't?
What are some possible explanations?

Depression                   Terminal illness
Spouse leaves them      Picked on by peers
Lost job                        Loneliness

DURKHEIM'S HYPOTHESIS WAS THAT PEOPLE, AS A GROUP, WOULD BECOME MORE SUICIDAL TO THE EXTENT THAT THEY EXPERIENCED EXTREME INTEGRATION OR REGULATION

Durkheim then uses the deductive method to develop his thesis & hypotheses:

Durkheim's hypothesis is that suicide would be highest among single, Protestant, men because these groups are less integrated & less regulated

Other groups w/ a tendency toward suicide are those who are highly integrated or over regulated

Durkheim's method was to travel from parish (country) to parish & examine death certificates of suicides & record demographic info, & the circumstances surrounding the death

Durkheim rode from parish (county) to parish in France in the 1890s

Durkheim collected data on social background of suicide victims, e.g. demographic information including age, religion, class, job, work history, income, wealth, gender, etc.

Then Durkheim grouped people according to suicide rates & each social factor; & he did this by hand ( a computer would do this today )

Durkheim's types of suicide include altruistic, fatalistic, egoistic, & anomic

Link

Table on Durkheim's Four Types of Suicide

Link

1. ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE IS CORRELATED W/ HIGH INTEGRATION INTO SOCIETY

When social integration is too strong, the individual is literally forced into committing suicide

Hero suicide occurs when a parent dies while pushing their child out of the way of a car

With altruistic suicide, death is deliverance

Altruistic suicide springs from hope, for it depends on the belief in the beautiful afterlife

A suicidal person who dies for a cause is exhibiting characteristics of altruistic suicide

EXAMPLES OF ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE

Non Extreme Examples

- a soldier jumping on a grenade or charging a hill

- a policeman dying in the line of duty

- a parent pushing a child from path of a car

Extreme Examples:

- Kamikazes

- radical arab bombers

- in 1996, men emolating (burning) themselves to protest the Miss World pageant in India

- Supplement: The followers of Reverend Jim Jones at the People's Temple in Jonestown, Guyana

- Supplement: Jonestown, Guyana Conspiracy

- Supplement: The followers of David Koresh & his followers of the Branch Davidians in Texas

- Supplement: Waco Investigation

Link

2. FATALISTIC SUICIDE IS CORRELATED W/ HIGH REGULATION BY SOCIETY

Persons w/ pitilessly blocked opportunities & passions, violently choked by oppressive discipline are more likely to commit fatalistic suicide

Fatalistic suicide was little mentioned by Durkheim

EXAMPLES OF FATALISTIC SUICIDE

Examples of someone more likely to commit fatalistic suicide include:

- slaves

- prisoners

- overworked college students

- American middle class working men

- American middle class house wives

- School age suicides/killers who cannot stand the harassment by the in crowd, because they are different

- over-worked Japanese employees

- over worked American executives

Link

3. EGOISTIC SUICIDE IS CORRELATED W/ LOW INTEGRATION INTO SOCIETY

Individuals who experience a sense of meaninglessness are more likely to commit egoistic suicide

Egoistic suicide is often found in societies where individuals are not well integrated into the society; i.e., modern, developed nations

The personal feeling or emotion often associated w/ low integration into society is depression, loneliness, & a sense of meaninglessness

For Durkheim, egoistic suicide stems from the social currents of incurable weariness & sad depression

Society is where we "learn," internalize via socialization, or imprint our norms & morals

Members of a society internalized norms & morals into the self & thus become integrated into the society by both the processes of socialization, as well as by the particular shared norms & morals

Therefore, w/ egoistic suicide, a person may also appear as if they are out of control

People prone to egoistic suicide lack an internal control of the self, an internal "locus of control"

Durkheim notes in his analysis of suicide that if people are left to pursue their private interests in whatever way they wish, they are likely to feel considerable personal dissatisfaction

For Durkheim, people are not satisfied even when the are left to pursue their private interests in whatever way they wish because all needs cannot be fulfilled by the individual, many needs can only be fulfilled by the group, collective, or society

For Durkheim, the self as constructed by society, is nearly insatiable

Needs that are satiable simply lead to the generation of more & more needs

EXAMPLES OF EGOISTIC SUICIDE

- People prone to egoistic suicide having a low level of integration into society can be seen in the fact that unmarried individuals have higher rates of suicide than married people

- People prone to egoistic suicide having a low level of integration into society can be seen in "lone wolf suicide," i.e. a higher rate of suicide, depression, etc., by loners

- Teens prone to egoistic suicide can be seen in the high rates of suicide in high school & college students

Lonely, troubled young men in high school or college are:

- generally isolated
- not popular
- harassed or teased by others

- Millionaire suicide occurs because of low integration into suicide because they feel lonely because they often believe that 'people only like me for my money'

The loneliness of wealth, & millionaire suicide can be seen in Richie Rich, the poor little rich kid

The loneliness of wealth, & millionaire suicide can be seen in the fact that people who gain sudden wealth often have a hard time adjusting socially & often lose spouses & friends

- Star egoistic suicide can be seen in the loneliness of fame that leads many stars to suicide

Examples of star egoistic suicide might include:

Marilyn Monroe

- Supplement: Janis Joplin of Big Brother & the Holding Co. d. 1970

Jim Morrison of the Doors.

- Supplement: Kurt Cobain of Nirvanna b. 1967 d. 1994

	For Durkheim, religion insulates one against suicide because it integrates people into society
	For Durkheim, religion insulates one against suicide because religion limits wants
	Two groups are the most prone to suicide, young men aged from 14 to 24, and middle age men aged 45 to 55
	Young men & middle age men may have high levels of suicide because they are likely to experience overwork or sense of failure
	Young men just finishing their education or starting their career are suddenly stratified into their position in life & that position may not be as high as they believed it would be
	Middle age men are just at the pinnacle of their career & they may not have risen as high as they expected or they may feel that it was all for naught
	Young & middle age men are often the most isolated in our society
	Young men may feel isolated because they have just left home & have not integrated into a new community
	Middle age men may feel isolated because their family is now grown & they are not integrated into their community
Link	4. ANOMIC SUICIDE IS CORRELATED W/ LOW REGULATION BY SOCIETY
	Anomie is the experience where culture ( common knowledge, beliefs, values, norms ) does not exist & / or has become ineffective
	For Durkheim, culture may be thought of as the collective unconsciousness
	In comparing anomie to alienation, alienation is the separation or isolation from existing culture whereas anomie is the condition where there is no culture, i.e., no culture to be separated from
	See: Anomie
	See: Alienation
	See: Culture
	Societal disintegration leads to currents of depression & disillusionment
	The moral disintegration of society predisposes the individual to commit suicide, but the currents of depression must be there to produce differences in rates of anomic suicide
	But even though social forces may be weak, an individual is never totally free of the collectivity
	Disruptions in regulative powers of society leaves people dissatisfied because they have little control over their passions
	So people are allowed to run wild in an insatiable race for gratification
	Success can significantly reduce the regulation that one experiences: The newly rich may quit their job, move to a new community, perhaps find a new spouse
	These changes disrupt regulatory effect of old structures & the person may not yet feel new regulatory effects
	EXAMPLES OF ANOMIC SUICIDE:
	- I am so weak, I have nothing left to lose
	- suicide from a great loss such as a lay off
	- a Bum who believes, 'I can do whatever I want because no one can hurt me' "Freedom is just another word for nothing left to lose" Janis Joplin
	- the belief, 'I am so powerful, I cannot lose'
	- the college student away from home, family, friends, for the first time, becomes wild party animal, & dies of overdose, car wreck, etc. believing, at some level, that they cannot be hurt or controlled
	- the person moving to big city for first time who believes they are powerful, & becomes dangerously manic
	- the Millionaire who believes, 'I can do whatever I want because I am so powerful: No one can tell me what to do'
	- a suicide from great gain such as finally "making it big" career wise
	- a superstar, or anyone who dies "accidentally" in that they were not depressed, despondent, etc.
	People who die of anomic suicide, live the wild life, feel free, & feel little societal control or fear
	- Jimi Hendrix
	- Supplement: James Dean
	- John Belusi?
	Social or natural crises reduce regulation & people feel they have nothing left to lose, no reason to live
	Periods of disruption unleash currents of anomie, moods of restlessness & normlessness
	Rates of anomic suicide may rise w/ almost any social crises such as a storm, a war, an economic boom, an economic depression, etc.
	Individuals experience the sensation of anomie as the fear or anxiety that society is breaking down, that the old rules no longer apply
	Either an econ boom or an econ depression make society incapable of exercising its authority over individuals
	For an anomic society, the old norms no longer apply, but new norms are not yet in place
	Losing a job can cut the individual off from the Regulation that the company, the job, the workplace friendships may have had
	Being cut off from the economic sector, or family, religion, the state, etc. leaves a person rootless

	FINDINGS: DURKHEIM CONSTRUCTED A PROFILE OF A SUICIDAL PERSON THAT IS STILL VALID TODAY: MALE, YOUNG OR MID AGED, PROTESTANT, VERY POOR OR RICH
	Men commit suicide more than women Women make more attempts at suicide, but men succeed more often
	The young, mid teens to mid twenties & the middle aged, late 40s & 50s are the most suicidal age groups
	Protestants are more likely than Catholics or Jews to commit suicide
	Durkheim theorized that Protestants would be more likely to commit suicide than Catholics or Jews because Protestant religions are more individualistic while the Jews & Catholics have a stronger community orientation
	People of all classes have about the same rates of suicide, except for the extreme rich & poor, which have a higher rate of suicide
	Those who have been recently laid off more likely to commit suicide
	If you are male, young, mobile/ in transition, & Protestant, you are at high risk for suicide
	If you are male, middle age, Protestant, & laid off, you are at high risk for suicide
	Durkheim's findings are still valid today & yet most of the focus is on psychological causes, not sociological causes of suicide
	Durkheim's study has been confirmed by many other researchers & its generalization is very widespread
	Similar patterns of suicide can be found today in the US as Durkheim found in nineteenth century Europe

Top

Table on Durkheim's Four Types of Suicide

High

Low

Integration

1. Altruistic suicide

3. Egoistic suicide

Regulation

2. Fatalistic suicide

4. Anomic suicide

Internal
Links

Top

An Introduction to Methods: How the Social Sciences are Done

External
Links

- Project: Surveying

Link

For Macionis, there are 3 types of methods in the social sciences including scientific methods, critical methods, & interpretative methods; however in practice most social scientist employ many of these types simultaenously

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO GENERATE EXPLANATIONS & MAKE PREDICTIONS

Science is a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation.

Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, meaning facts we verify with our senses

Scientific methods of the social sciences are the most widely used & are what we are using when we speak of hypothesis, theories, statistics, validity, etc.

THE INTERPRETATIVE METHOD IS AN APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING BASED ON SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION & GENERALIZATION, WHICH IS USED TO UNDERSTAND THE MEANINGS PEOPLE EXPERIENCE

For many social scientists, science as it is practiced today to study the natural world, misses a vital part of the social world: meaning

Human beings do not simply act; we engage in meaningful action

Weber, who pioneered this framework, argued that the focus of sociology is interpretation

See Also: Weber

Interpretative sociology is the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world

The interpretative sociologist’s job is not just to observe what people do but to share in their world of meaning & come to appreciate why they act as they do

CRITICAL SOCIOLOGY FOCUSES ON WHAT IS IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND & EXERCISE SOCIAL CHANGE

The importance of social change in & of itself became noteworthy by Marx who rejected the idea that society exists as a "natural" system w/ a fixed order

Critical sociology is the study of society that focuses on the need for social change

As Marx believed the point of the social sciences are not merely to study the world as it is but to change it

W/in the practice of critical methods, the general public often confuses social science findings w/ politics & so scientific social scientists object to taking sides, charging that critical social science is political & gives up any claim to objectivity

Critical methodologists would refute the objections of the so called scientific social scientists by noting that not only is critical social science political, but ALL science, whether it be natural or social, is poltical

METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPTS ARE TOOLS FOR SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION

The deductive method of analysis begins w/ theory & builds a question ( hypothesis ) based on that theory

The hypothesis is usually tested using some form of the experimental method to test some part of the theory

The inductive method of analysis begins w/ gathering generalizations from data, & theory is then created to explain the generalizations

Research can be used to test a theory or generate a theory, but research cannot "find out the truth"

A theory is a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more cause effect relationships

Theories are made up of verifiable statements about reality that, with the right information, can be tested

Theory refers to a set of interrelated statements about reality, usually involving one or more major cause effect relationships

Ideally, a theory can be tested through research

A law is a theory or part of a theory that is well established and therefore has greater acceptance by the scientific community

A hypothesis is a research question, that always takes the form of a statement that must be able to be disproved

A hypothesis is a testable statement

When social scientists use research for theory testing, they usually make use of a hypothesis

A hypothesis always takes the form of a statement

A hypothesis usually involves some kind of cause effect relationship between two or more variables

A hypothesis is used because a theory is usually too large and complex to test at one time

A correlation is a relationship by which two or more variables change together

A concept is an abstract idea that represents some element of the world

Link

A variable is a concept that can take on different values or that has two or more categories from case to case

Link

Independent variables influence or cause the dependent variable & are sometimes called the predictor variable

The independent variable is the variable that the researcher thinks is the cause

Link

Dependent variables should be the effect in the cause effect relationship

The value of the dependent variable depends on the value of the independent variable

Link

A positive correlation occurs when both variables change in the same direction

A negative correlation occurs when the variables change in opposite directions

A control variable is a variable that is held constant in order to observe the effect on two or more other variable

A spurious correlation is an apparent, although false, relationship btwn two or more variables caused by some other variable(s)

The control variable is introduced to determine whether the relationship btwn the independent & dependent variables is spurious

MEASUREMENT IS THE PROCESS OF ASCERTAINING THE EXTENT, DIMENSIONS,
QUANTITY, ETC. OF SOMETHING ESP BY COMPARISON TO A STANDARD

1. An operational definition is a precise statement of the measuring of a variable or of the categories of a variable for purpose of measurement

Link

2. Reliability is established when the researcher is using a method that demonstrates consistency of the measurement; the method produces the same results if it is used repeatedly or if a different investigator uses it

Professor Hairball has repeated his study on hair magazines every year for ten years. He has always gotten the same results. Therefore, Hairball believes his study is very reliable

Reliability is the consistency of the measurement

Link

3. Validity indicates that the researcher is measuring the concept they intended to measure; that the methods utilized yield accurate info about the phenomenon being studied

Validity is established by measuring the concept you intend to measure

The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & journalistic accounts in newspapers, magazines, on the TV news, the internet, etc.

The strong emphasis on valid & reliable methods is one important distinction btwn the social sciences & humanistic accounts of social phenomenon such as novels, an expose', videos, docudrama, etc.

Social scientists such as post modernists, et al, believe that if social science is to be effective, it must connect w/ the subject, i.e., the phenomenon being studied, & the object, i.e. the person or people examining the research

An emotion laden research project is not necessarily unreliable or invalid, but special care must be taken

Link

4. Constructs are concepts that are abstract and at least to some extent must be formulated by the researcher

Constructs are created by researchers when they are attempting to measure abstract concepts such as intelligence

Examples of constructs include intelligence, happiness, power, satisfaction, quality of life, etc.

PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH STEM FROM THE FACT THAT PEOPLE REACT TO BEING STUDIED

Link

Reactivity is the tendency of people being studied to react to the researcher or to the fact that they are being studied

Link

The Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity where people being studied attempt to please the researcher

The Placebo effect is a form of reactivity where people, as a result of being studied, behave differently, i.e. as the test subjects do, when in fact nothing has changed

Objectivity is a state of complete personal neutrality in conducting research

Bias is non objectivity in research; personal involvement in conducting research whether intentional or unintentional

The survey is the most widely used method in sociology

The kinds of surveys are the
- closed end questionnaire
- open end questionnaire
- telephone interview
- personal interview

	DIFFERENT QUESTION TYPES MEASURE DIFFERENT SOCIAL MATERIAL
	Fixed response questions in a survey are like multiple choice exam questions
	The Likert scale form of surveying gives a clear range of choices on a 5 or 7 point scale Strongly Agree Agree Neutral / No Opinion Disagree Strongly Disagree ______ _____ _____ _____ ______
	In open ended questions the respondent states or writes an answer to the question in their own words. (Similar to an interview)
	There are FOUR types of questions typically used in surveys & interviews, including - Background (demographics) - Activities - Knowledge - Sentiments (opinions, values, attitudes, feelings, etc.)
	When writing survey questions, - use short statements - begin w/ 'easy' questions - use 'hard' questions near the end of the survey - end w/ open ended questions
Link	Sampling is the random selection from a general population to establish a sample group, which should represent the entire population
	AN EXPERIMENT IS A SCIENTIFIC EXPLORATION IN A CONTROLLED / LIMITED SITUATION
	Experiments are carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom
	The steps in the experimental process include Sampling to determine the Control & experimental groups Pre-test Experimental manipulation Post-test Debriefing Analysis
	The experimental group goes through an experience or manipulation
	The control group does not experience a manipulation of an independent variable & receives the pre-test & post-test
	Lab experiments are done in setting w/ almost total control by researcher
	The TWO types of field experiments are natural experiments & social experiments
	In natural experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a natural event, or the tabulation data before & after a natural event
	In social experiments, the researcher gives pre- & post-tests around a social policy
	INTERVIEWS ARE ORAL SURVEYS
	The strength of an interview over a survey is that researcher can follow leads to unplanned questions
	In structured interviews, the questions are pre planned
	In unstructured interviews, the unplanned questions follow the flow of the conversation
	FIELD OBSERVATION IS ATTENTIVENESS TO SOCIAL MATERIAL TO MEASURE IT IN SOME MANNER
	The FOUR qualities of field observation include obtrusiveness, unobtrusiveness, participant & non participant
	In obtrusive field observation, the researcher is seen, recognized as a researcher; open or overt
	In unobtrusive observation, the researcher is hidden or not recognized as a researcher; secret or covert
	In participant observation, the researcher is, during the research, participating in the activities of the subjects
	In non participatory observation, the researcher is not participating; remains separated, aloof
Link	Content analysis is an analysis of narrative data from open ended surveys, interviews, books, press, media, etc.) that looks for regularity
	Statistical analysis is an analysis of existing data (census, govt records, etc.) or data you have collected (surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.) to determine correlations
Link	Multivariate analysis is the sorting out many factors to determine most important factors

Top

Examples of Variables

age                    religion                     education level            env concern
gender              political party             race                           satisfaction in the workplace
income             marital status             occupation                  effective decisions

Top

Examples of Independent & Dependent Variables

Abuse & stress
Lack of social integration & suicide
Number of autos & global warming
Education & environmental concern
Income & environmental concern
Openness & satisfaction in the workplace
Number of guidelines to follow & effective critical decision making

Top

Examples of Positive & Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation: both variables change in same direction
Ed level is positively correlated w/ income
Negative Correlation: a situation where one variable increases & the other decreases
Ed level is negatively correlated w/ poverty rates

Top

Example of Constructs

ideal type of bureaucrat
Weber: rational, power in the office, tenure, salary, entrance exams & appointment from within

Top

Example of Validity

IQ Many people question the validity of IQ tests.

Top

Example of Reactivity

Hawthorne effect: form of reactivity: people being studied attempt to please the researcher:
From H Motor Wiring Room: young women & young male researchers

Top

Sampling: the random selection from a general population to establish a Sample Group, which represents the entire population

Sample Group: a subset of a population that is used to represent the entire population.

The basic way to obtain a representative sample is by a random draw from everyone in the population in question.

No matter how small your population, you almost always need 50 people in order to have a scientifically valid sample.

1,100 is enough for most major survey firms to survey the US

Thus if you divide your sample into different groups, you need even more people.
If you want to compare men & women: 50 of each
If you want to compare lower income, middle income & upper income men and women, how many do you need?
6 groups:
50 lo income men
50 lo income women
50 mid income men
50 mid income women
50 hi income men
50 hi income women
300 total

Top

Example of Content Analysis

Violence & TV: perform content analysis on top 10 novels & top 10 TV shows of each decade to determine amount of violence. Is there a correlation?

Top

Example of Multivariate Analysis

Divorce: age at marriage; class, ed, race of spouses; income of each; expectations; children; urban/rural; love; sex; length of marriage; etc.

Internal
Links

An Overview of Research Design

External
Links

- Project: Brain Storming

Link

SUMMARY: THERE ARE SEVENTEEN STEPS IN RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Select a Topic 2. Formulate a Thesis Statement... 3. Choose the Types of Analyses 4. Research & Write a Literature Review & Refine the Thesis 5. Formulate the Research Objectives & Questions 6. Conceptualize a topic 7. Choose Research Method / the Research Instrument 8. Operationalize concepts / construct the instrument	9. Formulate the Data Collection Strategy 10. Obtain HIC Approval 11. Perform a Pilot Study 12. Collect Data 13. Prepare the Data for processing & analysis 14. Process & Analyze Data 15. Interpret & make Inferences about Data 16. Write the Research Paper 17. Write Final HIC Report

1. SELECTING A TOPIC is the first step in research design where the researcher's task is to pick the broad area of investigation, which will be narrowed down in successive steps

The most important step in any research project is to define clearly the problem the researcher wishes to study

See: Webbing & Brainstorming the Topic

2. THE FORMULATION OF THE THESIS narrows the topic so that a type of analysis can be applied to establish research objectives

See: Writing the Thesis

See: Refine the Thesis: add Types of Analysis

Review: The Types of Analysis

3. THE CHOICE OF THE TYPE OF ANALYSIS (TOA) determines the mode of inquiry (descriptive, correlation, comparison, etc.) which will be used to achieve the research objectives

4. RESEARCHING & WRITING A LITERATURE REVIEW allows the researcher to refine the thesis

See: Scholastic Sources

Evaluation of the Literature Review

5. THE FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ( ROs ) from the types of analysis ( TOA ) is accomplished by utilizing the TOAs to formulate research questions, or hypotheses

6. THE CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE TOPIC is the process whereby specification & refinement of abstract concepts used in the research is accomplished

Common Factors & Concepts

Ideal Types

Units of Analysis

7. THE CHOICE OF METHODOLOGY / OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT is where the researcher chooses the data collection tool, such as a survey, experiment, etc. to achieve the research objectives

8. OPERATIONALIZATION is the development of specific research procedures (operations) such as survey questions, experimental protocol, interview schedules, observation protocol, etc., that result in empirical observation representing those concepts in real world

9. THE FORMULATION OF THE DATA COLLECTION STRATEGY determines the procedures by which the research instrument will be applied to suitable research participants; e.g. what are the procedures used for giving out a survey

Consent & Confidentiality in Research

Moral, Ethical & Privacy Issues in Social Research

Sampling issues should be contemplated throughout the research design process, but must be finalized during operationalization of the research instrument

10. OBTAINING THE HIC's APPROVAL ensures legal & ethical research responsibilities are met

11. THE PERFORMANCE OF A PILOT STUDY allows the researcher a trial run for the study so that any problems, omissions or other anomalies can be addressed

12. DATA COLLECTION utilizing efficient, effective & ethical methodological practices as delineated in the data collection strategy

13. THE PREPARATION OF DATAfor processing & analysis is determined by the type of data collected by the research instruments in that data preparation is quite different for surveys & content analysis, etc.

14. PROCESSING & ANALYZING DATA is determined by the type of data collected by the research instruments in that data preparation is quite different for surveys & content analysis, etc.

15. THE INTERPRETATION & MAKING INFERENCES ABOUT DATA allows the researcher to draw conclusions & state opinions about the findings of the research

16. WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER is where the researcher organizes all the steps of the research to make it available to the targeted audience

17. WRITING THE HIC FINAL REPORT is where the researcher makes the findings of the research available to the HIC, demonstrating that legal & ethical responsibilities have been upheld

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Scientific Method

External
Links

SUMMARY: THERE ARE SEVEN STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD, INCLUDING: 1. OBSERVE 2. CLASSIFY 3. APPLY LOGIC 4. HYPOTHESIZE 5. RESEARCH 6. RECORD & ANALYZE FINDINGS 7. RECORD FINDINGS

The scientific method is put into operation through the steps of the research design process

1. OBSERVATION

Link

Observation (a.k.a. empiricism) employs the five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, & tasting

Hume found that the senses are subject to illusions, errors, or prejudices

Because of problems w/ the senses, the scientific method makes further demands on the researcher

Observations must be subject to confirmation and verification

Confirmed & verified observations lead to "factual information" where the facts are socially created

2. CLASSIFICATION

Link

Classification establishes relationships among facts:

Facts & classifications alone are sometimes viewed as "knowledge"

But this knowledge, classifications, must be seen as culturally based (i.e. biased)

In the mid 1800s, there was an explosion of modern classification

3. LOGIC

Applying logic infers a relationship among facts or objects of classification

The relationship inferred by application of logic becomes a hypothesis, if it is to be tested

But there are other ways of knowing than by deductive logic, including emotion, tradition, religion, feminist, post-modern

And logic tells us nothing of values; but other ways of knowing do deal w/ values

Science & logic tacitly support existing social relations, cultural & moral identities

We live in a culture where tradition, religion, emotions, etc. have less influence than science, logic, etc.

Scientism is the habit of thought or procedure of scientists that embodies a particular set of values, norms, structures & institutions

Choosing the types of analyses to be utilized in the research project reflects the application of logic

4. HYPOTHESIZE

Link

If the hypothesis is true, then such & such should follow

A hypothesis is an "if, then statement"

A hypothesis takes the form that: 'If "C" or the Cause occurs, then "E" or the Effect should follow'

The hypothesis is a concise statement of the problem to be researched

In research, the answers you get depend on the questions you ask
Some questions are never asked.
Who controls the questions asked?
See Interest Based Knowledge

5. RESEARCH

In actually conducting the research, some variation of the research instruments are used

Research instruments include surveys, interviews, statistical analysis, analyze existing data, observation, experiments, etc.

6. RECORD & ANALYZE FINDINGS

Recording & analyzing findings is the process by which the researcher documents observations, numerical data, etc.

7. REPORTING FINDINGS

Reporting findings is the process where scientific findings are usually reported in journals, books, govt publications, conferences, etc.

- Qualities of the Scientific Method

- The History of the Development of the Scientific Method

- Criticism of science: Weber on values & science

- Hoaxes:

- Montesquieu on the Scientific Method

Top

1. Observe
Examples: Egyptians studied motions of heavenly bodies to predict seasons, flooding of Nile & when to plant & harvest
1830: Darwin observed species & developed theory of evolution

Top

2. Classification
e.g. Periodic Table, Phylums; types of society (ancient, agriculture, industry, service)

Top

4. Hypothesize
If a build-up of CO2 causes warming in greenhouses, then a build-up of CO2 in the Earth's atm should cause warming
Social isolation causes suicide

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on the Qualities of the Scientific Method

External
Links

THE 3 QUALITIES OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ARE ORGANIZED SKEPTICISM, SHARING FINDINGS, & MINIMIZE VALUES

There are THREE Qualities of the Scientific Method which are utilized by the natural & the social sciences

a. ORGANIZED SKEPTICISM: All scientific claims must be supported by proof (research) which has been reviewed by the scientific community and replicated by others

Organized skepticism attempts to mitigate the effect of values in research by making the research process visible to all

b. SHARE FINDINGS: There is an obligation to share both findings & methods so that others can review & replicate the experiment

The sharing of findings is done to prevent mistakes & hoaxes

One of the fundamental differences btwn common sense & science is that scientific knowledge is shared & replicated ( tested by others ) while common sense is merely our own personal experience w/ little or no methodology, replication, etc.

c. MINIMIZED VALUES: Science tries to minimize values in research
For most of the public AND many scientists (social & natural), there is the assumption that science is neutral, i.e. value free

Max Weber originated idea of value free science, but even he knew it was impossible to accomplish

- The Scientific Method

- The History of the Development of the Scientific Method

- Criticism of science: Weber on values & science

- Hoaxes:
- The Piltdown man
- Cold Fusion

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on David Hume 1711 - 1776

External
Links

Link

- Biography & Major Works

HUME CONTRIBUTED TO THE FORMATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD BY DEMONSTRATING HOW TO SHOW CAUSE & EFFECT A SCIENTIST MUST ESTB TIME ORDER, CORRELATION, & ELIMINATE ALT EXPLANATIONS

Hume was a Scottish philosopher who influenced the modern philosophical schools of skepticism & empiricism

SUMMARY:
Hume distrusted philosophical speculation & believed that knowledge came from experience
All experiences existed only in the mind as individual units of experience
Whatever we experience is only the contents of our own consciousness
Hume believed a world existed outside of consciousness, but this could not be proven

HUME'S CHALLENGE OF SKEPTICISM WAS THE SIMPLE QUESTION: 'HOW DO WE "KNOW" ANYTHING FOR SURE?'

Hume and the skeptical philosophers said it is impossible to prove anything

Hume distrusted philosophical speculation and believed knowledge came from the senses

For Hume, the senses were not infallible, & therefore faith must be in god

For Hume, understanding came from experience, which is a combination of sensory knowledge & shared understandings

The nature of shared understandings formed a 'proto scientific method' which Hume developed

Hume undermined the mechanistic view of Locke, et al, by attacking causality

For Hume, causality is simply an idea, or a customary way of thinking

Today, post modernists agree w/ Hume & the Skeptical Philosophers that causality is simply a customary way of thinking

For Hume who was a "skeptical philosopher," because B follows A, one assumes that A causes B or B is the effect of A

Hume's point is that any causal relationship is really open to question because we don't see the cause, only one even & then another that we call cause & effect

Hume believed experience existed only in the mind as individual units of experience

THE 3 PRINCIPLES OF CAUSALITY ARE TIME ORDER, CORRELATION, & ELIMINATION OF ALT EXPLANATIONS

From Hume's work, THREE principles of causality can be developed

A. TO SHOW CAUSALITY, THE TIME ORDER MUST BE CORRECT

In a causal relationship, time order must be preserved in that event A must always precede event B in time, i.e. does the cause precede the effect?

In social or natural experiments, it can be very difficult to determine time order

The complexities of time ordering in causality can be seen in the relationship btwn low income as a cause of juvenile delinquency where juvenile delinquency can also be seen to cause low income

What is needed to show time order?

Could juvenile delinquency come before low income & cause low income?

B. TO SHOW CAUSALITY, A CORRELATION MUST BE EVIDENT

In a causal relationship, a correlation must be evident as event A must be correlated to event B; that is, the variables change together in a predictable way

For Hume, the principle of causality of correlation indicates that the variables change together in a predictable way

When the independent variable changes, the dependent variable also has a tendency to change, there is a correlation

Correlation is often aka covariation or a statistical relationship

Scientists report findings such as, "Isolation is correlated w/ suicide," and not "Isolation causes suicide"

For scientists to find results, whenever event A occurs, we must see event B follow a certain percentage of the time

The percentage of times event B follows event A is called the reliability coefficient

C. TO SHOW CAUSALITY, ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS MUST BE ELIMINATED

In a causal relationship, alternative explanations must be eliminated, that is other possible causes that may cause both events A & B must be eliminated

To establish a causal relationship, the researcher must eliminate any alternative explanations

In establishing causality, eliminating alternative relationships is the most difficult to establish, & we can never know for sure that we have done so

Researchers can test for other explanations, but frequently this cannot be done because they are not aware of other relationship or because the situation is simply too complicated to be sorted out

A spurious relationship occurs when the observed effect is caused by a 3rd variable, i.e. another explanation

A control variable is used to test for alternative explanations

Example:
What caused delinquency?
What is the control variable in pop density & delinquency?
What is the Independent Variable?
What is the Dependent Variable?
What relationship was spurious?

SCIENTISTS CAN NEVER BE CERTAIN OF THEIR FINDINGS BECAUSE THE PRINCIPLES OF CAUSALITY (TIME ORDER, CORRELATION, & ALT EXPLANATIONS) CAN BE VALID IN ONE CASE & THEN INVALIDATED IN ANOTHER

Hume demonstrates that there can be no certainty in establishing a cause & effect relationship through research

Hume's dissection of the scientific process of showing cause & effect demonstrates that we never know anything for certain, because:

a. Correlation shows that we only see two things occur together, we do not actually see cause & effect. We may see effect w/o cause

b. Time order is valid only until we see a counter case, that is, we see cause precede effect

c. We can never be certain that we have eliminated other causes, i.e. alternative explanations

d. Because of illusions, we cannot trust the senses

For Hume, then, science was not a panacea or solution for all human challenges & problems...

...& thus he remained very religious

Top

David Hume
1711 - 1776
b Edinburgh, Scottish
Spent most of his life writing
Occasional diplomat to France

Top

Major Works of Hume

A Treatise of Human Nature       1739, 1740
Essays Concerning Human Understanding     1748
An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals   1751
History of Great Britain     1754, 1756
History of England     1759, 1762

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Weber on Values in Science

External
Links

Max Weber originated idea of value free science, but even he knew it was impossible to accomplish

SCIENCE CANNOT DECIDE VALUE ISSUES

Weber held that science cannot decide value issues

For Weber, the clarity of issues is all that science can offer us

Science can provide us w/ means but not ends

Science can never show the way to true values

A conflict of values is inevitable

Values can never be arranged through science, or otherwise, into one universal scale

Weber demonstrated that it is difficult not to use science to determine values because science offers insight:

- into the nature of human actions

- into the meaning of certain goals

- into the means of attaining goals

- into the costs & consequences for those goals & goals not pursued

SCIENCE SHOULD MINIMIZE VALUES IN RESEARCH

Weber was one of the first people to maintain that the sciences should try to minimize values in research

For most of the public AND many scientists (social & natural), there is assumption that science is neutral, i.e. value free

But we must realize that value free science is a noble, but relatively unattainable goal

Science often assumes a particular set of values

Values are personal judgments or preferences about what is considered good or bad, or about what is liked or disliked

Values & theory overlap because many of our value judgments are unproven "personal theories" however, this should not lead us to the belief that scientific theories can prove values

Values, unlike scientific theory, can never be proven

If we have a question of values, that should be resolved by the political process, the religious process, etc.

Questions of science can be resolved, questions of values cannot

It is difficult to separate values & science on many issues
- abortion
- death penalty
- pollution
- unemployment policy....

What are the questions of values & science here or in other issues?

A value loaded statement is one that purports to be neutral but has value statements

Link

Examples of loaded statements

VALUES ENTER INTO RESEARCH VIA SPONSORS, THE RESEARCHERS' PARADIGM, IN HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION, BY INTERPRETATION, & BY BAD SCIENCE

Weber proposed value free science, though he understood that this is an impossible goal, it is something to be striven for

Today science has established a mantle of objectivity which holds "science is value free"

Values enter the scientific process through FIVE Avenues

a. SPONSOR: Values enter the scientific process through the sponsor of the research who inevitably has some interest in the outcome of the research

The influence of the sponsor can be minimized by asking 'Who are is the researcher working for? What are the interests of the sponsor?'

b. PARADIGM: Values enter the scientific process through the perspective or paradigm the researcher is researching from

For researchers, the bias inherent in a paradigm is difficult to account for because they often have difficulty conceptualizing factors that lie outside their paradigm

The influence of perspectives or paradigms can be seen in that different fields of science work w/in different theoretical frameworks, & are based on a set of different theories or models

Sociology has the paradigms of functionalism, conflict theory, & symbolic interactionism

Astronomy has the paradigms of the collapsing universe, the expanding universe, & the rapidly expanding universe

c. HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION: Values enter the scientific process through hypothesis formulation, the question is the researcher exploring, the statement of the problem

Values enter in hypothesis formulation because 'the answer you get depends on the question you ask'

Values may be minimized in research by exploring a variety of questions & hypotheses & by using a variety of research methods, since each method asks the research question in a different manner

d. INTERPRETATION: Values enter the scientific process through the processes of generalization & interpretation

Among various researchers, there is often strong disagreement over the interpretation of the same data

e. BAD SCIENCE: Values enter the scientific process through bad science in the form of hoaxes & faulty research

In research today, there is a very small amount of hoaxes or faked science

In research today, there is a very small amount of faulty or erroneous science

The Scientific Method attempts to mitigate effect of values by making research process visible to all through the principle of organized skepticism

VALUE ISSUES ARE OFTEN LEGITIMATELY DISCUSSED IN THE CONCLUSIONS OF SCIENCE PAPERS

Values usually do not enter the research process in the application or methods of the study, but each type of methods has its own bias

Values are legitimately relegated to the conclusion of a research project where they are identified as such

See: Epistemology & the Antidotes to Bias

a. Antidote: Question knowledge: have no blind faith in science. Keep on Questioning. "Question Authority"

b. Antidote: Ask, "Who benefits from a given bit of knowledge?"

c. Antidote: Ask "Who controls or creates a given bit of knowledge?"

Top

Examples of Loaded Statements:
"Conflict is bad because it usually leads to violence, & rarely changes anything anyway."

"We should decrease welfare payments because too many people are lazy & are skimming off of working people when they could have jobs."

Neutral: "Conflict leads to violence. Conflict rarely changes things."

"We should decrease welfare payments because given welfare recipients skill levels, & the number & type of available jobs, 15% could have jobs.

It is impossible to be value free.

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on Gender & Research

External
Links

HISTORICALLY, RESEARCH WAS DONE BY MEN, FOR MEN & NOW WOMEN ARE ADDING USEFUL METHODOLOGIES, E.G. VALIDATING MULTI PERSPECTIVAL KNOWLEDGE, & MORE

Research & nearly all aspects of life are affected by gender, the personal traits & social positions that members of a society attach to being female, male, & transgender in five ways

Gynocentricity is the tendency to approach an issue from the male perspective

Androcentricity is the tendency to approach an issue from the male perspective

Neither gynocentricity nor androcentricity would be considered good, bad, accurate, inaccurate, etc., to a social scientist

The point in recognizing gynocentricity & androcentricity is to recognize that they are different

If either gynocentricity or androcentricity has any weakness it is in the fact that androcentricity has dominated & gynocentricity has been marginalized

Over generalizing is the using of data drawn from studying only one sex to support conclusions about human behavior in general

Gender blindness, or not considering the variable of gender at all, results in only partial understanding of a phenomenon

Double standards result in one set of findings for one gender & another set for the other gender, as well as respecting the work of different genders differently

All research can experience reactivity wherein the subjects react in unpredictable ways to the research methods or the researcher while gender reactivity is the interference created when a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher

Internal
Links

Top

Outline on an Intro to Ethics & Research

External
Links

SINCE THE INCEPTION OF ETHICAL REGS IN RESEARCH, THERE HAVE BEEN FEW VIOLATIONS, OR DANGERS TO SUBJECTS

The American Sociological Association (ASA), the professional organization of US sociologists, has estbed formal guidelines for conducting research

Every social science & natural science now has ethical reviews of all research w/ a greater level of review on research w/ human subjects

In their research, sociologists must strive to:

- be technically competent & fair minded in their work

- ensure the safety of subjects taking part in a research project

- include in their published findings any sources of financial support

- observe the global dimensions to research ethics

Most universities, colleges, research instits & other orgs which do research also have their own human research boards

The Human Investigation Committee (HIC) at UVaWise is an example of one ethical board that reviews social & natural science research

In the recent past there was inadequate ethical oversight of research as seen in:

- the Tuskegee Experiments

- the Zimbardo Experiments

- human radiation experiments

- unethical electroshock, lobotomy, & chemical experiments & more

Research ethical review boards balance the benefit of the research to society w/ the cost or risk to the subjects

The End

Top