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 Review Notes on   IS 14:  Social Change 
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 Intro to Social Change   
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           Social Change   
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           Collective Behavior   
  Unplanned Souces of Social Change   
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                  Social Change & the Physical Env   
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                  Contact & Diffusion   
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                  Rationality   
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                  Technology   
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                             Technological Determinism   
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                             Technology & Social Change   
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                  The Media   
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                             The Media & Social Change   
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                  Urbanization   
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                             Urbanization & Social Change   
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                  Internal Conflict & Social Change   
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                             Revolutionary Movements   
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                                           Theories of Revolution   
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                                           Military Breakdown   
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                                           Revolutions & Soc Change   
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                  Introduction to War   
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                            War & Social Change   
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                  Guns, Germs, & Steel:  Jared Diamond   
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 Rates of Social Change   
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               Modernization & Escalating Social Change   
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               Beyond Modernity:  Even Faster Social Change   
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               The Consequences of Rapid Social Change   
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 Causes of Social Change   
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          Theories of Social Change   
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          Equilibrium Theory / Functionalism on Social Change   
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          Conflict Theory on Social Change   
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          Evolutionary Theories on Social Change   
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                   Social Evolution   
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                   Social Evolution & Adaptation   
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          Cyclical Theories on Social Change   
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 Planned Souces of Social Change   
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           Economic Development   
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                     Social Change in the 3rd World   
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                     Modernization Theory   
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                     Dependency Theory   
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                     World Systems Theory   
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                     Imperialism   
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                     Socio Hist Analysis of Imperialism   
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                     Peripheral Nation s & Socialist Revolutions   
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                     Foreign Aid   
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                     International Loans   
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                     A World System Theory Critique   
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                     Social Change & Individualism   
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                                        The Importance of Social Movements:  Social Mvmts as Agents of Social Change   
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                             Orgs & Social Change   
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                             Bono   
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                             Maathai   
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                             Mandela   

 
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 Outline on the   Intro to Social Change
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  SOCIAL CHANGE IS ANY SIGNIFICANT ALTERATION IN THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS & PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR IN A SOCIETY 
 
  Social change is any alteration of behavior patterns, social relationships, or social structure over time 
 
  Social change may occur abruptly, or gradually 
 
  Social change may be caused by fashions, inventions, revs, wars, & other events & activities 
 
  Tech developments have led to many social changes since 1900 
 
  A number of studies have concentrated on the changes in ed, social values, & settlement patterns that occur in newly industrialized nations
 
  SOC CHANGE OCCURS ON THE VARIOUS LEVELS OF SOCIAL EXISTENCE RANGING ACROSS THE SPECTRUM FROM THE INDIVIDUAL (MICRO) TO THE GLOBAL (MACRO), & MANY LEVELS IN BTWN
 
  Social change refers to any significant change in the structure of society 
 
  Short lived changes, such as changes in the employment rate, do not produce social change 
 
  In general, fads, fashions, or temporary changes in ideas &  behavior are not soc change, but they may persist, spread throughout the society, become embedded in it, & thus do foment soc change 
 
  The election of a new president is not social change, but replacement of the presidency w/  a dictatorship changes the structure of govt &  is thus a soc change
 
 
 SOC CHANGE COMES IN MANY FORMS:  FITS & STARTS; EVOLUTION TO PLANNED CHANGE; INTERNALLY & EXTERNALLY CAUSED; ENV OR HUMAN CAUSED, & MORE 
 
 
 Social change can come from may sources; those that come from outside of the society are exogenous sources; those that originate w/in the society are endogenous 
 
 
 In practice change is often the result of exogenous & endogenous sources 
 
 
 Exposure or knowledge of another culture can be an exogenous source of soc change 
 
  Soc mvmts can be an endogenous source of soc change   
  The physical env can be a source of exogenous soc change   
  Invention, discovery, technology can be either endogenous, ie internal, or exogenous, ie external   
  Internal conflict & planned change are usually endogenous sources of change   
 
 FOR MANY SOC SCIENTIST THE TYPES OF SOC CHANGE INCLUDE CHANGES IN THE: 
A.  NUMBER & VARIETY OF POSITIONS & SOCIAL ROLES 
B.  OBLIGATIONS OR DUTIES ATTACHED TO POSITIONS 
C.  WAYS OF ORGANIZING SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 
D.  REDISTRIBUTION OF FACILITIES & REWARDS 
 
 
 See Also:  Contact & Diffusion 
 
  A.  CHANGES IN THE NUMBER & VARIETY OF POSITIONS & SOCIAL ROLES  
 
 One type of soc change involves changes in the number & variety of positions & social roles 
 
 
 Industrial society are seen as more complex than a peasant society b/c it has many new & specialized jobs, such as computer programming, conducting cancer research, & piloting a spacecraft 
 
  B.  CHANGES IN THE OBLIGATIONS OR DUTIES ATTACHED TO POSITIONS   
 
 One kind of change occurs in the obligations or duties attached to positions 
 
 
 An example of changing obligations or duties attached to positions is seen in that parents are no longer responsible for educating their children; they give this job to teachers & schools 
 
  C.  CHANGES IN THE WAYS OF ORGANIZING SOCIAL ACTIVITIES   
 
 One kind of change is when change in the number & variety of positions & social roles or changing obligations or duties attached to positions  lead to another new type of change in the ways of organizing social activities 
 
 
 The estb of kindergartens occurred partly b/c the children of wking mothers needed care 
 
 
 Ed changes took place in response to rising ed aspirations & occupational needs 
 
 
 Community, or junior, colleges were estb for advanced, but not university level, ed 
 
 
 D.  CHANGES IN THE REDISTRIBUTION OF FACILITIES & REWARDS
 
 
 One kind of social change involves the redistribution of facilities & rewards, such as power, ed, income, & respect 
 
 
 An example of social change involving the redist of facilities & rewards can be seen in that about half the people in the US w/ substandard incomes were non whites, but b/c of the Civil Rts Mvmt, today, about a third of the nation's poor are non whites 
 
 
 SOC CHANGE USUALLY HAPPENS SLOWLY, BUT SOMETIMES IT IS EXTREMELY RAPID; THUS SOC CHANGE MAY RANGE FROM EVOLUTION TO REVOLUTION, & ALL PACES IN BTWN
 
 
 Oft times societies evolve gradually 
 
 
 On occasion, societies change abruptly, as in times of revolution 
 
 
 Change can result from planning, or it can be unintentional 
 
 
 Every society changes, but not all change at the same rate or in the same direction
 
 
 Revolutionary change is often accompanied by violence, though there are some non violent, or 'velvet revs' 
 
 
 EVERY SOC CHANGE HAS DIFFERENTIAL COSTS & BENEFITS WHERE SOME CLASSES OF PEOPLE GAIN, WHILE OTHERS LOSE 
 
 
 Most changes benefit some people more than they benefit others, &  they may penalize some people   
 
 B/c changes affect classes differentially, some resistance to change is inevitable 
 
 
 Many social changes have had both beneficial & undesirable consequences
 
  When change improves conditions, people's expectations grow & they become dissatisfied w/ current achievements & demand more
 
  Sometimes people demand changes in the law & when people believe that their grievances cannot be corrected w/in the system, they call for more radical change, for rev   
  THE MULTIPLE CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE RANGE FROM ECON CENTERED  TO CULTURAL TO MARTIAL TO SYSTEMIC CAUSES, ALL OF WHICH INTERACT IN COMPLEX WAYS CREATING UNANTICIPATED CONSEQUENCES   
  For centuries, people have sought simple explanations for change, often emphasizing single factors   
  The German social philosopher Karl Marx claimed that the economy, & its cascading effect on culture & other social sys as the prime source of soc change since the econ is a central ordering force in society   
  Today, scholars believe that multiple factors may interact to create the complicated events of social change   
  Many sociologists think that societies are systems & change in one part of a society, they believe, leads to change in other parts, w/  no one part having priority   
  For example, the automobile, which is a product of tech change, created changes in where people live & work, & in their leisure activities thus causing ripples of change throughout society   
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 See Also:  Causes of Social Change   

 
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 Outline on  Social Change
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  SOCIAL CHANGE IS THE ALTERATION OF BEHAVIOR PATTERNS, SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS, INSTITUTIONS, & SOCIAL STRUCTURE OVER TIME   
 
 Soc change is the transformation of culture & social institutions over time that is reflected in the life patterns of individuals   
  Soc change, aka social development, is a general term which refers to a change in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior or the social relations of a society, community of people, or other social structures   
  Soc change is any event or action that affects a group of individuals that have shared values or characteristics & the acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a normative way   
  Soc change is the alteration in the underlying structure of a social object or situation over a period of time   
  THERE IS PERVASIVE SOCIAL CHANGE; IN THE PAST, SOME SOCIETIES WERE STABLE / UNCHANGING FOR CENTURIES; TODAY CHANGE IS THE NORM & IT IS INCREASING IN PACE 
 
  In the contemporary world, everyone has experienced change, & people expect more, rapid change in the future 
 
  It must be remembered that rapid soc change is not the norm throughout history in that in many eras, esp the Mid Ages in Euro, or the Chinese Dynasties from about 1 AD to the 1700s, life changed little for the common family   
  Understanding soc change means understanding the degree of any modification in the basic instits during a specific period as well as an understanding of what remains stable 
 
  Soc scientists note that soc change occurs in different soc structures at different rates 
 
  In our rapidly changing world, there are continuities from the long distant past such as major religious systems, gender / pairing customs such as monogamy, broad soc instit such as the military, etc. 
 
  The concept of cultural lag, as developed by conflict theorists, notes that cultures inevitably change at different rates, w/ some lagging behind others 
 
 
 Soc change encompasses everything from revolution & paradigm shifts, to narrow changes such as a particular cause w/in small town govt 
 
 
 EARLY THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE WERE OFTEN CRITICAL OF IT & THOSE WHO FOMENTED IT 
 
 
 Theories of soc change examine the success or failure of different political systems, globalization, democratization, development & econ growth 
 
 
 Some soc changes that are beneficial to society, while others may result in negative side effects or consequences that undermine or eliminate existing ways of life that are considered positive 
 
 
 One of the earliest, albeit non scientific, beliefs about social change the idea of decline or degeneration, or, in religious terms, the fall from an original state of grace, connected w/ theology 
 
 
 Ancient philosophers developed the idea that there was little soc change & instead 'history' was comprised largely of cyclical change, a pattern of subsequent & recurring phases of growth & decline, & the social cycles   
 
 The idea of cyclical change persists into the modern era 
 
  CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE RECOGNIZE IT AS A NEW, COMPLEX, SOCIAL PHENOMENON THAT IS CENTRAL TO MODERN SOCIETY   
  Beginning in the late mid age, the idea of continuous social progress was recognized   
 
 While there are many important theory of social change, the two approached of social evolution & historical materialism are the predominant theories 
 
 
 Social evolution is a gradual process of social change whereby a society develops, increases in complexity, & offers it members a better quality of life 
 
 
 Soc evol also tries to relate biological & soc change 
 
Link
 See Also:  Social Evolution   
  Evolutionary theories including social Darwinism 
 
  See Also:  Social Darwinism 
 
 
 Historical materialism holds that soc changes comes about by changes in the material env & that the most imp aspect of that change in relation to changes in society are the changes in the mode of production & class structure 
 
  Marxists Historical Analysis   
 
 Embedded in almost all theories of soc change is the role of tech 
 
  The wide adoption of a new tech leads to imbalance in the econ relationship btwn econ agents   
  Tech changes in econ systems in turn leads to changes in the social balance of power, therefore leading to social change   
  Historical precedent shows that major social changes have taken place during "cusp" periods, defined by changing relations among human formations, nature, & technology   
 
 Among many forms of creating social change are theater for social change, direct action, protesting, advocacy, community organizing, community practice, revolution, & political activism 
 
  Other important theorists of soc change include Weber, Parsons & many others   
  IN RELATION TO SOC CHANGE, US CONSERVATIVES GENERALLY OPPOSE SOC CHANGE AROUND SOC VALUES, & WANT TO RETURN TO THE FREE MKT SYS OF THE PAST WHILE US LIBERALS SUPPORT SOC CHANGE AROUND VALUES & WANT TO IMPROVE GOVT REG OF THE ECON   
  The name conservative was 1st used around 1830 & it was applied to the descendants of the old British Tory Party, & the words Tory & Conservative are used interchangeably in Britain today   
  The conservative ideas were expressed as early as the 1700s in the writings & speeches of the British statesman Edmund Burke   
  See Also:  Burke   
  Early U.S. conservatives included John Adams & Alexander Hamilton  
  Conservatism arose partly as a reaction to the excesses of the Fr Rev & to the belief that human nature could become perfect through soc change & political rev   
  Conservatives argued that soc change must be brought about w/in the framework of traditional ideas & instits   
  A true conservative should also be distinguished from a reactionary who want to revolutionize existing society according to a model in past history   
 
 The word conservative as used in the US today is often confusing; in fact in many ways it is contradictory since in general conservative, as it is used in Euro, refers to liberals in the US   
 
 Many Americans who call themselves conservatives advocate a return to the principles & theories of the 1800s in both econ policy & social values 
 
  Thus in many ways US conservatives are reactionary b/c. they want to return to past practices & continue it into the future   
  The soc change US conservatives support is often to change to the practices of the past   
 
 Conservative in Am oppose almost all govt reg of the econ, & are economically in the tradition of Adam Smith & the laissez faire free mkt   
 
 Am conservatives have opposed both economic liberalism in the form of govt reg of the econ, & socialism   
  US conservatives believe that econ & soc problems are solved best when govt interference in the econ is kept to a minimum   
  US conservatives also believe that the need to protect society justifies some restriction of the rights of people accused of crime   
  Some conservatives oppose abortion, & some support state sponsored prayer in public schools   
  In foreign policy, US conservatives tend to regard military power as the basis of world peace   
 
 Am liberals have opposed the laissez faire free mkt & conservative soc values 
 
  Am Lib have tried to steer a middle course btwn the extremes of individualism & collective ownership, & have generally favored a strong central govt   
  Am liberals want effective govt regs in relation to the econ, & safety & often support changing social values such as increasing rights for women, minorities, gays, etc   
  The soc change US liberals support is often to change to a new social practice   
  However, new soc practices are often fraught w/ unintended consequences so liberals often must revisit, refine soc changes they have sought   

 
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 Outline on  Collective Behavior
External
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  -  Video:  History Channel on the Civil Rights Mvmt:  Crossing the Bridge          44 minutes 
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  -  Video:  Woodstock             12:08, 8:57, 7:43 
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                  -  Project:  Woodstock:  The Emergence of Youth Culture & Personal Freedom 
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  -  Video:  Jena 6.   Sept. 20, 2007                 10:39 
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  -  Video:  GM UAW Strike.   Sept. 24, 2007               13:42 
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  -  Video:  Protests in Myanmar.   Sept. 24, 2007               2:00   &  12:40 
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                  -  Project:  Myanmar:  Social Change as Nation Building 
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  -  Video:  Waco:  The Rules of Engagement.  April 19, 1993              22:00 
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 -  Project:  Collective Behavior 
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  INTRODUCTION 
Our task will be 
1.  Explain how people come to transcend, bypass, or subvert established institutional patterns & structures 
2.  Explain CB w/ respect to attitudes: does CB form attitudes or vice versa? 
3.  Explain the "collective" in CB 		  
 
 Collective Behavior is one type of Social Change 
 
 
 For Locher, collective behavior is any event during which a group of people engage in unusual behavior, i.e., a "group" form of deviance 
 
 
 Review:  Human Formations:  group vs. an aggregate   
 
 For Farley, collective behavior is large numbers of people acting together in an extraordinary situation, in which the usual norms governing behavior do not apply 
 
 
 For Macionis, collective behavior is action, thoughts, & emotions that involve large numbers of people & that do not conform to established social norms 
 
 
 For Smelser, collective behavior is the relatively spontaneous & unstructured behavior of a group of people who are reacting to a common influence in an ambiguous situation 
 
  For Turner & Killian, collective behavior is those forms of social behavior in which usual conventions cease to guide social action  & people collectively transcend, bypass, or subvert established institutional patterns & structures   
  Collective behavior is large numbers of people acting together, i.e. a collectivity, but not necessarily in same locale, w/ similar thoughts & emotions & not conforming to established social norms to achieve relatively common objectives, which may be action oriented, or thought or emotion oriented   
  Collective behavior is a term in sociology that refers to how people act in crowds & other large, relatively unorganized groups   
  The various types of collective behavior include fads, panics, & riots.  Collective behavior often arises in situations that stimulate people's emotions   
  Situations which may lead to collective behavior include sporting events, protest demonstrations, & disasters such as floods & fires   
  For a social action to be labeled as collective behavior it must be a social processes or event which do not reflect existing social structure (laws, conventions, & institutions), but which emerge in a "spontaneous" way which is to say, standard sociological, psychological, political, etc. explanations are inadequate  
 
 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR EXAMPLES: 
 
 
 THE CRUSADES 
1096  Pope Urban II 
Everybody wanted to go... to where they didn't really know.
Land values dropped 
Only cowards remained.
 
 
 During the Selma March, 
- many followed ML King into the streets & jails 
- the goals were not as simple & noble as the leaders represented them to be
- the leaders were both devout men of God seeking to overcome evil as well as social mvmt pragmatists 
- only a few were cynical power mongers who were successfully marginalized by the primary leaders 
- the civil rights mvmt accomplished a social revolution & altered history 
 
 
 A bizarre form of collective behavior, St. Vitus’ Waltz, aka the Dancing Disease,  was caused by viral encephalitis which caused brain fever, affecting balance & emotion, giving people the feeling of being in love 
 
  Some examples of collective behavior are a religious revival, a panic in a burning theater, an outbreak of peace symbol painting, a change in popular preferences in fashion, any revolution, a sudden widespread interest in body piercing, etc.   
  ROBERT E. PARK   
 
 Robert E. Park is credited as the founder of the field of collective behavior & is credited w/ the first use of the term 
 
  Park believed movements such as the Crusades, the Civil Right Mvmt, etc. played a central role in social change, i.e., history   
  Much collective behavior is impulsive, unplanned, & brief & thus, it differs from the more predictable, longer lasting actions of such organized groups as school classes, teams, & social clubs   
  Some types of collective behavior fit into organized social frameworks such as an organized political party or soc mvmt which use mass demonstrations as a device in seeking social change   
  Before the 1900's, scientists knew little about the forces at work in collective behavior, but during the 1890's, Gustave Le Bon, a French physician & social scientist, made one of the first psychological studies of crowds   
  The American sociologists Robert E. Park & Ernest W. Burgess introduced the term collective behavior in their book, Introduction to the Science of Sociology (1921)   
  EARLY VIEWS ON COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR   
 
 Collective behavior was originally called "mob behavior" or "mass hysteria" because it was once believed that people lost their ability to reason 
 
 
 Most collective behavior is non-violent, though originally it was often mislabeled, assumed to be, violent 
 
  LeBon, a frightened aristocrat, interpreted the crowds of the Fr Rev as irrational reversions to animal emotion, & infers from this that such reversion is characteristic of crowds in general   
  Freud expressed a similar view of the maddening crowd in his Group Psychology & the Analysis of the Ego (1922), but modern CB addresses other types of crowd behavior   
  COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR IS NON ROUTINE   
 
 Collective behavior today is still defined as being deviant, unusual, etc. but it often evolves into acceptable behavior 
 
  Collective behavior often becomes "routinized" & it may even become "institutionalized"   
 
 Once collective behavior becomes routine, it ceases to be collective behavior   
 
 Collective behavior must always be considered in the context of social norms, including folkways, mores, rules, laws   
  As the character of the more amorphous ( changing, unformed ) norms change, so does the character of collective behavior   
  The "deviance" of collective behavior must not be a value judgment of "bad, evil, etc."  since deviance only denotes behavior that is outside of accepted social norms   
  Even a majority of people can be deviant, in that deviance is not defined by majority rule, but by power   
  See Also:  Deviance   
  THE CATEGORIZATION OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR   
  Early on in CB theory, i.e. in the 1800s, theorists noted the existence of crowd behavior that exhibited significantly different qualities from other forms of behavior known to social scientists.  
  Gustave LeBon, a frightened aristocrat, interpreted the crowds of the French Revolution as irrational reversions to animal emotion   
  In the 1900s, at the U of Chicago, Robert Park & Herbert Blumer saw crowds as emotional, but as capable of any emotion, not only the negative ones of anger & fear   
  Social scientists now recognize that there are both compact & diffuse crowds   
  Compact crowds are those whose participants are assembled in one place while diffuse crowds are those in in which the participants are not assembled in one place   
  Turner & Killian's examples of diffuse crowds include stock market booms, panics about sexual perils, "Red scares" & more   
  Some psychologists have suggested that there are three fundamental human emotions, fear, joy, & anger   
  Smelser & others have proposed three corresponding forms of the crowd, including the panic, the craze & the hostile outburst, which today is usually called a riot   
  In the panic, fear is the dominant emotion; in the craze, joy is the dominant emotion; in the riot, anger is the dominant emotion   
  Park develop the categories of the public & the mass to distinguish btwn diffuse crowds concerned w/ issues or events from diffuse crowds concerned w/ mass media issues or events   
  For Park, the public expresses a common emotion or response to various issues as a result of exposure to conversation, & thus every issue has a public   
  For Park, the masses, or a mass, expresses a common emotion or response not as a result of conversation, but as a result of exposure to a mass media event whether it might be a TV report or just the diffuse knowledge that a widespread action is occurring   
  Blumer recognized the final major form of CB in the soc mvmts which are typically distinguished from a crowd, a public or a mass by the fact that they typically have a structure & persistence   
 
 Because the field of CB is relatively, new the broad categories of crowds, publics, masses, & social mvmts are frequently re-categorized into other theoretical frameworks in order to highlight various qualities or theories of action 
 
 
 There are EIGHT basic types of collective behavior examined by social scientists today, including: 
1.  Crowd Behavior 
     a.  Mass Suicides 
     b.  Mob Violence 
     c.  Riots 
2.  Non Consumer Fashions & Fads 
3.  Consumer Collective Behavior 
     a. Fashions 
     b. Fads 
     c.  Crazes 
     d.  Panics 
4.  Rumors 
5.  Public Opinion 
6.  Mass Hysteria 
     a.  Physical 
     b.  Sightings & Miracles 
7.  Terrorism 
8.  Soc Mvmts 
 
 
 Collective behavior occurs in so many forms that social scientists have reached few conclusions about its origins, development, & consequences 
 
 
 Some investigators believe the pace of modern life & the growth of mass communications have increased the amount of collective behavior 
 
  COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR, ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR & INSTITUTIONAL BEHAVIOR   
  While collective, orgl, & institutional behaviors have some common characteristics, & often overlap in practice, they are often distinct fields of inquiry   
 
 Routine or institutionalized social behavior, including that carried out by any of the 10 social institutions (family, religion, politics, etc.), such as war, econ activity, family activity, media activity, political activity etc. is not collective behavior 
 
  Many types of behavior are so common as to be regularized or institutionalized by society   
  Park was one of the first social scientists to expand the realm of collective behavior beyond that of the crowd, recognizing the public itself as an important agent of social change   
  For Park, many social changes begin w/ slow, cumulative shifts in public opinion, which end the old social patterns, & begin the new social patterns   
  Herbert Blumer was Park's student, & he expanded the actors of collective behavior beyond the crowd to include the collectivities of soc mvmts & the public   
  For Blumer the FOUR actors or collectivities of collective behavior include 
1.  the crowd 
2.  the mass 
3.  soc mvmts 
4.  the public 		  
  Orgl beh is not considered to be collective behavior & generally includes groups that are governed by established rules or procedures which have the force of tradition behind them   
  In contrast to collectivities, org behavior often is governed by rules or laws such as Robert's Rule of Order or the rules of a bureaucracy   
  Collectivities are not guided in a straightforward fashion by the culture, norms, ideology, etc. of the society   
  Collectivities are informal in that they lack defined meanings, goals, procedures   
  Institutional behavior is not considered to be collective behavior but generally is less organized than org behavior   
  Institutional Behavior 
Family 
Play 
Religion 
School 
Work 		  
  Institutional behavior is guided by the culture of the larger society   
  CONTINUITY IN BEHAVIOR FOR CHANGE & SOCIAL CHANGE   
  There is a continuum of behavior that ranges from individual behavior, to small group behavior, collective behavior, orgl beh, institutional behavior, etc.   
  Weller & Quarantelli propose a typology that ranges from "normal" or routine behavior to new behavior or social change   
  1.  Normal behavior generally occurs in orgs or institutions by well established social actors who follow well established norms   
  2.  Non routine normal behavior occurs when normal social relations endure but norms emerge as occurs w/ hospital staff in a disaster  where old actors establish relatively new norms   
  3. Emergent, routine social behavior occurs when a new collectivity emerges & follows conventional norms   
  An example of emergent, routine social behavior w/ a new collectivity can be seen in the historically recent rise of sports fans who are following the old norms of watching sports, but are emergent in the sense that they are a mass mvmt which is generating new attention & a new relationship w/ other institutions & actors   
  4.  Social change or new behavior occurs when there are emergent norms, actors & social relationships as when a new collectivity acts in new, unique ways establishing new norms in the process   
  An example of emergent norms, actors, & social relationships can be seen in the Crusades or the civil rights mvmt   
  For Blumer, social change is normal, as normal as the established social order in the sense that it is always occurring, but it is not normal in the sense that it occurs outside of the norms of society   
  Social change is abnormal, in that it challenges, confronts or in some manner causes disruption in the established social order   
  For Blumer a soc mvmt:  "... takes on the character of a society," developing a culture, a soc org, a new scheme of life   
  For Blumer a soc mvmts were not necessarily under the influence of custom, tradition, conventions, rules or institutional regulations   
  For Blumer the examination of collective behavior is concerned w/ the way in which the social order comes into existence   
  Collective behavior is "extra institutional" in that it is outside of everyday social behavior which always takes place in one of the ten social institutions   
  At first CB was considered the opposite of institutional behavior (IB)   
  IB may be defined as people governed by norms, folkways, mores, & laws   
  RATIONAL & NON RATIONAL MOTIVATIONS IN CB 
 
  As the study of CB developed, social scientists came to understand that people cast aside norms & acted on emotion or suggestibility or unsocialized impulses as opposed to the standard norms of IB   
  Early in the study of CB, some social scientists stressed rational calculation   
  Early in the study of CB, some social scientists proposed that CB took place under the governance of emergent norms   
  Today, some social scientists propose that CB occurs because individuals find solidarity of voice for an amorphous norm, & develop a shared definition of right & wrong   
  People riot, etc. because they find a new definition of right & wrong   
  Emergent norms may include the redefinition of right & wrong as seen when the public became convinced that segregation was wrong   
  Perhaps the simplest case of CB is permissiveness, where actors see wrong behavior as permissible under the circumstances   
  Only in the case of looting do people come to accept the logic that they are taking what is rightfully theirs, & yet opportunities to steal always exist   
  Under normal, non looting conditions the opportunity to steal exists, but norms are not redefined to make it acceptable   
  Passengers on the Titanic defined panic as unacceptable & defined a sense of necessity of heroic behavior   
 
 More complex CB requires emergent norms that are permissible & obligatory as in the case of war, the environment, etc 
 
 
 People come to act collectively when the conditions or event are sufficiently outside the range of ordinary happenings so that people turn to others for help & support in interpreting & responding 
 
 
 People come to act collectively when there is a ready availability of pre-existing social groups that act collectively outside of the norm 
 
 
 People come to act collectively because people tend to form ad hoc groups on basis of some recognizable informal, or minimal grouping 
 
 
 CB is distinctive from other types of soc beh because it requires more complex decision making & communications than individual behavior because of the necessity of a complex division of labor & coordination of labor 
 
 
 CB is distinctive from other types of social behavior because the use of pre-existing communication networks such as in the community, or the mass media is essential 
 
 
 CB is distinctive from other types of social behavior because problems of communication & coordination, etc. are much greater for sustained than for transitory action 
 
  EXPLANATIONS OF COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR   
  1.  Contagion theory focuses on special psychological mechanisms including moods, attitudes, communications   
  2.  The emergent norm perspective focuses on emergent definition of the situation, how actors create meaning & rules   
  3.  Value added theory integrates functional theory into an analysis of collective behavior & assumes that col beh is functional / useful for society   
  4. The assembly sociocybernetic symbolic interactionist / behaviorist (AS-SIB) holds that behavior converges because of the common meaningful interpretations or instructions created by participants & other   
  5.  Individualist theories assume that collective behavior comes from w/in the individual & sees individual motivations as the key to understanding why collective behavior occurs   
  6.  Convergence theory focuses on characteristics & predispositions which individuals bring to the situation   
Link
 Figure  on a Model of Collective Behavior by Turner & Killian 
 
  A Model of Collective Behavior demonstrates that precipitating incidents justify the emergence of a norm which justifies extra institutional action, i.e., outside of the normal channels & that a precipitating incidents justify or stimulate the interaction of pre-existing groups or ad hoc formations give pre-existing conditions of feasibility & timeliness   

 
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Figure on a Model of Collective Behavior by Turner & Killian

A Model of Collective Behavior demonstrates that Precipitating incidents justify the emergence of a norm which justifies extra institutional action, i.e., outside of the normal channels & that a precipitating incidents justify or stimulate the interaction of pre-existing groups or ad hoc formations give pre-existing conditions of feasibility & timeliness 

 
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 Outline on  Social Change & the Physical Environment
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 CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENV CAUSES CHANGES IN HUMAN SOCIETY 
 
  The physical env can be a major source of soc change   
  The phys env limits the systems of production humans develop   
  People living in mountains, river areas, valleys, & other isolating areas are more difficult to unify into a society   
 
 When climate changes, which it has from time to time (as in the Little Ice Age), or when a group moves to a new climate, soc life must adjust 
 
  NASA defines the Little Ice Age as a cold period between AD 1550 & AD 1850 & notes 3 particularly cold intervals: one beginning about 1650, another about 1770, & the last in 1850, each separated by intervals of slight warming   
  CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENV MAY BE THE RESULT OF NATURAL FACTORS OR HUMAN FACTORS   
 
 While it has often appeared to humans as if the climate was a constant, we now know that the env & climate has changed as a result of 'natural' & human factors 
 
 
 As the env & climate have changed, human societies have adapted to it 
 
 
 Note that it is a pt of debate whether human action in relation to the env  is 'natural' or not 
 
 
 Today we generally view human activity as unnatural, but many view humans in hunter gatherer society or in early ag society as natural as we hunted species to extinction, changed the predominant flora in a region, etc 
 
 
 Humans can change the climate, as in the expansion of deserts b/c of overgrazing & over harvesting of firewood in the mideast, no Africa, & esp Italy, Greece & England in Europe 
 

 
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 Outline on  Contact & Diffusion
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 CONTACT BTWN SOCIETIES OFTEN BRINGS ABOUT SOC CHANGE IN BOTH SOCIETIES AS THEY ADOPT EACH OTHERS PRACTICES 
 
 
 Contact btwn societies, whether hostile or friendly, intense or slight, can bring about changes 
 
 
 New ideas, objects, weapons, crops, animals, etc can be exchanged 
 
 
 Oft times exchanges can be unintentional which is usually the case when diseases spread from one culture, which may or may not have a resistance to a disease, to a new culture, which does not have any resistance 
 
 
 In the past contact often occurred through exploration & subsequent trade 
 
 
 Today the practice of globalization characterizes the fact that contact & diffusion among cultures is global in nature, increasing daily, & all pervasive
 
 
 Contact through globalization comes about through the practices of trade, the media, the internet, tourism, scientific exchange, & more 
 
 
 No society is so isolated that it does not come in contact w/ other societies 
 
 
 When contact occurs, societies borrow cultural traits from one another 
 
 
 As a result of cultural contact, cultural traits &  patterns tend to spread from the society in which they originated 
 
 
 CULTURAL DIFFUSION IS THE SPREAD OF IDEAS & OBJECTS FROM ONE CULTURE TO ANOTHER 
 
  The process of the spreading of culture, ie of knowledge, beliefs, values, norms, as well as technology,  is called diffusion   
 
 Cultural diffusion is rarely the sole source of soc change in a society in that it often must be combined w/ people or groups accepting or anxious for such soc change 
 
 
 In some cases societies repel or object to cultural diffusion as when patriarchal cultures resist the idea of gender equality 
 
 
 An example of resisting cultural diffusion is when the Chines forbade overseas trade & exploration in the 1400s 
 
 
 Corn growing, for example, began in what is now Mexico thousands of years ago & eventually spread throughout the world 
 
 
 Diffusion can occur w/o firsthand contact btwn cultures 
 
 
 Products or patterns may move from grp A to group C through grp B w/o any contact btwn grp A & grp C 
 
 
 Today, diffusion is rapid & widespread b/c many cultures of the world are linked through advanced means of transportation & communication
 
 
 TRANS CULTURAL DIFFUSION REFERS TO DIFFUSION ACROSS CULTURAL BOUNDARIES 
 
 
 Cultural diffusion was first conceptualized by Alfred L. Kroeber in his influential 1940 paper Stimulus Diffusion 
 
  For Kroeber, diffusion, or trans cultural diffusion in later reformulations, is the spread of cultural items, such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages etc, btwn individuals, whether w/in a single culture or from one culture to another   
  Trans cultural diffusion is distinct from the diffusion of innovations w/in a single culture   
  Diffusion across cultures is a well attested &  also uncontroversial phenomenon   
  The practice of agriculture is widely believed to have diffused from somewhere in the Middle East to all of Eurasia, less than 10,000 yrs ago, having been adopted by many pre existing cultures   
  Other estb examples of diffusion include the spread of the war chariot & iron smelting in ancient times, & the use of cars & Western business suits in the 20th century  
  THERE ARE SEVERAL VARIATIONS OF DIFFUSION INCLUDING EXPANSION, RELOCATION, HIERARCHICAL, & CONTAGIOUS DIFFUSION   
  Expansion diffusion: an innovation or idea that develops in a source area & remains strong there, while also spreading outward to other areas   
  Relocation diffusion is an idea or innovation that migrates into new areas, leaving behind its origin or source of the cultural trait   
  Hierarchical diffusion occurs when an idea or innovation spreads by moving from larger to smaller places, often w/ little regard to the distance btwn places, & often influenced by social elites   
  Contagious diffusion occurs when an idea or innovation is based on person to person contact w/in a given population   
  THE MECHANISMS OF DIFFUSION MAY BE DIRECT, INDIRECT, FORCED, INTENDED, OR MOST COMMONLY, UNINTENDED   
  Diffusion can happen in many ways   
  Migrating populations will carry their culture w/ them  
  Ideas can be carried by trans cultural visitors, such as merchants, explorers, soldiers, diplomats, slaves, & hired artisans  
  Technology diffusion has often occurred by one society luring skilled scientists or workers by payments or other inducement  
  Trans cultural marriages btwn two neighboring or interspersed cultures have also contributed  
  Among literate societies, diffusion can happen through letters or books (and, in modern times, through other media as well)  
  Direct diffusion is when two cultures are very close to each other, resulting in intermarriage, trade, & even warfare  
  An example of direct diffusion is btwn the United States & Canada, where the people living on the border of these two countries engage in hockey, which started in Canada, & baseball, which is popular in American culture  
  Direct diffusion is very common in ancient times, when small groups, or bands, of humans lived in adjoining settlements  
  Indirect diffusion happens when traits are passed from one culture through a middleman to another culture, w/o the first & final cultures ever being in direct contact  
  An example could be the presence of Mexican food in Canada, since a large territory (the United States) lies in btwn.  
  Indirect diffusion is very common in today's world, b/c of the mass media & the invention of the Internet  
  Forced diffusion occurs when one culture subjugates (conquers or enslaves) another culture & forces its own customs on the conquered people  
  An example would be the forced Christianization of the indigenous populations of the Americas by the Spanish, French, English & Portuguese, or the forced Islamization of West African peoples by the Fula   
  Historian & critic Daniel J. Boorstin in his book The Discoverers provides a historical perspective about the role of explorers in history & he gives clear examples of many of the varieties of diffusion btwn civilizations   
  ACCULTURATION IS THE ADOPTION BY ONE GROUP OF THE CULTURE OF ANOTHER GROUP   
  When two cultures have continuous, firsthand contact w/ each other, the exchange of cultural traits is called acculturation   
  Acculturation has often occurred when one culture has colonized or conquered another, or as a result of trade   
  In addition to adopting each other's traits, the two cultures may blend traits   
  For example, if the people of the cultures speak different languages, they may develop a mixed language called pidgin in order to communicate   
  The cultures may also exchange or blend such traits as clothing, dances, music, recipes, & tools   
  Through acculturation, parts of the culture of one or both groups change, but the groups remain distinct   
  In this way, acculturation differs from assimilation.  Through assimilation, one group becomes part of another group & loses its separate identity   
  MODELS OF DIFFUSION INCLUDE CULTURE CIRCLES, EVOLUTIONARY DIFFUSION, THE 'CULTURAL BULLET,' & HYPERDIFFUSIONISM  
  Culture circles diffusionism is the theory that cultures originated from a small number of cultures   
  Evolutionary diffusionism is the theory that societies are influenced by others & that all humans share psychological traits that make them equally likely to innovate, resulting in development of similar innovations in isolation   
  Cultural bullet theory, developed by JP Mallory, focuses on the extent of cultural diffusion as the result of population changes along a scale from migration to invasion   
  According to the cultural bullet model, local continuity of material culture & social organization is stronger than linguistic continuity, so that cultural contact or limited migration regularly leads to linguistic changes w/o affecting material culture or social organization   
  A concept that has often been mentioned in comparison to cultural bullet theory is the evolutionary diffusionism model which focuses on the 'tipping pt' that may come when cultures meet & the ideas of one impact another   
   The cultural tipping pt can be seen when 'an idea whose time has come' creates a new cultural item which appears almost simultaneously & independently in several widely separated places, after certain prerequisite items have diffused across the respective communities   
  The cultural tipping pt can be seen, for example, w/ regard to the development of calculus by Newton & Leibnitz, or the inventions of the airplane & of the electronic computer  
  HYPERDIFFUSION IS THE THEORY THAT ALL CULTURES ORIGINATED FROM ONE CULTURE   
  Hyperdiffusionists deny that parallel evolution or independent invention took place to any great extent throughout history   
  Hyperdiffusionists claim that all major inventions & all cultures can be traced back to a single culture  
  Early theories of hyperdiffusionism can be traced back to ideas about So America being the origin of mankind   
  Antonio de León Pinelo, a Spaniard who settled in Bolivia, claimed in his book Paraíso en al Nuevo Mundo that the Garden of Eden & the creation of man had occurred in Bolivia & that the rest of the world was populated by migrations from there   
  Similar ideas were also held by Emeterio Villamil de Rada, in his book La Lengua de Adán he attempted to prove that Aymara was the original language of mankind & that humanity had originated in Sorata in the Bolivian Andes   
  The first scientific defense of humanity originating in So America came from the Argentine paleontologist Florentino Ameghino in 1880 from his research in a book titled La antigüedad del hombre en el Plata  
  There was a revival of hyperdiffusionism in 1911 w/ the work of Grafton Elliot Smith who asserted that copper spread from Egypt to the rest of the world along w/ megalithic culture 
 
 
 Smith had claimed that all major inventions had been made by the ancient Egyptians & were carried to the rest of the world by migrants & voyagers.
 
 
 His views became known as Egyptocentric hyperdiffusionism 
 
 
 William James Perry elaborated on the hyperdiffusionist ideas of Smith by using ethnographic data 
 
  Another hyperdiffusionist was Lord Raglan in his book How Came Civilization (1939) where he theorized that instead of Egypt all culture & civilization had come from Mesopotamia   
 
 Hyperdiffusionism after this did not entirely disappear, but it was generally abandoned by mainstream academia 
 
  THERE WAS RAPID & SIGNIFICANT DIFFUSION OF TECH & MERCANTILE CAPITALISM IN EURO IN THE MID AGES   
  A noteworthy example of diffusion theory is the massive infusion of tech into Europe btwn 1000 & 1700 CE   
  In the early Middle Ages, Byzantine & Asian societies were far more advanced than Euro, however, the era beginning in the High Middle Ages reversed that balance & resulted in a Euro which surpassed Asian, Byzantine & Muslim cultures in pre industrial tech  
 
 Diffusion theory has been advanced as an explanation for the Euro shift in tech development   
 
 Many basic inventions had their roots elsewhere, notably gunpowder, clock mechanisms, shipbuilding, paper & the windmill; however, in each of these cases Euros not only adopted the tech, but improved the mfring scale, inherent tech, & applications to a point clearly surpassing the evolution of the original invention in its country of origin 
 
 
 Historians have questioned recently whether Euro really owes the development of such inventions as gunpowder, the compass, the windmill or printing to the Chinese or other cultures
 
 
 It is a matter of record that by the late 18th C, European fleets, armed w/ advanced cannon, decimated Arab & Chinese fleets, paving the way for unfettered domination of the seas that led to the colonial era
 
  Three theorists have addressed the pt today of what may be called 'Western exceptionalism,' including, Marx, Weber, & Diamond   
  Post modernists, southern hemispherists & many others would, 1st, deny the pt of Western exceptionalism noting that the West has wrecked havoc on many other societies, & 2nd, its rationalism may ultimately even be the downfall of humanity   
  Western exceptionalists argue that someone, by logic, had to be more advanced as society dev & since the mid ages, that has been the West, though it has not always been the most advanced, & probably will not retain that position at some time in the future   
  DIFFUSION MAY HAVE SEVERAL NEGATIVE EFFECTS, THE MOST COMMON OF WHICH ARE PATRIARCHY, ETHNOCENTRISM, ECON IMPERIALISM, GENOCIDE, & MORE   
  While the concept of diffusion is well accepted in general, conjectures about the existence or the extent of diffusion in some specific contexts have been hotly disputed   
  An example of dispute over the extent & direction of diffusion is the proposal by Thor Heyerdahl that similarities between the culture of Polynesia & the pre Columbian civilizations of the Andes are due to diffusion from the latter to the former   
   The theory of diffusion across the Pacific to So Am currently has few supporters among professional anthropologists, but is widespread in popular culture b/c of its inherent logic that So Pacific islanders could have traveled to So Am & spread their culture   
  Such books as Kon Tiki documents the adventure of one anthropologist who floated on a balsa wood raft across the Pacific, demonstrating that So Pacific islanders could have traveled the distance & spread their culture   
  Attempts to explain similarities btwn 2 cultures by diffusion are often criticized for being ethnocentric, since they imply that the supposed 'receptors' would not be capable of innovation, & some authors made such claims explicitly   
  Some theorists argue for pre Columbian trans oceanic contact as the only possible explanation for the origin of the great civilizations in the Andes & of Central Am  
  Many theorists argue that cultural diffusion is simply over used, starting in the late 19th C, as a blanket explanation for all similarities btwn widely dispersed cultures   
  Most social scientists believe diffusion is one among many factors for how cultures change   
  he most famous proponent of the primary diffusion theory was Grafton Elliot Smith, who argued that civilization first formed in ancient Egypt & then diffused to other places   
  Diffusion theories also suffer from being inherently speculative & hard to prove or disprove; esp for relatively simple cultural items like pyramid shaped bldings, solar deity, row of standing stones, animal paintings in caves, & more   
  The act of diffusion is a purely mental, or at most verbal, phenomenon, that usually leaves no archaeological trace   
  Diffusion can be deduced w/ some certainty only when the similarities involve a relatively complex & partly arbitrary collection of items, such as a writing system, a complex myth, or a pantheon of several gods   
  Another criticism that has been leveled at many diffusion proposals is the failure to explain why certain items were not diffused   
  Attempts to explain the New World civilizations by diffusion from the So Pacific, Euro, Egypt, etc should explain why a basic concept like the potter's wheel is not found in the Americas while writing is   
  MARX & WEBER SEE THE CULTURAL DIFFUSION OF IDEOLOGIES / WORLD VIEWS, WHILE SOC SCIENTISTS SUCH AS DIAMOND SEE THE DIFFUSION OF TECHNOLOGY & OTHER ASPECTS OF SOCIETIES AS CENTRAL TO SOC CHANGE   
  Marx argues in many of his works from Das Kaptial to 'The 1844 Manuscripts' that W Euro gained ascendancy through a process of historical materialism whereby the aristocratic & peasant classes was superseded by the capitalist & worker classes in the mid ages b/c of inherent contradictions in the feudal system   
  For Marx some of the factors which lead to the ascendancy of the capitalist & wking classes was the efficiency of the capitalist system compared to the feudal system   
  Marx argues that the development of class & econ systems has been at the center of the cultural / historical change throughout human history   
  Weber theorizes in The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism (19) that the Euro superiority which arose in the high middle ages is the result of the Protestant work ethic & doing 'good works'  
  See Also:  The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism (1905) (PESC)   
  Weber posited that the Protestant idea that 'good works,' ie doing 'god's work,' ie the right thing could be rewarded in this life & therefore wealth in the material world represents god's reward for doing good works was one reason for Euro superiority 
 
  Weber examined the cultures & religions of several civilizations in relation to their success or lack of success in the modern age 
 
  Weber essentially agrees w/ Marx that the development of class & econ systems has been at the center of the cultural / historical change throughout human history, & simply adds that one more factor in this development was the supplanting of the catholic (small c) w/ the protestant (small p) ethos of the work ethic & good works   
  Diamond posits in Guns, Germs & Steel that the diffusion of technology, ie guns & steel, & epidemiology in the form of native people's lack of resistance to W Euro diseases, esp the measles were central factors in 'Euro exceptionalism'   
  See Also:  Guns, Germs & Steel.  1997.  Jared Diamond  
Link
 Guns, Germs & Steel explains why Eurasian civilizations, including No Africa, survived & conquered others, arguing that Eurasian hegemony is not due to any form of Eurasian intellectual, moral or inherent genetic superiority   
  The gaps in power & tech btwn human societies originate in env differences, which are amplified by various positive feedback loops 
 
  When cultural or genetic differences have favored Eurasians, for example, written language or the development among Eurasians of resistance to endemic diseases, Diamond asserts that these advantages occurred b/c of the influence of geography on societies & cultures, & were not inherent in the Eurasian genomes  

 
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Outline on  Rationality
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  -  Project:  What is rational? 
Link
  RATIONALITY IS A MODEL OF CHOICE BASED ON WHO / WHAT WORKS BEST IN ACHIEVING A GIVEN OBJECTIVE   
  A SOCIO HISTL ANALYSIS OF RATIONALITY DEMONSTRATES THAT THE RAT / SCIENTIFIC WAY OF THINKING IS A NEW / MODERN PHENOMENON   
  A form of scholarship known as antiquarianism spread across Europe beginning in the 1500s   
  Antiquarian scholars gathered, preserved, recorded, edited, and cataloged the basic materials for history   
  Examples of antiquarian research   
  Without the research of the antiquarians, the primary sources for many fields of history throughout Europe might have been lost   
  THE ENLIGHTENMENT, AKA THE AGE OF REASON, IS THE LATE MID AGES ERA WHERE RAT / SCIENCE CAME TO THE FOREFRONT, DISPLACING TRADL KNOWLEDGE   
  During the Age of Reason, aka the Enlightenment, which lasted from the late 1600s to the late 1700s, a group of French philosophers called the philosophes became prominent   
  See Also:  The Enlightenment   
  Writers during the Age of Reason preferred to write broad historical narratives to proclaim large scale theories of the progress and decline of civilization   
  In general, the works of the philosophes reflected the respect for rationality, critical thought, secular values, and scholarship that characterized the Age of Reason   
 
 Leading philosophes included the Marquis de Condorcet, Montesquieu, and Voltaire   
 
 The philosophers of the Age of Reason believed that each person has a rational will, which makes it possible to make and carry out plans 
 
  The Enlightenment thinkers declared that animals are slaves of their emotions; when an animal is afraid of something, it tries to escape; when an animal is angry, it fights   
  However for the Enlightenment thinkers, people can figure out the best course of action when they are afraid, angry, or in trouble   
  In addition, people can make themselves do the right thing, instead of doing only what may seem easier or more appealing   
  The Enlightenment thinkers realized that people do not always plan ahead but often act on impulse, which they attributed to inadequate education   
  All people, the Enlightenment thinkers believed, are born with the capacity to reason   
  RENE DESCARTE PHILOSOPHIZED THAT RATIONALITY WAS A NATURAL QUALITY OF HUMAN KIND   
  Descartes wrote that "the power of forming a good judgment and of distinguishing the true from the false, which is properly speaking what is called good sense or reason, is by nature equal in all men."   
  Descartes therefore thought that to become rational, a person need only acquire an education that teaches a good method of reasoning   
  JOHN LOCKE PHILOSOPHIZED THAT GOD GAVE US THE CAPACITY FOR RATIONALITY  
  Locke wrote that reason is "the candle of the Lord set up by Himself in men's minds" and "must be our last judge and guide in everything."  
  See Also:  Locke   
  Locke believed reason teaches that people must unite and form a state to protect their "lives and liberty and property."   
  Locke noted that although people must give up some rights when they form a state, they gain more in protection than they lose   
  Locke believed that anyone can reason, providing the capacity is allowed to develop   
  He therefore emphasized the importance of education and insisted on the right of free speech and on toleration for conflicting ideas   
  WEBER HELD RATIONALITY WAS THE CENTRAL & SUPRA POWERFUL FEATURE OF MODERNITY   
 
 Rationalization in Weberian sociology, is the process by which decisions are made on basis of what is expected to work best   
  Weber sees rational authority as displacing charismatic & traditional authority   
  Rationality is inherent in modernization, urbanization, & the Industrial Revolution   
  For Weber, bureaucracy is the primary means by which rationality occurs in modern society   
  Weber's forms of rationality parallel his forms of authority which are based on technical mastery of a area or subject   
  1.  SUBSTANTIVE RAT IS THE DOMINANCE OF NORMS & VALUES IN THE RATIONAL CHOICE OF MEANS TO ENDS   
  Substantive rationality creates the ability to draw on norms & values to motivate people to behave in a rational manner   
  Substantive rationality requires that people strive to master a situation & adapt it to their conscious ends   
Link
 Examples of Substantive Rationality   
  2.  THEORETICAL / INTELLECTUAL RAT IS THE ABILITY TO UTILIZE PEOPLE'S RATL PROBLEM SOLVING CAPACITIES   
  Theoretical rationality is also known as the rational cognitive process   
  Examples of theoretical rationality, which use a mental schema to make a decision, include:   
  -  the scientific method   
  -  risk management process   
  3.  PRACTICAL RAT IS DAY TO DAY RAT AS SEEN IN THE ABILITY TO FIND PRACTICALLY RAT WAYS OF HANDLING MUNDANE SITUATIONS   
  Examples of practical rationality include:   
  -  Pragmatism   
  -  What works best in the short run   
  -  Common sense   
Link
 Examples of Practical Rationality   
  4.  FORMAL RAT IS THE USE OF ORGL STRUCTURES WHICH CONSTRAIN PEOPLE TO ACT IN A RAT MANNER IN THEIR CHOICE OF MEANS TO ENDS   
  Bureaucracy is the primary orgl structure used to implement formal rat   
  Functional, aka formal rationality requires of the subordination of one's mind & self to a thing or mechanical process   
 
 Examples of formal rationality include   
  -  the typical top down bureaucracy today which is the organizational hierarchy as first devised in religion, govt, & then refined in the mideval military   
  -  the division of labor & the assembly line   
  -  Fordism   
 
 -  McDonaldization   
  Weber's thesis is that formal rationality & bureaucracy is the distinctive development in the modern world & displaces both:   
  a.  Charismatic authority   
  b.  Traditional authority   
  For Weber, formal rationality is vastly superior to earlier forms of organization   
  THE FOUR DIMENSIONS OF FORMAL RAT ARE EFFICIENCY, PREDICTABILITY, QUANTITY, & NONHUMAN TECH   
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 a.  Efficiency is the search for the best means to the end   
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 b.  Predictability is being able to determine future events, thus creating a world of no surprises   
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 c.  Quantity is the gaining benefits from the economies of scale, the opposite of which is quality   
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 d.  Nonhuman technology is the substitution of machines, computers,  biotech, etc. for human labor   
  There are inherent strengths & weaknesses w/ each form of rationality   
  A common weakness of rationality is called the irrationality of rationality which is the obsession w/ only one form of rationalization   
  As formal rationality develops, it draws less & less upon the other forms of rationality   
  Formal rationality downplays & ignores contributions of the three other forms or rationality   
  Dehumanization & demystification are often associated w/ progress & formal rationality   
  In Weberian Sociology, the process by which tradition, faith, and personal relationship are set aside in the conduct of business, with decisions being made on the basis of what is expected to work best is defined as rationality   
  HYPERRATIONALITY COMBINES EFFICIENCY, PREDICTABILITY, QUANTITY, & NONHUMAN TECH IN A FORMAL RAT PROCESS   
  Ritzer developed the concept of hyperrationality, which is a process that combines all of Weber's forms of rationality   
  There are THREE advantages of hyperrationality   
  a.  Hyperrationality mitigates individual rationalization weakness & emphasizes individual rationalization strengths   
  b.  Hyperrationality combines all forms of rationality to mitigate the weaknesses of each   
  c.  Hyperrationality can emphasize any of the forms of rationality, given the particulars of the situation   
 Link
 Examples of Hyperrationality   
  Weber viewed the development of the modern era as increasingly dominated by the "iron cage of rationality"   
  Weber analyzes the role of professionals in bureaucracy & concludes that they have the best chance of breaking out of the "iron cage of rationality"   

 
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Examples of Substantive Rationality: 
      Letting your values & goals dictate how you do something 
     Belief in democracy / equality:  involve the whole family in making decisions 
     Belief in patriarchy:  head male makes the decisions 

 
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Examples of Practical Rationality: 
      How to build a garden shed: 
      Buy the lumber, hand saw it up, nail it up 
      Buy a kit (wood is already cut), buy nail gun & compressor 

 
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Examples of Efficiency 
A drive through window is a good example of increased efficiency in fast food delivery

 
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Examples of Predictability 
Example:  Big Mac in NYC is the same as in Paris 
[ standardization ] 
Knowing how many people to put on each shift because of good analysis of demand 

Knowing where a store can profitably exist 


 
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Examples of the Economies of Scale 
Fast food gives you a healthy portion rather than a unique dining experience 

 
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Examples of Nonhuman Technologies 

McDonalds' assembly line production w/ detailed instructions for preparing all the food


 
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Examples of Hyperrationality: 
US & Japanese Auto Industries 
McDonalds is becoming so 
Walmart 

 
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 Outline on  Technology
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  Technology includes the  mechanical, industrial or applied sciences & their instruments, including their methods & procedures 
 
  Tech includes mechanical, industrial or applied sciences & their instruments   
  Tech includes methods & procedures   
  Tech includes physical apparatus & knowledge used to produce & solve problems   
  Tech includes physical objects, such as computers, activities such as email, & knowledge such as how to email texts & images   
  Tech & organizational structure are two sides of the same coin in that the social relations of production determine the type of, & the utilization of a particular technology in an environment of particular labor mgt relations   
  Tech & the org structure of labor mgt relations in which it is embedded may discussed separately but it must be noted that many theorists disagree on whether technology determines org structure & the social relations of production, or whether the social relations of production determine technology   
  Techl determinism is often misused as a justification for particular social relations of production that are to the advantage of mgt & the disadvantage of Labor   
  See Also:  The Mode of Production & the Forces of Production & the Social Relations of Production   
 
 TECHNOLOGY & THE ENVIRONMENT 
 
  I = PATE 
Humans' Impact on the environment is a function of a Population, their Affluence/wealth, Technology & Environmental values 
 
  Technological  systems are specialized:  info, transportation, manufacturing, agriculture, etc.
 
  The Core Countries technologies uses the most energy: 
The Industrialized world has  25 %  of the population & uses  90 %  of the resources 
The US has    world has has   5 %  of the population & uses   25 %  of the resources 
China has world has has    25 %  of the population & uses    6 %  of the resources 
 
  Core countries use more resources 
 
  Core countries pollute less partially because they export toxic industrial processes & waste 
 
  The U.S. consumes 42% of the hydrocarbons (oil, gas, oil, coal), 38% of the molybdenum, 21% of the lead, 19% of the copper, & 15% of the zinc produced globally 
 
  Technology now changes the global environment through the harvesting of resources, waste in manufacturing, waste in consumption  ( waste includes pollution ) 
 
  How does the coal commodity chain affect the environment? 
 
  Corporations can now move mountains, affecting 10s of square miles all the while using less labor than in the mines of the early 1900s 
 
  Today's mines make less water pollution via catching ponds & settling ponds, per ton of coal mined 
 
  Burning coal today makes less air pollution per ton of coal because of scrubbers & other technologies 
 
  Key natural resources are shaped by technology as is seen in cultivated land vs. natural landscape, energy development as a forest of well heads, mineral mining & strip mines, mountain top removal, deep mines, etc.   
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 Natural resources & technology do not guarantee wealth nor does a shortage of them relegate a nation to poverty as seen in the natural wealth of South Africa & Russia, & the lack of natural wealth in Japan & England   
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 There are THREE  fundamental types of technology including operations, materials, & knowledge technology   
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 a. Operations technology includes the people & machines that produce & the set of rules that governs their operations   
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 b.  Materials technology is any thing used in production   
  Materials may be natural or human made & may be new or old, but used in a new way   
  Materials used in one workplace affects others in that they may be subcomponents for another process of production:  e.g. plastic to microchips   
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 c.  Knowledge technology is the body of truths, facts, or information accumulated by humanity in the course of time as based in production   
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 There are FOUR technology stages including simple tool, craft, mass production, & high technology   
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 1.  Simple tool technology includes the use of no tools, i.e. only operations & knowledge tech, to the use of stone & bone, to the use of baskets & other early technologies   
  The division of labor w/ simple tool technology was stratified primarily & only by gender & age   
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 2.  Craft technology includes the use of more advanced tools which require greater materials & knowledge to manufacture   
  Craft tech includes clay fired pots, porcelain, bronze, wheels & gears, etc. as well as the tech to produce such tech such as mining of iron, copper & tin to make bronze   
  The division of labor w/ craft technology was stratified primarily by skill & craft as in apprentice, journeyman, & craftsman in masonry or silver smithing   
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 3.  Mass production technology includes the utilization of highly specialized tools & services integrated into mechanized production operation   
  With mass production tech, knowledge is advanced via the crafts as well as universities   
  The division of labor w/ mass production technology was stratified primarily by the wage system into workers & mgt., but also by industry   
  4.  High technology is knowledge based tech that today is based in computer & biotech technology   
  High tech allows for the refinement & exact control of mass production & service industries   
  Daniel Bell (1976) argues in the Coming of Post-Industrial Society that new knowledge based technology is transforming the nature of society as knowledge becomes the central resource in society   
  Bell believes that the economy is becoming knowledge intensive rather than capital intensive   
  For Bell, knowledge replaces capital as central resource in society   
  For Bell, in post industrial society, there is a shift from goods production to services production   
  But the services have remained labor intensive & low paying   
  The epitome of the high tech business is Microsoft whose power comes from a pattern of zeros & ones   
  While the core has indeed shifted to high tech & service industries, production has not decreased at all, it has merely shifted to the semi periphery & the periphery   
  With high tech, mass production industry, workers in the late 20th C produce more goods, & a greater variety of goods, than was ever before possible   
  With high tech, mass production industry comes the possibility of shorter hours, increased safety, greater employment security, & material abundance for all of society; yet none of this has come to pass   
  The organization of the economic social structure of society, & society itself have shaped the implementation of technology & the distribution of rewards in such a way that some people are excluded from the benefits of increase productivity   
  There is the widespread misconception that technology dictates the organization of work   
  While tech could bring an end to alienated labor, technology can deskill or increase the skill required, or routinize or provide variety on the job   
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 The Diagram of Blauner's Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation  shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others   

 
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The Diagram of Blauner's  Inverted U Curve of Technology & Alienation shows that some production technologies are more alienating than others

                     |  Machine                  *         Assembly
                     |  Tending              *        *     Line
                     |                        *                *
                     |                  *                            *
                     |               *                                    *
Level of         | Craft   *                                          *       Continuous
Alienation      |         *                                                  *    Process
                     |     *                                                           *
                     |  *                                                                    *
                     |*________________________________________*_
                      Printing      Textiles         Autos        Chemicals


 
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 Outline on   Technological Determinism
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  TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM   
 
 Since the beginning of org theory, social scientists have asked whether org structure, social structure, society, & even humanity itself is determined by technology, or some other factor 
 
  Other factors that are considered to be deterministic include human nature, economics, particular drives such as sex or greed, psychological determinism, genetic / the drive to leave minions, religion, ideology, culture, & so on   
  Many historians & social scientists have seen tech as a major determining factor throughout the histl ages   
  However, the question for scholars of determinism is whether the social relations of production of particular age were determined by the technology or whether they could have been different because they were caused by particular property relations, class structure, or the social cooperation among producers   
  Marx analyzed FOUR types of determinism, including economic social relations, cultural / ideological relations, property relations, & technological determinism   
  A & B.  Marx's determinism holds that economics relations (base) determine culture (superstructure), ideology, etc. 
 
  C.  Some social theorists focus on modes of ownership, i.e. property relations as being determinant in society 
 
  See Also:  Economic vs. Cultural Determination for a discussion of the determinism of the base, the superstructure, & property relations   
  D.  Another type of determinism that Marx examines is technological determinism which holds that society, relations of production, culture, etc. are shaped by the current technology 
 
  How might one make the techl determinist argument in light of the internet or some other modern technology? 
 
  Marx does not give causal priority to instruments of production (technology), but the relationships that exist w/ a particular set of technology 
 
  Marx said, "The hand mill gives you a society with the feudal lord; the steam mill, a society w/ the industrial capitalist." 
 
  As w/ economic determinism, Marx seems to go back & forth 
 
  For Marx, there is an interaction of all these elements in the economic base, i.e. the forces of production, the relations of production, the instruments of production, the historical conditions, etc.   
 
 Thus Marx & Engels are also social evolutionists while the final determinant is the economy, but this is not simple economic determinism   
  Engels wrote to Block, that there is an interaction of all these elements: the forces, relations, & instruments of production, hist conditions, the superstructure & the economic base, & more   
  While the final determiner of social relations is the economy, but Marx & Engels are also social evolutionists   
  The level of development of the forces of production at the pure techl level is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the emergence of certain social formations   
  For Marx, as the instruments of production (technology) vary, so does div of labor, but not necessarily the nature of the society as a whole, or even its class structure   
 
 But we must look at each tech & stage of development to see its effect on the mode of prod   
 
 For Marx, the level of development of forces of production is a necessary but not sufficient condition for emergence of certain social formations   
 
 Contemporary social scientists have built on & modified Marx's view that social relationships are a primary determinant of society, social life, economic structure, orgl structure, etc. 
 
 
 For Marx & most other social scientists today, tech definitely present new opportunities as well as threats to mgt, wkrs, & society in general; however, to date it is still seen as a neutral tool that can be used for ill or good 
 
  Thus tech is not deterministic & the opportunities or threats that it poses are in the hands of humankind, & because mgt controls most tech, tech's control is in the hands of mgt   
  Because control of tech is in the hands of mgt, it often appears to be detrimental to wkrs' interests, & this fact is often used by mgt & even social scientist as a smokescreen that tech is inherently deterministic   
  Tech control & tech determinism is used by mgt so that they can say 'this is the way it has to be'   

 
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 Outline on the   Technology & Social Change 
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  NEW TECH THAT IS ADOPTED BY A SOCIETY OFTEN RESULTS IN SOC CHANGE 
 
  Tech is the application of scientific knowledge to a practical task 
 
  New tech creates new occupations & often makes the formerly inaccessible or unusable resources valuable 
 
  New tech often makes old occupations obsolete 
 
  Changes is tech can cause soc change throughout society 
 
  An examples of societal change brought about by tech includes the advent of agriculture, the advent of mechanical power (eg water, then steam, then combustion power), the advent of the auto, the advent of the internet, & more 
 
  The development of ag, mechanical power, the auto, the internet create entirely new field of occupations & industries & made other occupations & industries obsolete 
 
  As Marx makes clear in his discussion of tech, it is not the tech per se which causes soc change, but how society allows it to develop through particular social structures such as the extent of private & public property, control & ownership of tech, the ownership of skills & education systems, & more 
 
  Marx calls the social factors that interact w/ tech to determine its ultimate application in society the forces of production & the relations of production 
 
  See also:  Marx   
  See also:  Mode of Production   

 
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 Outline on the   Media
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  9.  Media      SS Examples 
Groups:  (Orgs):  Most media groups today are formal orgs 
Positions:  Mgrs., admin, reporters 
Relationships:  similar to econ model 
Allocation of Resources:  typical 
History: 
H-G society:  gossip 
Ancient:  Elites receive news orally by messenger 
Writing develops; elites receive some written communication 
Industrial:  Use of printing press expands;  Communication avail to all classes 
 
  Most media groups today are formal orgs 
Media sectors 
- entertainment 
- news 
- education 
- advertising 
 
  The Media is highly networked 
Entertainment sector:  similar to the Leisure / Recreation Social Structure 
Media networked to the  Ed Social Structure 
Advertising is networked to Econ / Wk Social Structure 
News networked to Govt Social Structure & others 
 
  There are Four Levels of the Media, including the: 
National media 
Regional media (large urban areas) 
Local media (small cities, towns, etc) 
The Web & Email Lists 		  
  Media Orgs 
NBC 
CBS 
ABC 
Time Warner CNN 
Fox 
Movie & performing arts 
Books & print media 
 

 
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 Outline on the  Media & Social Change 
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  THE MEDIA RARELY CREATES SOC CHANGE ON ITS OWN; RATHER IT ACCELERATES THE DIFFUSION OF SOC CHANGE BY MAKING IT MORE AVAILABLE TO MORE PEOPLE 
 
  The media from local org newsletters, as in the church bulletin, to Twitter, blogs, etc, is both criticized & praised as an agent of soc change 
 
  The effect of the media is often overstated in the sense that media more often responds to change than causes change 
 
  The media is more reflective of society than constructive of society 
 
  The speed at which info travels today has had the effect of making the world resemble a 'global village' in which everyone instantly knows what is happening elsewhere (McLuhan, 1964) 
 
  See Also:  McLuhan, Ecological Communication 
 
  The instant transfer of info & the parallel transparency or openness in society both facilitate the development of soc mvmts, while making dictatorial control more difficult 
 
  During the Tianamen Square uprising in China in 1989 protesters used fax machines & the telephone to communicate w/ one another & the outside world 
 
  In the US, the Civil Rights Mvmt of the 1950s & 60s gained support as TV showed images of protesters & children being beaten & water hosed by police 
 
  In 1991 the failed Soviet coup plotters shut down dissident Soviet newspapers but did nothing to control the intl media who broadcast the military moving to occupy Moscow & the image of the friendly tank commander popping out of his tank to shake the hand of the coup resistors' leader, Boris Yeltsin 
 
  The Arab Spring revolts from Tunisia to Egypt to Syria have all been aided by both the broadcast media sending their messages & plight around the world, making it more difficult for govt to violently crack down, & by the use of social media & cell phones to communicate & coordinate protest & revolutionary activities 
 
  One ultimate effect of the media & social change is that it allows advocates of democracy to communicate w/ one another & w/ supporters outside the country by many conduits of communication / the media 
 
  One ultimate effect of the media & social change is that it allows advocates of democracy to broadcast any bloody attacks to the world, preventing them from going unnoticed 
 

 
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 Outline on  Urbanization
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  CITIES ARE PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS,  W/ LARGE, DENSITY, & SOCIALLY HETEROGENEOUS POPULATIONS 
 
  Perhaps the most widely used definition of the city is that of Louis Wirth (1938) who defined it as 'a relatively large, dense, permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals   
  Notably, the difference that makes the distinction that makes a city more than just a very large village is that the population is heterogeneous, ie diverse, a population of many different social grps   
  A city has population, density, permanence, & heterogeneity compared to other settlements   
  What was considered a city in the past might not be today b/c in past eras a settlement of 10 K people would have qualified as a city, but today it would not   
  Childe (1950) notes that cities are assoc w/ specialization, monumental public bldings, trade, the development of writing, the arts, the sciences, & more   
  Until the rise of the city, 99% of people lived in rural areas or villages, both of which were very homogenous when compared to the diversity of cities   
  Robert Park, a leader in the first US sociology program at the University of Chicago, felt that he could do better by adding a street level perspective by traveling around the world city to city   
  Park calls the city an organized mosaic of distinctive ethnic communities, commercial centers, & industrial districts   
  Park now saw social life based on difference & not just likeness   
  Both Tonnies & Durkheim believed that the growth of industrial cities weakened traditional society, but Durkheim felt a new kind of solidarity  
  A city is a community where thousands, millions, or even 10s of millions of people live & work   
  CITIES HAVE INCLUDED A HIGHER % OF THE WORLD'S POP EACH YEAR & THEY HAVE THE HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY   
  New York City, for example, had an average of about 19,900 persons per sq mi at the 1990 census & 27,778 persons per sq mi in 2010  
  Cities are the world's most crowded places   
  At that time, the US as a whole averaged only about 69 persons per sq mile   
  Similarly, other large cities have pop densities that are 100s or 1000s of times as large as their average national pop densities   
  The % of the world's people living in urban places (cities & their surrounding areas) keeps growing   
  In 1800, only about 2.5 % of the world pop lived in urban places, in 1990 about 45 % & about 55 % in 2010 
 
  In 1800 only about 5 % of the US population was urban & by 2014 about 75 % of the US population was urban 
 
  CITIES OFFER MANY RECREATIONAL & LEISURE ACTIVITIES 
 
  Cities offer many activities for residents & visitors
 
  Art museums display works by famous artists, & musicians perform in classical recitals or rock concerts
 
  Movies from around the world play at local theaters
 
  Restaurants offer food from diverse cultures, & department stores sell a wide range of items
 
  Huge stadiums enable thousands of people to attend sporting events
 
 
 CITIES HAVE MANY SOCIAL PROBLEMS, INCLUDING: CRIME, POVERTY, POLLUTION, CONGESTION, & MORE 
 
  Many cities are overcrowded, dirty, & noisy  
  Traffic jams delay people who are trying to travel to work, stores, or other places  
  Automobiles & electric power plants dirty the air w/ fumes that endanger people's health  
  Motor vehicles, factories, sirens, & construction equipment create bothersome noise  
 
 Many cities have a high crime rate, & violence sometimes breaks out btwn racial or religious groups. 
 
  MOST OFFICIAL, IE GOVTL, DEFINITIONS OF REQUIRE 2,500 RESIDENTS IN ORDER TO CLASSIFY A COMMUNITY AS A CITY  
  No rule states the number of people a community must have to be classified as a city   
  Some communities are called cities for reasons that have nothing to do w/ their pop   
  In the US, for example, one definition of city is any community, regardless of pop, that has some form of city govt   
  But most people use the word city to indicate large urban communities   
  Pop standards, however, help distinguish urban places & rural places   
  In general, all communities in the US w/ 2,500 or more people, & smaller communities near big ones, are considered urban   
  For many federal programs to support urban areas, cities must have a pop of 5,000 or more   
  Farms, & communities in uncrowded areas w/ fewer than 2,500 people, are considered rural   
  The pop standard varies among other nations of the world, & ranges from about 2,500 to 10 K people for urban places   
  The UN considers as urban only those communities that have a population of 20 K or more.   
  LARGE SCALE URBANIZATION IS A RECENT PHENOMENON   
  Urbanization can be defined as the process by which an increasing share of a population lives in cities   
  Urbanization does not mean merely that cities are growing, that is urban growth   
  Urbanization occurs when cities not only grow, but grow to a greater extent than rural areas or grow when rural areas do not   
  It is only w/in the past 2 centuries that any sizable proportion of the human population has lived in cities   
  Only the Roman Empire & the Inca, Aztec, & Mayan Indians of Central & South Am were able to attain urbanization levels of as much as 10 or 20%   
  Most early cities had small populations, usually under 40 K & often well under 10 K   
  The largest early cities were ancient Rome, which probably had a pop of 350 to 600 K, & the Cen & So Am Indian cities, largest of which had pop around 200 K   
  After around 500 AD, cities grew somewhat larger, but truly large cities remained rare for another 1000 yrs; only a handful of cities had pop exceeding 150 K btwn 800 & 1600, & none were over 1 mm   
  Today, society in the core nations is overwhelmingly urban, & the rest of the world is urbanizing rapidly   
  A metropolitan area refers to a city & its suburbs   
  The US had 39 metro areas w/ pop over 1 mm in 1990 & 52 metro areas w/ pop over 1 mm in 2013   
  The majority of all Americans live in these large metro areas   
  See Also:  A Socio Hist Analysis of Urbanization   
  PEOPLE LIVE IN CITIES FOR MANY REASONS, BUT PRIMARILY FOR JOBS, BUT ALSO FOR LEISURE & REC OPPORTUNITIES, THE EXCITEMENT OF CITY LIFE, EDUCATION OPPORTUNITIES, CONVENIENCE OF TRANSPORTATION, & MORE   
  People choose to live in or near cities for several reasons   
  Many people enjoy the rapid pace & bustling activity of city life  
  The main reason people choose cities is the number & variety of jobs available   
  The cities of most industrialized nations serve as mfr centers   
  A mfr company might provide jobs to many people, such as factory wkrs & accountants   
  Far fewer jobs are available in the cities of developing nations, including most of the countries of Africa, Asia, & Latin America   
  Even w/ fewer jobs available in the developing nations, large numbers of people flock to these cities searching for wk   

 
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 Outline on  Urbanization & Social Change 
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  CITIES HAVE ALWAYS BEEN A CENTER OF SOCIAL CHANGE B/C THEY EMBRACED MODERNIZATION, INDUSTRIALIZATION, INNOVATION, & GENERALLY, TOLERANCE
 
  Cities & metro areas generally accept change more rapidly than do rural areas & thus they have embraced the modernist ideology & new ways of doing things & new social relations   
  Cities were the cradle of industry & have generally remained the centers of industrial development & so they drew millions of people to urban areas for employment   
  Many believe that the primary characteristic of cities which made them both large & tolerant was the draw of employment   
  People moved from villages & rural areas w/ homogeneous populations to live w/ people of all types   
  People tolerated each other b/c they had too b/c, as Durkheim discussed in The Division of Labor, & other places that b/c of the nature of modern industry, people had to learn to work together & b/c in the city people were no longer self sufficient; they might need shoes from a shoemaker of another nationality, meat from a butcher of another race, clothes from a clothier of another gender, & so on   
  Durkheim called this mutual dependency among city dwellers organic solidarity, denoting that people depended on each other at the most fundamental level   
  Cities have always been known by rural people as centers of change & so they drew people interested in change to them  
  RAPID INDUSTRIALIZATION FUELED RAPID GROWTH & CHANGE IN CITIES   
  Btwn the 1500s & the 1700s, cities throughout the world grew & gradually changed   
  The basic pattern of cities & city life remained much the same until the 1700s & early 1800s, when a period of rapid industrialization called the Industrial Revolution took place   
  During this time, many cities in Euro & No America changed greatly   
  Communities in Euro & No Am, called industrial cities, became centers of large scale mfr  
  The mfr boom resulted chiefly from the invention of steam engines & new machines   
  The machines could do the work of many people, & the steam engine easily powered the machines as well as railroads & ships   
  The expansion of trade among the nations of Euro & No America also aided the growth of mfr  
  CITIES WERE ABLE TO GROW B/C MFR MADE IT POSSIBLE FOR PEOPLE TO BUY WHAT THEY NEEDED TO LIVE RATHER THAN PROVIDING IT FOR THEMSELVES CHANGING LIFE FROM ONE OF INDEPENDENCE & SUBSISTENCE TO ONE OF DEPENDENCE & PLENTY  
  The Industrial Revolution caused dramatic changes in city life   
  Skilled craft workers had trouble finding work b/c machines could make the same products quickly & cheaply   
  Instead, people in many cities wked in large factories, lived near the factories, & depended on mfr jobs for their livelihood   
  They were often overworked & poorly housed, though living conditions improved during the 1800s & early 1900s   
  Even people in cities w/ few factories became dependent on mfr  
  They often sold materials to the industrial plants or shipped finished products abroad   
  The Industrial Revolution had little immediate effect on cities outside Euro & No America, but in the late 1800s & 1900s many cities throughout the world became involved in the growing networks of mfr & trade created by industrialization   
  Some cities of Africa, Asia, Australia, & So America became industrial centers, though others have never industrialized   
  THE GROWTH OF CITIES CONTINUES TO BE DRAMATIC, FROM THE TIME OF THE IND REV TO THE PRESENT   
  City populations increased greatly during the Industrial Revolution for two main reasons   
  First, cities grew b/c the population of the world was increasing faster than ever before   
  Second, cities grew b/c improvements in ag methods had reduced the need for farm workers & these workers flocked to the cities & took jobs in factories   
  Chicago & Manchester, England, provide two examples of the tremendous growth of industrial cities   
  Manchester's population grew from about 6,000 in 1685 to about 303,000 in 1851   
  Chicago's population jumped from about 4,000 in 1840 to more than 1 mm in 1890   
  Cities have grown more than ever since 1900   
  In the early 1990s, about 2,900 cities had more than 100,000 people, & about 225 cities had over 1 mm people   
  Sao Paulo, one of the world's largest cities, has a population of about 11 mm   
  New York City, the largest city in the US, has about 71/2 mm people   
 
 SUBURBS HAVE ADDED TO METRO AREAS SINCE 1900 
 
 
 An even more striking growth has taken place in the suburban areas that lie near big cities 
 
 
 Large numbers of people have settled in suburbs since 1900 
 
 
 The great masses of people that had filled the cities are now crowding both the cities & the land that surrounds them 
 
 
 Besides homes, many suburbs today contain offices & shopping centers 
 
 
 Suburban residents can work & buy the goods they need w/o traveling to the city 
 
  A city w/ suburbs is a metropolitan city, & the city & the developed area around it is a metropolitan area   
  The word metropolitan comes from Greek words meaning mother city   
  The Sao Paulo metropolitan area is one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world & it has about 17 mm people  
  The largest cities are all metropolitan cities   
  THE GROWTH AS A RESULT OF THE POP EXPLOSION HAS BEEN OUTPACED BY THE POP GROWTH IN THE CITIES  
  The population explosion has played an important part in the development of metropolitan areas   
  By 1990, the world's population was about 5 times as large as it was in 1850   
  This rapid growth led to overcrowded cities, causing large numbers of people to move to outlying areas   
  The population implosion, in which people moved from rural to urban areas, also helped build up metropolitan areas   
  The population displosion, in which people of various racial, religious, & national bkgrds moved into cities, was an important trend in the growth of metropolitan areas   
 
 After poor people moved into central cities, many wealthy people moved out of the cities & into the suburbs 
 
  CITIES HAVE BEEN CENTERS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHARITY & EDUCATION  
  During the 1700s & 1800s, charitable orgs & govts started tuition free schools in many cities   
  These schools gave some poor children a chance to have a formal education   
  But many of the teachers lacked good training, & the schools often did not have enough textbooks   
  Many children could not go to school b/c they had to support their families   
  Children from wealthy families attended private schools or studied in their homes under tutors   
  WHILE CITIES HAVE BEEN CENTERS OF TOLERANCE, PEOPLE OFTEN LIVE IN THEIR OWN ENCLAVES WHICH CAN FOSTER INTOLERANCE  
  As in medieval times, modern cities include people from a variety of bkgrds   
  People still tended to settle in neighborhoods w/ others of the same bkgrd   
  Various grps had much more contact w/ each other than they had in medieval cities   
  People from all grps wked together in factories, & children from many grps attended schools together   
  The influence of the family on the behavior & ideas of the individual remained strong   
  In cities the influence of people outside the family, fellow wkrs, friends, teachers, & others, increased greatly   
  SOME CITIES, EXP ROME & PARIS, HAVE BECOME NOTABLE FOR THEIR TOLERANCE & OPENNESS   
  Metropolitan cities are filled w/ people from many different cultures, & this variety makes them interesting places to live   
  People who arrive from other countries often settle in cities   
  The new people in cities bring many ideas about religion, food, language, & govt to their new homes   
  For this reason, cultural contrasts are often more dramatic in cities than in smaller towns   
  Many people choose to live in cities b/c they enjoy the variety of cultures found there   
  But cultural differences can add to urban conflict   
  Discrimination often occurs btwn cultural grps   
  Older grps sometimes dislike newcomers b/c they do not welcome a challenge to their own culture  
  Immigrants tend to settle near others w/ similar cultural bkgrds   
  Neighborhoods often develop w/ stores, restaurants, & houses of worship for people from certain cultures   
  In these neighborhoods, people may speak, read, & hear the language of their original country   
  They may buy books in Polish or rent videotapes from India   
  Many cities have an area called "Chinatown," where visitors can sample Chinese foods & buy imported products   
  Immigration patterns often shape the neighborhoods & cultures found w/in a city   
  In the 1800s, for example, many neighborhoods in the US attracted immigrants from Ireland or E Euro   
  Today, many immigrants come from Latin America & Asia, especially Cambodia, Korea, & Vietnam   
  The Asians bring Buddhism & other non-Western religions to the US   
  Latin Americans bring a tradition of large, close knit families   
  One important way in which the cultural grps w/in a city may differ from one another is in their views on govt   
  Social scientists use the term political culture to describe such views   
  Most people in some cultural grps believe strongly that citizens should actively participate in govt   
  A majority from other grps feel that a low level of citizen participation is not a problem   
  Different cultural grps also tend to have different views on how a city's govt should be organized, which services it should provide, & which problems it should try to solve 1st   
  The existence of a variety of political cultures w/in a city can lead to friction   
  Many people pt out that a city can be strengthened by the existence of a wide range of viewpts among its residents   
  A city's immigrants may have lived under various types of govts & observed many different solutions to urban problems   
  As a result, they may bring to their adopted city new ideas & experiences that can help solve the city's problems 
 
  THE FEATURES WHICH CHARACTERIZE CITIES ARE EXPECTED TO FUEL FUTURE CHANGE, FROM POP GROWTH TO CENTERS OF TOLERANCE  
  Social scientists have made various predictions about urban communities of the future   
  They believe that metropolitan areas will continue to grow in both population & area   
  In 1990, about 21/4 bb people in different parts of the world lived in urban places   
  By the year 2010, the number rose to about 4 bb people   
  In the United States in 1990, about 187 million people lived in urban places as defined by the U.S. government   
  By the year 2010, the number is expected to reach about 225 million   
  Some new urban communities were built in the 1900s, & more will be built in the future   
  Like today's suburbs, the new communities will provide living space & ease the overcrowding problem caused by the population explosion & implosion   
  City planners hope that, unlike most suburbs, the new communities will also provide jobs for most of their residents   
  If the communities do so, the overcrowding of cities will be eased even more   
  INDEPENDENT CITIES ARE RARE BUT ARE EXPECTED TO BECOME MORE COMMON   
  Communities that have such a self supporting feature are called new towns or new cities   
  The UK & the Scandinavian countries have been leaders in the development of new towns   
  The govts of these nations provided much financial aid for this development   
  In the US, where private enterprise plays the major role, only a few new towns have been developed including Columbia, Maryland, & Reston, Virginia   
  Brazil built a new capital city, Brasilia, in the mid 1900s
 
  The Brazilian govt located this city in the thinly populated interior of the country   
  Brazil hopes that an important, modern city there will lead to further development of the interior   
  URBAN GROWTH IS CONTROVERSIAL B/C OF ITS IMPACT ON THE ENV & THE NEGATIVE SOCIAL ASPECTS OF URBAN SPRAWL   
  The development of new towns & cities is a slow, costly process   
  Private developers are reluctant to take on such projects b/c of the uncertainty of, & the long wait for, profits   
  Many govts have been unable or unwilling to finance such projects   
  For these reasons, social scientists predict that almost all the additional millions of people who will live in urban places in the future will crowd into existing communities   
  More & more of the land around central cities will be filled by people   
  The suburbs will spread out so far that some metropolitan areas will run together w/ no rural areas btwn them   
  Such a continuous stretch of metropolitan areas is called a megalopolis  
  For example, a megalopolis has formed btwn Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, & Washington, DC   
  MANY CITIES ARE ATTEMPTING TO BECOME MORE PEOPLE FRIENDLY   
  Social scientists also foresee physical changes in metropolitan areas   
  To absorb the increasing population, govts may permit tall bldings in areas where they are now prohibited   
  Govts may also set aside much more land for parks & other recreational areas  
  They may try to solve traffic problems & improve safety by expanding public transportation & by creating separate roadways for automobiles, trucks, & pedestrians   
  The effort to free cities of pollution seems sure to continue   
  Entire urban communities may be enclosed in plastic domes   
  Temperature & humidity inside the domes would be controlled, & electronic filters would keep the air clean & fresh   
  It is hoped that future cities & suburbs will offer the advantages of urban life w/o the disadvantages   

 
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 Outline on  Internal Conflict & Social Change
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  INTERNAL CONFLICT IS A SYMPTOM THAT  SOC CHANGE IS ABOUT TO OCCUR; IN THE PAST AUTOCRATIC GOVTS SUPPRESSED CONFLICT & SOC CHANGE; TODAY MODERN, DEMOCRATIC NATIONS EXPERIENCE MORE INTERNAL CONFLICT & MORE CHANGE 
 
  Internal conflicts & failures serve as the focal pt for organized efforts for change such as soc mvmts, revolutionaries, terrorists, political parties, etc 
 
  Inequality & discrimination toward workers, African Americans, women, & homosexuals in the US gave rise to the labor, civil rights, feminist, & gay rights mvmts 
 
  Each of these mvmts led to soc change both in the form of changed attitudes toward these grps & in the form of legislation 
 
  Mvmts also originate in an attempt to minimize internal conflict by preserving past traditions 
 
  The English wking class & early union mvmts emerged from attempts by wkrs to preserve the rights as independent skilled craftsmen that they had existed in pre industrial times 
 
  Thus the first unions were craft unions who actually fought against the organization of industrial wkrs 
 
  Craft unions dominated the Labor mvmt until 1935 when the Congress of  Industrial Organization (CIO) was founded   
  It was not until 1955 when the CIO merged w/ the lead craft union, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) to form the AFL CIO when the internal conflict btwn craft & industrial wkrs was institutionally healed 
 
  The anti abortion mvmt originated in an attempt to preserve what  mvmt members see as traditional religious values 
 
  Many internal conflict have led to revolutions, the most dramatic, if also one of the rarest forms of soc change
 

 
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 Outline on  Revolutionary Movements
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  -  Project:  The Most Important Rev 
Link
 
 Revolutionary mvmts are soc mvmts whose objective is to achieve some radical change, & remake the entire, or most of society   
  Revolution is a term that generally refers to a fundamental change in the character of a nation's govt, & possibly in the society, that may or may not be achieved through violent means   
 
 Revolutionary mvmts are a type of transformative mvmt 
 
 
 A revolutionary mvmt hopes to achieve radical change through the elimination of old social institutions & the establishment of new social institutions 
 
  Rev soc mvmts want to completely destroy the old social order & replace it w/ a new one   
  The goal of a rev is the total transformation of society by destroying the old govt & replacing all current leaders   
  Revolutions may also occur in other areas than govt, including cultural, economic, and social activities   
  Rev are the most threatening to existing social order, authority, & power   
 
 Sometimes revs have specific goals, sometimes only vague utopian dreams   
  For Marx, there is a clear distinction between political changes in governments and radical changes in the economic organization of society even when the former occurs violently  
  For Marx, most revs are simply the replacement of one political regime w/ another, while the fundamental structures of soc stay intact  
  The type of rev which Marx advocated was the replacement of one mode of production with another  
  For Marx, the history of societies is the history of class conflict or the contradiction within the mode of production between the forces and the relations of production, & thus rev must come about through class conflict, which need not be violent, but unfortunately often is  
  See Also:  Marx's Theory of Rev  
  Rev is an important example of mass protest operating outside orthodox political channels, but there are other, limited situations in which uprising or outbreaks of social violence occur in the actions of street crowds or mass demonstrations  
  Social mvmts, i.e. loose associations of people working collectively to achieve shared ends, play key roles in revolutions  
  The existence of soc mvmts which receive mass support is a defining characteristic of revolution  
  As w/ any mass action, soc mvmts come into being in many other situations besides those of a rev mvmt  
 
 See Also:  The Forms of Revolution  
 
 Revolutionary mvmts are rare compared to transformative or reformative mvmts
 
 
 Revolutionary mvmts usually occur when a series of reform mvmts have failed to achieve the objectives they seek
 
 
 There are "militia groups" in the US who believe the fed govt is evil & want to overthrow it
 
 
 The Montana Freemen could be considered rev soc mvmts 
 
  Many soc mvmts have actually led to real social & political revs in their society  
  Most revs intend to create a better society by replacing the power structure w/ one based on different principles  
  The nature of revs have changed over time being extremely rare throughout most of history, then occurring sporadically in the early industrial era, & these becoming plentiful in the industrial age  
  See Also:  The History of Rev  
  Many countries have also experienced unsuccessful revolutions, including Chile, Argentina, Hungary, etc.  
  While rare, revolutions do occur & are usually historic in nature as seen in countries as diverse as the US, Russia, France, Cuba, China, Iran, Mexico, Zimbabwe, & the Philippines  
  The English Parliamentary Rev in the 1500 & 1600s, the French anti monarchist mvmt beginning in the 1700s & continuing through the 1800s, the Russian Rev, the Communist Rev in China, & Fidel Castro's socialist mvmt in Cuba all succeeded in completely destroying the existing power structure & replacing it w/ a new idealized social order  
  Almost all 20th C revs occurred in developing societies such as Mexico, Turkey, Egypt, Vietnam, Cuba, & Nicaragua, not in industrial nations (Moore, 1965)  
  The revolutions that have had the biggest impact for the world in this century were the Russian Rev of 1917, Chinese Rev of 1949, & while the Cuban Rev was less important, it has had a greater impact because of the Cold War & geo-politics
 
 
 See Also:
 
Top
 Rev Mvmts  
  -  The Forms of Rev  
  -  The Socio Historical Development of Revolution  
  -  The US Rev, 1776  
  -  The French Rev, 1789  
 
 -  The Russian Rev, 1917  
  -  The Indian Rev, 1947  
 
 -  The Chinese Rev, 1949  
 
 -  The Cuban Rev, 1959  
  -  The Czech Republic Rev   
  -  The European & Arab Revolutions Compared   
 
 The Explanations of the Development of Social Mvmts & Revolutions  
  The Consequences of Rev  

 
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 Outline on the  Theories of Revolution
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  THERE ARE MANY THEORIES WHICH DESCRIBE FACTORS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO THE LIKELIHOOD OF REV, INCLUDING:  WIDESPREAD DISCONTENT, LOSS OF LEGITIMACY, RISING EXPECTATIONS, REV IDEOLOGY, LACK OF ALTERNATIVE MEANS, & MORE 
 
  Widespread discontent may contribute as a cause, to rev when large numbers of people become dissatisfied, often over the distribution of scare resources 
 
  A subset of the widespread discontent theory is that too large of a gap btwn one class & another, ie extreme stratification, may lead to discontent 
 
  Loss of legitimacy occurs when people no longer view their government as having the right or authority to rule 
 
  The theory of rising expectations, which is closely linked to the relative deprivation theory of social movements, argues that as a conditions improve a little, people expect them to improve more & become disillusioned & dissatisfied when they do not 
 
  The theory of rising expectations is often used to explain why the French had a rev in 1789 despite the fact that conditions were harsher in Germany 
 
  Rev is thought to be more likely when the spread of revolutionary ideology that challenges the social, political, & economic system is possible 
 
  Rev is more likely when alternative means for change are blocked 
 
  One reason for the Iranian Rev of 1979 was that the repressive govt of the Shah, who was an American puppet, allowed little expression of dissent 
 
  None of these conditions usually lead to rev; rev are relatively rare 
 
  REVS ARE OFTEN THE RESULT OF MASSES OF PEOPLE SEEKING REV CHANGE WHO ARE LEAD BY EDUCATED, AFFLUENT, & CHARISMATIC INDIVIDUALS 
 
  Revs are often lead by relatively educated & affluent people & often draw support from these grps 
 
  Revs most often occur in lesser developed societies in the early stages of industrialization, usually under a feudal sys or monarchy 
 
  REVS HAVE HAD A VARIETY OF OUTCOMES FROM ESTB DEMOCRACY TO ESTB AUTHORITARIANISM, WHICH EITHER TYPE OF POLITICAL SYS MAY BE MATED TO ANY TYPE OF ECON SYS FROM CAPITALISM TO SOCIALISM 
 
  Revs in Russia, China, & Cuba, socialist systems resulted in social systems   
  Revs in France, the US & the Philippines, resulted in capitalist systems   
  Revs in Iran & Egypt resulted in authoritarian systems around Islam, but Egypt had a counter rev resulting in an Islamic democracy   
  The revs in eastern Europe involved the rejection of authoritarian socialist systems when Romania, Poland, East Germany & the Soviet Union became more democratic   

 
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 Outline on  Military Breakdown
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  BECAUSE OF THE EXTENT OF MILITARISM IN MODERN SOCIETIES TODAY, IT IS NEARLY ESSENTIAL FOR THE MILITARY TO NOT OPPRESS AN UPRISING IF IT IS TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL REVOLUTION 
 
  Military breakdown is the unwillingness of the military to put down an uprising 
 
  Military breakdown is a key factor in the success of any attempt as rev 
 
  Most modern societies have sufficient military power to put down revs if they choose to & if the military cooperates 
 
  When revs succeed in modern societies, we often see the military refusing to act or even joining the rebels 
 
  If the military does not act  to put down a rev, it has a good chance of succeeding & may even do so /w a minimum of bloodshed
 
  Successful 'people power' rev have occurred in the Philippines in 1986, the Soviet Union in 1991, some of the Arab Spring revs in 2010, & more 
 
  In 1989 the Tianamen Square uprising in China ended w/ a bloody assault by govt troops on protesters in Beijing 
 
  In Tianamen Square some of the army units refused to attack demonstrators, but the regime was able to maintain the loyalty of enough of the army to put down the rebels 
 

 
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 Outline on  Revolution & Social Change 
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  SOME REVS CAUSE SOC CHANGE; SOME DO NOT 
SOME REVS REPLACE ONE GOVT W/ ONE THAT IS SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT; EG, FROM AUTOCRATIC TO DEMOCRATIC 
SOME REVS REPLACE ONE GOVT W/ ONE THAT IS ESSENTIALLY THE SAME; EG, ONE KING REPLACES ANOTHER 
 
  Some revs are attempts to change the nature of a govt & sometimes to change an entire society, its econ system, its ideology, & the dist of wealth 
 
  Rebellions are attempts to change specific officeholders or policies 
 
  Although revs & rebellions are sometimes an expression of broad dissatisfaction, they often do not seek to change the structure of the govt or the society as a whole, & thus are limited forms of soc change 
 
  Examples of the limited form of social change via revolutions can be seen in the nearly continual occurrence of rev & war in the European Middle Ages 
 
  Many of the wars & revs during the Euro Mid Ages merely brought in a new King often of the same religion, who maintained the Kingdom much as it had been here 
 
  Some of the wars & revs during the Euro Mid Ages brought more extensive social change as when the people were forced to convert to a new religion, or a new form of social organization was implemented in the Kingdom as was the case w/ Charlemagne in France 
 
  On the side of revs actually resulting in broad soc change include the American Rev of 1776, the French Rev of 1789, the Russian Rev of 1917, the Chinese Rev of 1949, the Cuban Rev of 1959, the Iranian Rev of 1979, the Euro Spring Revs of 1989, & probably the Arab Spring Revs beginning in 2011 
 
  The Am, Fr, Russian, Chinese, Cuban, Iranian, Euro Spring & Arab Spring Revs all changed not only the govts, but the govt type of system, as well as changing most the major social structures & relationships in these societies 
 
  The Russian, Chinese, Cuban Revs resulted in some form of socialism while the Iranian Rev resulted in an Islamic republic 
 
  The Russian, Chinese, Cuban, & Iranian Revs resulted in govts that are more centralized & more authoritarian than the ones they replaced 
 
  The Euro Spring Revs of 1989 (& later) resulted in establishing democracy in place of dictatorship & to make mkt forces, rather than central govt planning, as key forces in driving the econ 
 

 
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 Outline on an  Introduction to War
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  WAR IS VIOLENT ARMED CONFLICT, BTWN PEOPLE, &, OR NATIONS  
  According to Macionis, war is the organized & armed conflict among the people of 2 or more nations, directed by their govts 
 
  War is the organized armed conflict btwn grps of people or states   
  War is a general conflict or active hostility or contention often carried on by force of arms, as btwn nations or states or btwn parties w/in a state   
  For Clausewitz, war is the continuation of politics by other means   
  War is not found elsewhere in the animal kingdom   
  Since the dawn of history, but not so during the previous hunter gatherer stage of human existence, people have not always been able to resolve all of their conflicts w/o having to resort ot violence
 
  Since recorded hist began, man, most war has been waged mostly by men, has been involved in hostility for different aims including power, territory, wealth, ideological domination, security, independence, & more 
 
  Until modern times, most wars were fought w/ limited means for limited aims, but modern weapons of mass destruction & total warfare can eliminate whole populations & endanger the survival of human race   
  WAR IS A FREQUENT EVENT:  SOME LEVEL OF WAR HAS OCCURRED NEARLY EVERY YEAR ON EVERY CONTINENT FOR CENTURIES  
  See Also:  A List of Wars 
Link
  One of the most critical issue that the world has faced is war 
 
  War is not exclusive to these past 10 yrs; however, war has been redefined during this time 
 
  From 2001 to 2013, every continent (except Antarctica) in this world was at war or was participating in some sort of armed conflict 
 
  At any moment during the 20th C, nations somewhere in the world were engaged in some type of armed conflict 
 
  The US specifically was involved in many major conflicts since the Revolutionary War, & if you count such operations as killing Osama bin Laden, that number rises to thousands of conflicts: Rev, 1812, Civil, Cuban, Mexico, WW 1, WW 2, Korean, Vietnam, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iraq 
 
  In the past 10 yrs, nearly 1.3 million US men & women have lost their lives b/c of these wars
 
  Wars are a constant occurrence in this world 
 
  MANY FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO THE  LIKELIHOOD OF WAR INCLUDING: 
A.  PERCEIVED THREATS 
B.  SOCIAL PROBLEMS 
C.  POLITICAL OBJECTIVES
D.  MORAL OBJECTIVES 
E.  ABSENCE OF ALTERNATIVES, & MORE 
 
  Quincy Wright (1987) cites five factors that promote war including perceived threats, social problems, political objectives, moral objectives, and the absence of alternatives
 
  See Also:  Causes of War   
  NEW PRACTICES IN WAR HAVE RECENTLY DEVELOPED IN RELATION TO TERRORISM:  AN EMPHASIS ON SPECIAL FORCES BY NATIONS, & AN EMPHASIS ON SMALL, SENSATIONAL ATTACKS BY NATIONALLY UNAFFILIATED CELLULAR ORGS   
  Our current war, 'The Global War on Terrorism' is a different war   
  Many of the traditional causes of war explain this conflict, but it is different in that it is modern limited war by extra national grps, ie grps that hold allegiance to no nation state .   
  The Global War on Terrorism is a war which does not fit the quintessential definition of war   
  Terrorism breaks from the pattern of traditional modern war   
  Terrorism has no clear line of demarcation; its lines are blurred   
  The enemy is not obvious, yet we are engaged in a deadly war w/ it   
  This war has had a detrimental effect on all nations involved & the whole world   
  People in the US are today less oblivious as to what is occurring around the globe, b/c the nation was attacked   
  TODAY 'FAILED STATES' & 'ROGUE REGIME' ARE FAVORABLE ENVIRONMENTS FOR VIOLENT FRINGE GRPS TO USE AS A BASE OF OPERATIONS TO MAKE WAR ON OTHER NATIONS   
  Failed states are those nations whose govt is so weak that they can neither maintain law & order, nor prevent militias from forming w/in their borders   
  Rogue nations are those nations who generally do not abide by UN conventions on war, human rights, etc & so are often ostracized via sanctions by the developed nations, & are therefore mostly isolated socially, economically, & politically from the global community   
  Failed states & rogue nations exist on every continent & while exactly who is labeled failed or rogue is highly controversial, some examples include:  Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, Somalia, N Korea, Venezuela, Cuba, & others   
  In relation to the war in Afghanistan (2001- ), the people there have been living in a constant armed conflict for the better part of three decades   
  So war has brought our awareness of others up, & has redefined our understanding who is waging, ie who is friend, foe, innocent, ally, or neutral   
  The war in Afghanistan, like the war in Iraq, this time is not w/ one particular nation or people, rather it is w/ a subculture of people from across the region   
  WAR FOSTERS THE DEVELOPMENT OF  NEW TECHNOLOGY   
  Some of the greatest technologies that we use today were intended for use in combat   
  The technology used in the current day tablets (Ipad, Kindle, etc.) were being used years ago by the military   
  THE EFFECTS OF WAR IMPACT ALL SPHERES OF LIFE, INCLUDING: 
A.  POPULATION LEVELS 
B.  THE ENV 
C.  THE SOCIAL FABRIC OF SOCIETIES, CULTURES, PEOPLES 
D.  RELIGIOUS ALIGNMENT 
E.  ECONOMIC PRODUCTIVITY 
F.  POLITICAL ALIGNMENT, & MORE 		  
  Some of the greatest testaments to the human spirit and strength are shown during war   
  War's inhumanity can be seen in it's death & destruction while war's humanity can be seen in people's unbreakable bond for those he/she loves, the compassion found in those who are trying to save others, &  the bonds of war that can been seen in the veterans of today's wars &  wars of the past   
  The effects of war can last for centuries as they result in large migrations & the redrawing of national boundaries   
  After WW1, the bounders of the nations today known as Iran, Iraq, Syria, Jordan & more were redrawn & are seen as a large reason for many mid eastern conflicts today   
  After WW2, a nation of a scattered people migrated to form Israel which today is home to the Jewish people, and   
  The immediate area of Israel it is still in a continual state of violence b/c this migration & the establishment of the state of Israel displace Palestine & the Palestinian people   
  WAR IS ONE OF THE MAJOR AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE AS SEEN IN ITS:
A.  FREQUENCY 
B.  RESPONSE TO SOCIAL/POLITICAL CONFLICT 
C.  SIMULTANEOUS CREATION & USE OF FAILED & ROGUE NATIONS 
D.  FOSTERING THE DEV OF  TECH
E.  EFFECTS ON POP, ENV, SOC FABRIC, RELIGION, ECON, POL, & MORE		  

 
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 Outline on  War & Social Change 
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  WAR IS ONE OF THE MAJOR AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE AS SEEN IN ITS: 
A.  FREQUENCY 
B.  RESPONSE TO SOCIAL/POLITICAL CONFLICT 
C.  SIMULTANEOUS CREATION & USE OF FAILED & ROGUE NATIONS 
D.  FOSTERING THE DEV OF  TECH 
E.  EFFECTS ON POP, ENV, SOC FABRIC, RELIGION, ECON, POL, & MORE 
 
  Wars have many societal level effects, including:  the redefinition of political boundaries, new tech discoveries & inventions, new forms of govt, the redistribution of wealth, the relocation of millions of people, the end of entire societies, & much more   
  BOTH WAR & REV CAUSE SOC CHANGE, BUT EITHER MAY ALSO LEAVE A SOCIETY UNIMPACTED, DEPENDING ON CIRCUMSTANCES   
  War is often assoc w/ rev b/c of the presence of armies & violence, but the two are different 
 
  Revs are internal conflicts, whereas war is an organized conflict btwn 2 or more societies over a significant amt of time 
 
  Civil war is an armed conflict among different factions w/in the same nation 
 
  Like rev, civil war is a major internal conflict that can lead to major soc change much as when the US Civil War led to the abolition of slavery & the expansion of an industrial econ 
 
  HUMANITY WAS MOSTLY PEACEFUL UNTIL COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES BECAME PARAMOUNT:  WE HAVE NOT LEARNED TO SHARE
 
  Hunter gatherer societies were essentially peaceful until levels of human pop increased significantly enough to create some land pressure in some areas 
 
  In late hunter gatherer society, where pop levels created some land pressure, there were some wars, but these were small, limited, & rare compared to today's wars 
 
  Since the development of ag society, humans have been more or less in constant warfare 
 
  For nearly all of the last 9000 years wars have occurred somewhere every year 
 
  THE IMPACTS OF WARS MAY LAST FOR MILLENNIA 
 
  The changes that result from war are often, but not always, dramatic & far reaching 
 
  The effects of some wars reverberate through history for centuries as for example:  the Euro kingdoms & mid eastern kingdoms wars of the Mid Ages, the Mongol Invasions of the 1200s, the British wars of imperialism of the 1700s & 1800s, WW1, WW2, & many more 
 

 
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 Outline on  Guns, Germs, & Steel
 by Jared Diamond, 1997
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  DIFFERENCES IN DEV IN MOD SOCIETIES TODAY IS DUE TO DEV ADV FROM THE ENV ORIGINATING IN ANCIENT SOCIETY & THE MID AGES 
 
  Guns, Germs, & Steel: (1997) is transdisciplinary in that the theories posited utilize theories of the diffusion of technology, ie guns & steel, & epidemiology in the form of native people's lack of resistance to W Euro diseases, esp the measles 
 
  Diamond is a professor of geography and physiology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) 
 
  In 1998, the book won the Pulitzer Prize for general non fiction and the Aventis Prize for Best Science Book 
 
  A documentary based on the book, and produced by the National Geographic Society, was broadcast on PBS in July 2005 
 
  Guns, Germs & Steel explains why Eurasian civilizations, including No Africa, survived & conquered others, arguing that Eurasian hegemony is not due to any form of Eurasian intellectual, moral or inherent genetic superiority 
 
  The gaps in power & tech btwn human societies originate in env differences, which are amplified by various positive feedback loops 
 
  When cultural or genetic differences have favored Eurasians, for example, written language or the development among Eurasians of resistance to endemic diseases, Diamond asserts that these advantages occurred b/c of the influence of geography on societies & cultures, & were not inherent in the Eurasian genomes
 
  THE SOC & PHYS TECH WHICH PEOPLE DEV FOR AG, ALSO MADE CONQUEST, GENOCIDE, & EPIDEMICS POSSIBLE 
 
  The development of agriculture in Eurasia gave societies the soc struc & tech necessary to wage conquest & genocide 
 
  Living in villages, towns, & cities, ag, conquest, & genocide all made epidemics more common 
 
  ENVL / GEOG ADVANTAGES OF WILD CROPS & ANIMALS, LARGE LAND MASS, FEW BARRIERS, SIMILAR CLIMATE ALLOWED EURASIANS TO DEV BEFORE OTHER REGIONS   
  The ingredients for the dev of ag, & it's complementary unintended consequences of conquest, genocide, & epidemics arose 1st in Eurasia not b/c Eurasians were superior in any way to people of other continents, but b/c of a unique combination of naturally occurring advantages 
 
  The naturally occurring advantages in Eurasia included more suitable wild crops & animals to domesticate, a large land mass w/ fewer barriers to the spread of people, crops, & tech, & an east west axis which meant that climate was similar across the region 
 
  At the beginning of Euro's worldwide expansion circa 1500 AD, cultures on different continents show large differences in pol & tech dev 
 
  Much of Euro, Asia, & No Africa already had metal equipped societies, some on the verge of industrialization   
  AREAS AROUND THE GLOBE, OTHER THAN EURASIA SUBSISTED MOSTLY W/ HUNTER GATHERER, STONE AGE TECH   
  In the 1500s, the Am empires had stone tools & parts of sub Saharan Africa had small states w/ iron tools   
  Societies in Australia, the Pacific archipelago, some of sub Saharan Africa, & the Americas lived in tribes using either farming or hunter gatherer tech   
  Inequalities in the mod world stem from the same differences in ability that can be demonstrated when differences in ed & experience are taken into acct   
  A developmental argument could be made that 'primitive' people must be more intelligent, on average, that 'civilized' people b/c it takes more intelligence to live 'in the jungle' than in society   
  Euros live in densely populated societies where death is most commonly caused by old age & disease, not murder or war   
  In hunter gatherer societies death is most common from accident, lack of food, murder, or warfare, which are less likely to happen to a more intelligent person   
  Diamond states that 'hist followed different courses for different peoples b/c of differences among peoples' envs, not b/c of differences among peoples themselves'   

 
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 Outline on  Rates of Social Change
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  SOCIAL CHANGE OCCURS AT DIFFERENT RATES
 
  Fads & fashions change in a few weeks 
 
  Changes in econ & political conditions may change over a period of months, or stay stable for decades, or even centuries during the mid ages 
 
  Changes in marriage & divorce patterns may occur w/in a generation or even faster if influenced by econ conditions, war, epidemics, migrations, & so on 
 
  MICRO CHANGES, ARE USUALLY SMALL, RAPID CHANGES, BUT MAY  OCCASIONALLY BE LARGE;
MACRO CHANGES ARE USUALLY LARGE, SLOW CHANGES, BUT MAY OCCASIONALLY BE RAPID 
 
  Micro changes occur very quickly & involve small or individual alterations 
 
  Micro changes can be seen by casual observers as in the rapid rise & fall in popularity of a presidential candidate or a fashion 
 
  Slower changes are not easily seen & may not be noticed at all by the general public 
 
  Slower changes may not be seen by scientists unless a study is focused on the area of change in a society 
 
  Many of college students' parents are divorced, so high divorce rates do not seem to be a social change   
  Divorce rates have increased since the 1950s b/c of the decline of patriarchy, the rise of feminism, increases in women's income, decreased social sanctions, & more 
 
  Divorce rates for new marriages are not as great as many people think b/c many divorces are the result of 'the backlog' of divorces from the earlier era when divorce was not acceptable 
 
  Macro changes are the slowest & can be the hardest to see 
 
  Macro changes are noticed in moments when the change is spectacular as when decades of social discontent finally culminated in a rev as happened in the shifts in direction of the Soviet Union, ending w/ the 1991 coup attempt & the social rev that followed 
 
  MICRO & MACRO CHANGES OFTEN ARE INDEPENDENT, BUT THEY MAY HAVE AN INTERACTION IN COMPLEX FORMS   
  Micro & macro changes occur at the same time, each shaping the other   
  Most micro changes are of little consequence to slower changes   
  Sometimes micro changes build to macro change as is the case w/ the gradual increase of the number & % of women working outside the home   
  Generally macro changes are so slow that the larger social structure provides a more or less stable context for micro changes   

 
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 Outline on  Modernization & Escalating Social Change
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  WHILE SOME PLACES & ERAS IN HIST HAVE SEEN GREAT STABILITY, TODAY WE ARE EXPERIENCING RAPID SOC CHANGE ACROSS THE GLOBE BY ALL MEASURES 
 
  Modernization, the transition from rural, traditional, ag societies to urban industrial, rationalistic societies, has brought both a degree of soc change & a rate of soc change unprecedented in human history 
 
  Rapid soc changes in the last 300 yrs include: (Deane, 1969) 
 
  1.  the widespread application of science, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, to the processes of production for the mkt, ie technology 
 
  2.  the specialization of the econ activity, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, directed to production for the mkt 
 
  3.  the mvmt of pops, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, from rural to urban communities 
 
  4.  shifts in production, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, to corp or public enterprises & away from the family 
 
  5.  the mvmt of labor, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, from raw materials, ie primary production, to mfr, ie secondary prod, to services, ie tertiary prod 
 
  6.  the use of capital resources, starting during the ind rev & continuing to today, as a substitute for human labor 
 
  7.  a 600% increase in global pop 
 
  8.  a decline in birth rates & an even faster decline in death rates 
 
  9.  an increase in the size & number of cities 
 
  10.  changing econ roles for women, children, & the family 
 
  11.  a major rise in literacy rates 
 
  12.  a vast increase in per capita production & consumption of goods   
  13.  sharp decreases in the cost & time for transport of bulk goods   
  14.  the appearance of new econ & pol ideologies including capitalism, socialism, & representative democracy   
  15.  the technical capability to destroy the human race ... & many more, too numerous to list   
  While many changes have occurred in the last 300 yrs, or less, it is informative to compare them to the relatively few changes of the 1000 yrs of the Mid Ages, or the 1000 yrs before that of ancient societies from Egypt to Rome, to the 5000 yrs before that of primitive ag societies   
  The transition from traditional society to modernity has been the most dramatic soc change in history   
  Habermas notes that the transition from traditional society to modernity is not complete   
  See Also:  Habermas   
  Habermas notes that the majority of the nations of the world are traditional society structures, w/ hi tech aspects   
  Habermas notes that the modern nations still have many traditional aspects & that conservative forces w/in these nations promote traditional policies while other interests conflict w/ them, struggling to implement modernist policies   
  ONE REASON FOR ESCALATING SOC CHG IS THE FEEDBACK EFFECT BTWN SOCIETY & THE ENV:  AS SOC CHANGES THE ENV, IT FORCES PEOPLE TO CHANGE   
  In the 2000s, for the 1st time in history, more people migrated due to env causes than due to war   
  Historically, war & econ dev had always vied for being the major cause of migration, but in the 2000s, env reasons topped the list for several yrs   
  Some soc scientists expect that In the future, env changes, nat disasters, crop losses, deforestation, lack of water, & more may be the major impetus for migration, war, & econ dev combined   

 
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 Outline on  Beyond Modernization:  Even Faster Change
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  THE NATURE OF BOTH WORK & SOC LIFE TODAY IS EXPERIENCING AN INCREASE IN TEMPO OR PACE OF SOC CHANGE
 
  The transition from industrial society to a post industrial society is characterized by 
 
  a.  globalization, a transition from local to world wide econ exchange & competition
 
  b.  a shift from an ind or mfr econ base to an info & services based econ 
 
  c.  a renewed skepticism about worldviews based on science & rationalism & the emergence of a viewpoint sometimes called post modernism 
 
  Firms like Microsoft, Apple, & Google as well as restaurant & entertainment companies have experienced growth, whereas mfrs of cars & airplanes have 'downsized' 
 
  College graduates today will be more likely to work for a firm who provides info, services, or entertainment than for one that mfrs a product
 
  If your firm does mfr a product, there is a good chance that it will be one that provides info, services, & / or entertainment 
 
  The amt of info & the rate of exchange has exploded 
 
  AS LIFE BECOMES MORE RATIONALIZED, & SUBJECT TO CAPITALISM AS ONE FORM OF RATIONALIZATION, SOC CHANGE HAS SPED UP 
 
  Post modernism is a critical re examination of the rationalist, scientific orient worldview that predominated during the ind era 
 
  The rationalist, scientific oriented worldview predominated in the industrial era 
 
  The rationalist pt of view created dramatic improvements in the standard of living, but it offered less in the form of meaningful philosophy of life than traditional religion 
 
  The rationalism of  the industrial era offered little in the ay of solutions to social  problem such as racism, poverty, gender inequality, mental disorders, & so on 
 
  Since then rationalism has allowed for the development of  the social sciences   
  Rationalism offered a continuing speed up of social change but so far has failed to offer comprehensive solutions to social problems   
  Some believe that the problems of poverty & inequality are getting worse, but this is not necessarily so   
  Society's faith in science, technology, & 'progress' is now often questioned even as the pace of social change continues to quicken   
  TECH & THE INFO REV HAVE RESULTED IN AN INCREASED PACE OF SOC CHANGE  
 
 We are in the middle, or perhaps the beginning, of the rapid change fomented by the info rev & so it is difficult to see the consequences, but one clear unintended consequence in the 'information divide'   
  The concept info div connotes that some people simply do not have the technology or the skills to make use of the info rev & so are left out of a major part of society; they are: 'on the other side of the divide,' so to speak  
  A consequence of the info rev is it changes the way we do everything from education (on line courses), to work (tele commuting & more), to socializing (from texting to Facebook), to buying (online shopping) to the military (cyber war), to religion (tele churches), & much more   
  A consequence of the info rev is that there is significantly less privacy from the fact that we have all entered personal info into numerous websites to the fact that govts & corps can collect more info about ourselves than even we know ourselves, eg Google knows every single thing I have bought online, but my records are not that good   

 
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 Outline on the  Consequences of Rapid Social Change 
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  RAPID SOC CHANGE PROVIDES A TACTICAL LIFE ADVANTAGE TO YOUNG PEOPLE, THUS SOCIETIES THAT HAVE RAPID SOC CHANGE ARE 'YOUTH CULTURES' 
 
 
Rapid social change gives a distinct advantage to young people over older people 
 
 
In an era of rapid change, older people must constantly learn new things & “unlearn” old ones 
 
 
Older people also find that they have less old knowledge that is of value to young people b/c the old knowledge has become outdated 
 
 
Rapid social change is one reason for the decreasing respect for the elderly
 
 
Living a long time used to mean you are esp capable & experience was highly valued, but this is less true today
 
 
Young people are primarily interested in learning current info that can be used in present day situations 
 
 
But knowledge today has a shorter ‘shelf life’ in that it becomes obsolete more rapidly than it did in the past 
 
 
Many people now long for simpler times; they romanticize ‘the good old days’ 
 
 
But the good old days were typically not all that good; people lived shorter lives & were sicker, there was greater discrimination, religious dissenters, child labor, physical & emotional abuse of child, & more
 
  IN EVERY CULTURE W/ RAPID SOC CHANGE, MANY ARE NOSTALGIC FOR THE PAST; 'NOSTALGICS' WILL ATTEMPT TO IMPLEMENT / RETURN TO ECON & SOC POLICIES FROM THE PAST 
 
  The longing for simpler times is one source of religious fundamentalism in nations ranging from the Muslim Iran to the Christian US 
 
  In the 70s, the Shah of Iran's rapid modernization produced anomie, ie normlessness & thus when this 'puppet' of the US was overthrown, Iran became more fundamentalist than before the West installed this puppet 
 
  The many changes that occurred in the US during any new era in the US has also caused periodic anomie, disturbing people's sense of security by undermining previous norms 
 
  A longing for the good old days can be seen w/:   
  -  the end of the 'cowboy West' & beginning of urbanization in the late 1800s as followed by a longing for & romanticization of the West  
  -  the rejection of the liberalization of social freedoms of the 'roaring 20s' as followed w/ Prohibition,  
  -  the rejection of the new freedoms of the 50s as followed by the McCarthy era  
  -  the rejection of the freedoms of the 60s / 70s as followed by Reaganism, culminating in the Tea Party Mvmt   
  RAPID SOC CHANGE CREATES ANOMIE, A FEELING OF NORMLESSNESS, B/C THE OLD SET OF NORMS IS BEING ELIMINATED, & IT TAKES A LONGER AMT OF TIME TO DEVELOP THE NEW NORMS   
  Rapid social change also increases the general level of anomie, ie a feeling of normlessness, in society  
  Things change so fast that people do not know what to do or how to behave   
  Rapid changes in the roles of men & women have led to anomie, which in turn has contributed to increased divorce rates   
  As more women work outside the home, the household div of labor is changing & this change is a source os stress for couples   
  We learn how to behave as a couple largely by observing our our parents, but for many of us, our parents had a different type of union than we do, or will have   
  As a society, people have not learned how to be a couple in a dual career relationship   
  Contrary to the arguments of those who long for a simpler past, it is not that the new system is 'bad,' but that we do no understand it, yet, & have not developed a workable set of norms to guide our behavior   
  The speed of change is a source of social problems not b/c of the change per se, ie changes often bring greater freedoms for some or many grps, but that we have not developed customs & norms around the new social relationships   

 
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 Outline on the  Causes of Soc Change
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  SOC CHANGE OCCURS WHEN RANDOM & / OR SYSTEMIC FACTORS COMBINE IN COMPLEX & UNANTICIPATED WAYS TO CREATE NEW SOC RELATIONS 
 
  Social change comes from many sources & usually the result of several factors combining in a unique context to create the energy for & the possibility of change 
 
  One source of change is random or unique factors such as climate, weather, or the presence of specific grps 
 
  A source of soc chg is systematic factors as seen when a society w/ a relatively uniform & open culture, a stable & flexible govt, enough free & available resources, & a diverse social org of society results in econ development which changes the very structure of society, as in the case of the Industrial Rev, or the Info Rev 
 
  So, on the whole, social change is usually a combination of systematic factors along w/ some random or unique factors 
 
  THE MOST PROMINENT THEORIES OF SOC CHANGE INCLUDE THOSE OF HEGEL & MARX, KUHN, HERACLITUS, & TAOISM   
  There are many theories of social change which generally include elements such as structural aspects of change like population shifts, cultural or societal aspects of change, processes & mechanisms of social change,  & directions of change 
 
  HEGEL & MARX VIEWED SOC CHANGE AS THE RESULT OF A CLASH, & THEN RESOLUTION OF CONTRADICTIONS   
  The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the interaction of opposing forces, which is know as a dialectic relationship 
 
  See Also:  The Dialectic   
  See Also:  Hegel   
  For Hegel change starts from a point of momentary stasis, ie the thesis 
 
  The thesis counters an antithesis which is the result of contradictions in the current sys, or organized opposition forces 
 
  The clash of the thesis & antithesis 1st yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new synthesis 
 
  Hegel posited that soc chg came about as a clash of ideology, ie world systems or ways of understanding, which then changed the world 
 
  Marx embraced a dialectic system that was similar to Hegel's, but Marx saw change as occurring from the clash of material forces such as feudal & economic systems, as embodied in class struggles in each system   
  See Also:  Marx   
  Marxism presents a dialectical & materialist concept of history wherein humankind's history is a fundamental struggle btwn social classes  
  KUHN BELIEVES THAT CHANGE COMES WHEN OLD UNDERSTANDINGS / KNOWLEDGE ARE DISPLACED BY NEW UNDERSTANDINGS / KNOWLEDGE B/C THE SCIENTIFIC LOGIC OF THE NEW WAY BECOMES COMPELLING   
  The philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn argues in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that people are unlikely to jettison an unworkable paradigm, despite many indications that the paradigm is not functioning properly, until a better paradigm can be presented  
  Societal, or as Kuhn studied, scientific revolutions, occur when new contradictory info overwhelms old ways of thinking & thus causes a 'revolution' in thinking   
  Kuhn examined the Copernican Revolution wherein people abandoned the idea of an Earth centric universe in favor of the Sun centered solar system   
  While common sense observations make it appear as if heavenly bodies generally rotate around the Earth, precise scientific observation indicated several events that could not be explained by this system such as the phases of the Moon & retrograde planetary motion, where planets appear to switch directions in the night sky   
  HERACLITUS SAW CHANGE AS CONSTANT & INEVITABLE   
  The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor of a river to speak of change in that we never see the same river twice b/c the river is always changing / flowing  
  Heraclitus suggests that, in order for the river to remain the river, change must constantly be taking place   
  One may think of the Heraclitan model as parallel to that of a living organism, which, in order to remain alive, must constantly be changing   
  Heraclitus thus sees change as constant & developmental & does not directly address how & why there are periods of stability & change   
  A contemporary application of this approach is shown in the soc change theory SEED SCALE which builds off of the complexity theory sub field of emergence.   
  TAOISTS SEE CHANGE AS NATURAL, BRINGING THE WORLD INTO HARMONY   
  Similar to Heraclitus, Taoists see change as natural, harmonious & steady, albeit imperceptible   
  Taoists uses the metaphor of water as the ideal metaphor of change in that water, although soft & yielding, will eventually wear away stone   
  Society is like a river, though it has continuity, you never actually see or experience the same river twice b/c the water is always flowing / new   
  Change as the result of flexibility is slow, steady, & smooth  
  Change as the result of inflexibility is rapid, intermittent, & races   
 
 SOC CHANGE TODAY IS SEEN AS THE COMPLEX INTERPLAY OF FACTORS WHICH RESULTS IN UNIQUE UNANTICIPATED OUTCOMES 
 
  Factors which may contribute to soc change include: 
the physical env, 
contact & diffusion of  culture, 
technology, 
the media, 
internal conflict, 
revs,
war, 
planned change, 
& more 		  
Link
 The Physical Env & Soc Change   
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 Contact & Diffusion   
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 Technology & Soc Change   
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 Mass Media & Soc Change   
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 Internal Conflict & Soc Change   
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 Revolutions & Soc Change   
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 War & Soc Change   
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 Planned Change, & more   

 
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 Outline on the  Theories of Social Change
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  FUNCTIONALISTS HAVE EMPHASIZED SOC STABILITY, & BELIEVE SOCIAL CHANGE SHOULD BE GRADUAL 
 
  Functionalist theories of soc change emphasize stability, the need for change to be gradual, & the benefits of modernization 
 
  Functionalist theories of soc change agree w/ conflict theory that social change tends to take one direction, towards modernization
 
  Generally, neither functionalist nor conflict theories of soc change believe that soc change is cyclical 
 
  FUNCTIONALISTS SEE SOC CHANGE AS A RESULT OF EXTERNAL FORCES 
 
  Functionalism generally hold that societies are stable or in equilibrium & that the source of soc change is always external, ie change is exogenous 
 
  While Merton & neo functionalists have adapted functionalism to acct for dysfunctions & thus see change as possibly coming from internal or endogenous dynamics, neo functionalists & conflict theorists disagree on the nature of these sources of change 
 
  FUNCTIONALISTS SEE SOC CHANGE AS PRIMARILY CYCLICAL OR EVOLUTIONARY 
 
  Functionalism emphasizes the social origins of stability while conflict theories emphasize the social origins of change 
 
  Both functionalist & conflict theories face a particular challenge when they study long term social change   
  Most functionalist & conflict theories have an evolutionary perspective, as did Parson's classic functionalism & as did Marx's classic conflict theory   
  Some functionalist & conflict theories have a cyclical perspective   
  MOST THEORISTS SEE CYCLES W/IN A LONGER EVOLUTIONARY TREND   
  Evolutionary & cyclical theories are not mutually exclusive   
  Over the long term, evolutionary change may well be occurring, as w/ modernization, urbanization, industrialization   
  In the short term, there may also be cycles   
  Soc scientists must examine soc change both in the short term as well as the long term if they are to understand both soc evol & cycles   
  It is best to measure soc changer over the longest time possible & use the most possible data points, but this is also the most difficult methodology   
  IT IS DIFFICULT TO ANALYZE HISTORICAL / EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS FROM THE VANTAGE PT OF ONE LIFETIME   
  When long term processes are very gradual but measured only over a very short period of time, they may be very hard to detect   
  Climatologists examining climate change face a gradual change, but so far they have only had a short period of time to examine it so the change they are examining is hard to detect   
  Climatologists can measure temperatures, CO2 levels, & more very precisely & can use statistical techniques to remove cyclical fluctuations & make a reasonable assessment of long term changes   
  Sociologists have few variables they can measure so precisely   
  IT IS CLEAR TODAY THAT CHANGE IS OCCURRING RAPIDLY & THAT STABILITY IS NO LONGER THE NORM, CHANGE IS THE NORM   
  Soc scientists have determined that soc change in the present era is distinct in that it is occurring faster than ever before   
  The changes assoc w/ industrialization, modernization, & urbanization have taken place almost entirely in the past 200 yrs   
  Some of the changes occurring now will continue, others will not   
  Soc scientists must be cautious about reading current processes into the past It is essential & difficult to avoid western, intellectual ethnocentrism in the study of soc change   
  CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSES ON HOW CONFLICT AMONG CLASSES, & MORE BROADLY, AMONG OTHER GRPS, THE GENDERS, RACES, NATIONALITIES, & MORE, CREATES SHORT & LONG TERM SOC CHANGE   
  Marx's theory of historical materialism holds that as class systems development, contradictions, ie inherent conflicts develop among the class groups   
  Examples of contradictions are the inherent conflict among slaves & slave holders, peasants & aristocrats, workers & business owners   
  Contradictions, the inherent conflict of interests in a society cause it to develop toward a crisis   
  Once a crisis is reached, a new form of society may develop as in the transition from slave to feudal society, & then the transition from feudal to capitalist society   
  WALLERSTEIN & WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY APPLIED THE LESSONS OF MARXISM / CONFLICT THEORY TO THE GLOBAL SYSTEM   
  World systems theory (WST) holds that just as systems of exploitation may develop among classes or grps of people, so systems of exploitation may develop among nations   
  Core nations develop econ relations among nations so that they may exploit the resources & mkts of developing nations, but esp undeveloped nations   

 
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 Outline on  Equilibrium Theory / Functionalism on Social Change
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  EQUILIBRIUM THEORY & OTHER FUNCTIONALIST THEORIES FOCUS ON SOC STABILITY & SEE CHANGE AS OCCURING AS A RESULT OF EXTERNAL FORCES
 
  Functionalist theories of soc change emphasize stability, the need for change to be gradual, & the benefits of modernizaton 
 
  One functionalist theory of soc change is equilibrium theory 
 
  Equilibrium is a state of balance in society, in which the components of society, institutions, classes, political parties, familiers, funcdtion together effectively 
 
  Equilibrium theory holds that societies tend toward balance b/c one they have developed & evolved to the pt where their various parts work effectively in harmony, they have no reason to change so long as the social env w/in which they funcditon remains basically the same 
 
  When socieites do change, it is in respone to some alternation in their soc env b/c either exopgenous changes such as contact w/ anotehr society or a change in the climate, or a change in tech 
 
  SOCIETIES STAY IN EQUILIBRIUM B/C THAT IS THE OPTIMUM FORM GIVEN THE COMPLEXITY OF MODERN SOCIETY WHERE EFFICIENCY DEMANDS THAT THE STRUCTURES OF SOCIETY MUST WORK IN UNISON 
 
  Functionalist theories usually focus on how a soceity restores equilibrium after a disturbance 
 
  Functionalists believe that equilibrium is necessary b/c of the interdependency of the parts of society such as the family & work life, or ed & work 
 
  When society is in equilibrium, each part of society performs its function & works in harmony w/ other parts 
 
  Most functionalist theories view change as something that usually comes from the outside, ie exogenous change 
 
  If the exogenous change is severe, the society might be destroyed unliess it is able to adapt & produce new equilibrium   
  MERTON & NEO FUNCTIONALIST RECOGNIZE DYSFUNCTIONS AS AN INTERNAL SOURCE OF SOC CHANGE   
  Merton made a major change in functionalist theory when he introducted the concept of dysfunctions   
  A dysfunction is a social relationship or structure, including roles, positions, status's, classes, etc, that is in some way damaging or porblematic to the social system   
  For Merton & other neo functionalists, dysfunctions are internal or endogenous causes of tension in a society & so may be a cause of soc change   
  For Merton & other neo functionalists soc change can be internal or endogenous   

 
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 Outline on  Conflict Theory on Social Change
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  CONFLICT THEORY FOCUSES ON CONFLICT IN SOCIETY, ESP AMONG CLASSES, BUT ALSO AMONG THE GENDERS, RACES, OTHER GRPS SUCH AS NATIONALITIES, & MORE 
 
  Conflict theories study the role of conflict 
 
  Marx's original theory postulated the central conflict in society is btwn classes, & today that would be primarily btwn the upper class & the middle class 
 
  Marx recounted in his theory of historical materialism how class conflicts in ancient times, & then the middle ages led to our class sys today   
  In ancient times the conflict btwn slaves & slave owners transformed into the peasant / aristocrat conflict of the mid ages b/c this feudal sys of production was more efficient than the slave sys   
  The modern cap sys of wkr / owner developed out of the feudal peasant / aristocrat sys b/c mod cap is more efficient than the feudal sys   
  Marx explores the material conditions which resulted in the development of these 3 econ sys & how weaknesses, aka contradictions in one lead to the next sys   
  See Also:  Historical Materialism   
  Most conflict theories use some parts of Marx's theory & add other elements   
  Social scientists today examine the role of conflict in producing change btwn individuals, grps, classes, institutions, genders, races, religions, nationalities, & more 
 
  Conflict theories emphasize inequality as a source of social change, & argue that even rapid changes can be beneficial 
 
  CONFLICT AMONG CLASSES & OTHER GROUPINGS IS SEEN AS THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE 
 
  Conflict theories see change as normal 
 
  Any type of conflict or competition can lead to change 
 
  Stability is seen as a temporary balance btwn competing grps, or as a product of false consciousness on the part of subordinate grps 
 
  See Also:  False Consciousness   
  False consciousness denotes the condition where a person, grp, class, etc has a belief or belief system that goes against their own interest; ie they believe something that hurts them & usually benefits someone else 
 
  CONFLICT THEORIES SEE INTERNAL CONFLICT AS THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF CHANGE, BUT CONFLICT MAY ALSO ORIGINATE FROM OUTSIDE THE SYSTEM, & THIS IS OFTEN A CONFLICT BTWN ELITES OF TWO OR MORE SOCIETIES 
 
  Conflict theories emphasize the social origins of change 
 
  For conflict theories, social change may originate b/c of internal, endogenous forces, esp the conflict among classes & grps 
 
  Conflict theorists would agree w/ functionalists that social change may also originate from external, exogenous forces, but would add that this too may be class conflict, esp when two sets of elites clash   

 
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 Outline on  Evolutionary Theories on Social Change
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  MOST EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES HOLD THAT SOCIAL CHANGE OCCURS IN A PARTICULAR DIRECTION, THAT IS, TOWARDS PROGRESS
 
  Most evolutionary theories hold that social change occurs in the particular direction of progress, though regression is possible & has occurred 
 
  Lewis Henry Morgan'a theory on the evolution of society stages including savagery, barbarism, & civilization 
 
  Spencer attempts to apply Darwin's theory of biological evol to societies 
 
  Marx's sequence of primitive communism, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, & communism & how class conflict moved these systems from one stage to another is at the center of his evolutionary theory which he called historical materialism 
 
  CONTEMPORARY EVOL THEORIES HOLD THAT THE DIRECTION TO PROGRESS IS WIDELY VARIED, MAY REGRESS, OR MAY BE NON EXISTENT
 
  The early theories of soc evol were more unilinear, in that they see the stages as a simple, one line progression through which every society must pass 
 
  These theories generally see the end pt of evol as an ideal form that resembles their own society, or in Marx's case, a predicted society, the classless communist society 
 
  Later theories often embrace the generality of a general direction, though some do not, & they also offer more detail & examine the amt of variance among societies   
  Theories from Nietzsche to Foucault, post modernists & others, hold either soc evol does not exist or that their is no progress, viewing 'progress' as a human construct   
  THE GENERAL THEORY OF SOC EVOL IS FROM HUNTER GATHERER SOCIETY, TO AG SOCIETY, TO IND SOCIETY, & SOME ADD POST IND SOCIETY 
 
  Sociologists & anthropologists have embraced theories w/ a focus on socio cultural evolution:  the study of how hunting & gathering societies changed into other types of societies 
 
  Over the last 10 K to 15 K yrs, there is a general pattern of hunting & gathering, w/ the mvmt to ag in the last 5 K yrs, or so 
 
  From 50 to 10 K yrs ago, all humans lived in hunting & gathering societies 
 
  Around 9 K yrs ago in Mesopotamia, some humans took up ag & began to live in permanent villages 
 
  As the ability to produce a surplus increased, ag became more  common 
 
  Mesopotamia is considered to be one of the 'cradles of civilization' b/c ag developed in several locations   
  The 'dawn of civilization' is considered to be about 5 K yrs ago b/c ag was well estb in several cradles of civilization & was spreading out from there, & the some  hunter gatherer civilizations still exist today 
 
  About 200 yrs ago humans because to use machines to produce goods, beginning the industrial era 
 
  The development of technology was central to the development of the industrial era 
 
  This general outline of the socio cultural evolutionists follows general outline 1st examined by Morgan, Spencer, Marx, & others 
 
 
 WHILE FEW SOC SCIENTISTS OFFER A CENTRAL PLACE FOR TECH IN SOC EVOL, THEY DO RECOGNIZE IT IS ONE IMPORTANT COMPONENT OF SOC EVOL
 
 
 Each stage of socio cultural evolution was made possible by an advance or set of advances in tech 
 
  These are not simple technology driven systems of development b/c tech is seen as making change possible, but it does not tell us whether a transition will occur; that is the result of a number of social, cultural, & technological factors   
  And no theory to date is sophisticated enough to determine when change will occur, or whether it will be a gradual or rapid change   

 
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 Outline on  Social Evolution
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  -  Project:  Social Evolution & a Marxist Socio Historical Analysis 
Link
  INTRODUCTION   
 
 The qualities of many theories of social evolution is that change is natural, directional, immanent, continuous, & derived from uniform causes 
 
  THE MANY THEORIES OF SOCIAL EVOLUTION GENERALLY EMBRACE THE CONCEPT OF PROGRESS / DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SOME COMMON ANALYSES OF HISTL ERAs INCLUDING: PRIMITIVE, ANCIENT, MID AGES, & MODERN  
 
 There are at least NINE theories of social evolutions that continue to influence modern social theories, including Marx & Marxism 
 
 
 Hegel (1770 - 1831) held that the development of "reason/ freedom" was a primary feature of history   
 
 Hegel traced the social evolution of reason from the ancient Orient to Prussia 
 
 
 Saint Simon (1760 - 1825) &Comte (1798 - 1857) held that social evolution followed what they call the Law of Three Stages:  the theological, the metaphysical, & the positive 
 
 Tocqueville (1805  -  1859) examined the spirit of equality from aristocracy to democracy   
  Marx & Engels (1818  -  1883) embrace the Enlightenment principle of social evolution, & dev their theory of historical materialism   
 
 Spencer (1820  -  1903) examined the development of military society to complex industrialism   
 
 Morgan was an anthropologist who studied social development, the development of patriarchy through the states of savagery, barbarism, & civilization   
 
 Durkheim (1858  -  1917) examined the development of traditional society into modern society & the development of mechanical to organic solidarity in these forms of society   
 
 Edward Burnett Tylor   
 
 Robert Nisbet wrote on social evolution in Social Change & History  (1969) 
 
 
 Nisbet held that all social evolution models are based on the metaphor of growth, analogy of growth/change in society as compared to growth/change of individuals 
 
 
 Post modernists & others tried to explain the social theorists' trend to evolutionism 
 
  METAPHOR OF PROGRESS / SOCIAL EVOLUTION DID NOT OCCUR UNTIL THE MODERNIST ERA   
 
 Remember that the idea of progress is a modern metaphor which developed only in the 1700s as a tenet of the Enlightenment 
 
  See Also:  The Enlightenment   
 
 Previous to the modern idea of progress had been the Greco Roman idea of life or society taking place in cycles 
 
 
 Nisbet holds that the succession of differences in time is a persisting social entity 
 
 
 From Nisbet's definition that change is a constant, there is no change; but most theorists liken this position to a play on words wherein when we stand in a stream, we are never in the same stream twice   
  For most social scientists, it is possible to embrace both conceptions of soc evol in that many things stay constant & many things stay the same & it is only our perspective, or even when we have the insight power to take multiple perspectives, that defines what we see   
 
 Modern physics agrees that time can be calculated in two manners including that 
a.  w/ a clock 
b.  as change in other 3 dimensions; that is, 
we know time has passed when things are different 		  
  HISTORY TYPICALLY "REPORTS" EVENTS; 
SOCIO HISTL ANALYSIS SEEKS ROOT / DEEP / STRUCTURAL / ETC CAUSES 		  
  History is written by evolutionists who examine different societies from different historical periods   
  Thus, we do not have a theory, but a series of stills or snapshots out of history   
  Thus social evolutionists have not proven their theory but only given expression to the dominant intellectual & cultural ideas of their time  
 
 Nisbet's art of war example 
 
  MARX A SOCIAL EVOLUTIONIST IN THAT THE DEV OF CLASS SYSTEMS IS BASED ON DEV OF MODE OF PRODUCTION WHICH IS BASED ON SOCIAL RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION WHICH DEVs TO OVERCOME CONTRADICTIONS / WEAKNESSES OF PAST ERA   
  The historical materialist development of Marx depicts several stages, including   
  - the prehistorical era of tribal communalism   
  - the era of antiquity w/ the classes of masters & slaves, w/ some free peasants   
  - the feudal era w/ the classes of nobles & serfs, w/ some peasants, & slaves   
  - the capitalism era w/ the classes of owners & workers, & some slaves, serfs & tenants   
  - the socialist & capitalist eras w/ no classes   
  Marx & Engels saw the development of the four modes of production, but it is clear that they are not strict evolutionists   
  Mx & E noted that the Asiatic system was stable until invaded by the West   
  Mx & E also posited at least two major lines of social development one in the east & one in the west   
  Fr Mx & E, ancient society broke down as a result of internal contradictions & changed in response to the specific retinue lifestyle of Europeans   
  Fr Mx & E, feudalism fostered the birth of a limited mkt econ   
  The mkt econ, technology & the effects of warfare transforming feudalism into capitalism & thus cap developed out of breakdown of feudalism   
  HISTORICAL MATERIALISM COMBINES CONTEXT OF THE PAST W/ NEW SOC REL OF PRODUCTION WHICH DEV AS THE SYNTHESIS TO CONTRADICTIONS / ANTI THESIS OF  THE PAST ERA   
  Marx felt his analyses were site historical specific and could not be applied to the Russian rural community which was still under feudalism.  
  Marx did not believe in any social evolutionism nor any other suprahistorical doctrine   
  Mx discussed the political struggles as primary in The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte  
  Mx explained the coup d etat of Louis Napoleon in contrast to Hugo who portrayed the coup as a one man feat   
  Mx notes that the class struggle in France created circumstances & relationships that made Napoleon's rise possible   
  For Mx, Proudhon committed the opposite error & interpreted the coup as if it had been inevitable   
  Marx's method was to guide the exploration of the complex of connections between the econ & all other facets of society   
  The fact that Mx saw many different paths of societal development, that he recognized that his analyses were site historical specific, & that he did not believe in any supra histl / inevitable evolution / development for humankind was embodied in his concept of historical materialism   
  Histl mat holds that societies do change, but they change based on real / material conditions in the sense that particular conditions will create a particular society   
  Hist mat is not soc evol in that no specific development or end can be prediction, but it is soc evol in that society is always changing & must always change to a new form   

 
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 Outline on  Social Evolution & Adaptation 
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  AS SOCIETIES EVOLVE, THEY DEMONSTRATE ADAPTATION & A MVMT FROM HOMOGENEITY TO HETEROGENEITY
 
  Two ideas inherent in the examination of soc evolution from the beginning have been those of adaptation & the movement from homogeneity to heterogeneity 
 
  Adaptation is adjustment to env conditions 
 
  Enhanced adaptation means better or more effective coping w/ such conditions 
 
  Technology has been a mechanism of adaptation that has had evolutionary significance 
 
  Adaptation is adjustment to both the physical env as well as to the env of surrounding societies 
 
  Some societies are more adapted, more effective at waging war than others, or more adapted at agriculture, etc 
 
  SOCIETIES GENERALLY PROGRESS, WHERE ONE MEASURE OF PROGRESS IS MORE EFFECTIVE ADAPTATION TO BOTH THE PHYSICAL & SOC ENVS 
 
  It is often posited in both the physical & social sciences that a society may go from a 'stage' of, for example, hunting & fishing to agriculture
 
  As a society moves from one stage to another there is better coping w/ the physical & soc env in that the adaptations for the new stage 'yields' more than it did before 
 
  IN SOCIAL EVOLUTION, THERE IS BOTH PHYSICAL & IDEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT; NEW UNDERSTANDINGS COMBINE W/ NEW TECH & NEW SOCIAL RELATIONS 
 
  As societies evolve, there is a cognitive factor, an ideology, a factor of knowledge involved in technology, or the shift in stages 
 
  The cognitive factor in social change, social evolution, goes beyond 'simple technical knowledge' in that it also involves the meaning or interpretation given to the new knowledge & technology, & even the stage 
 
  Frazier argued there is a shift in the history of humankind from an Age of Magic to an Age of Religion, & finally to an Age of Science 
 
  Frazier's line of thought parallels the work of several classic sociologists from Comte to Spencer   
  Comte held that society is evolving from   to the metaphysical to ...  
  Frazier sees magic as a pseudo science that rests on illusion about the world of reality   
  Some argue that the primary significance of magic is that it is a manipulative effort at control of the env & one's life, which in the end is the same meaning often attributed to science   
  BOTH RELIGION & SCIENCE CREATE MEANING IN SOCIETY & THE NATURE OF THAT MEANING IMPACTS THE NATURE OF THE IDEOLOGY ACCOMPANYING SOCIAL EVOLUTION   
  Religion involves practice as well as belief, but belief clearly comes first   
  The cognitive element in science is important in that the meaning created by the religion is a central feature of that religion   
  The cognitive element in the scientific stage is also central to it in that 1st, knowledge itself is cognitive, & 2nd, the meaning one attributes to science is important in its acceptance & application   
  An example of  the cognitive element in science can be seen the efforts to control the meaning in such fields as evolution, climate change, & more   
  Some prefer not to link science to magic & religion but instead place it in a schema of stages w/ philosophy, technological thought, math, or history   
  There have always been elements of science in both magic & religion   
  SOCIAL SCIENTISTS CONSIDER BOTH THE ADAPTATION TO THE PHYSICAL ENV & THE ADAPTATION TO THE SOCIAL ENV, OF WHICH ONE IMPORTANT ASPECT IS THE MORAL STANDING OF THE ENV   
  On the question of social evolution & adaptation, the question becomes whether the 'advancement' from pre magical era, to the magical era, to the religious era, to the scientific era yield an increase in adaptation   
  While some theorists from the Nietscheans to the post modernists might deny any noteworthy advancement in human society, many theorists do see social evolution, even advancement in each of these stages which lead to increased adaptation   
  Magic, religion, & science all, at the very least, engaged humankind in the env under the cognitive assumption that what they did mattered, that what they did would improve their life & adaptation to the env   
  Many would argue that we have increased adaptation or adaptiveness, but this is not to say that there are no problems of adaptation   

 
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 Outline on  Cyclical Theories on Social Change
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  CYCLICAL THEORIES BELIEVE THAT SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT OCCURS IN CYCLES OF GROWTH & DECLINE 
 
  It is noteworthy that historical civilizations rise & fall or change in cycles 
 
  Some soc scientists see these cycles as endless; others see them as a life cycle 
 
  Oswald Spengler drew an analogy btwn cultures & the human life cycle:  youth, maturity, old age, & death 
 
  In 1918 Spengler wrote the book:  The Decline of the West
 
  SOME THEORISTS HELD THAT CYCLES OCCUR AS SOCIETIES FACE CHALLENGES IN THEIR PHYS & / OR SOC ENV 
 
  Arnold Toynbee argued that all civilizations rise & fall, but he saw the cycles in terms of challenges & responses to the env 
 
  Toynbee argued that if the challenge was not too severe, & if the response was sufficiently creative, then the civilization would continue 
 
  To the extent that each society built upon the accomplishments of earlier societies, a higher stage of development could be attained in each cycle 
 
  If a society's response to its challenges was not creative, it could die 
 
  SOME THEORISTS HELD THAT CYCLES OCCUR AS SOCIETIES VIEW THE ENV THROUGH EITHER IDEALISTIC OR MATERIAL IDEOLOGIES
 
  Pitrim Sorokin argued that civilizations oscillated btwn 2 forms:  ideational culture & sensate culture 
 
  Ideational culture emphasized faith as the key to knowledge & encourage spirituality 
 
  Sensate culture emphasized empirical evidence as the path to knowledge & encouraged a practical & hedonistic way of life 
 
  Sorokin held that societies shifted from one form to the other based on an unclear inner logic of the relationship btwn idealism & materialism   
  MANY CYCLICAL THEORIES FOCUSED ON THE CYCLES OF PRE MODERN SOCIETIES THAT EXPERIENCED CYCLES MORE THAN PROGRESS   
  Many cyclical theories are based on pre industrial, pre modern societies when there was not much what we recognize as progress   
  One can argue that the many wars among European nations in the middle ages & the even greater numbers of wars over the millennia in China do represent cycles & show little progress   
  Through most of written history, change was slow, & empires expanded, contracted, were conquered, or were replaced   
 
 Modernization, urbanization, & industrialization brought changes that altered the world forever & this is where we get our notion of progress
 
  Even in modern societies there may be cycles w/ respect to culture, values, & beliefs   
  In the US, the 20s, 50s, & 80s were characterized as periods of materialism & conservatism while the 30s, 60s, & 90s were periods of idealism rebellion & soc change   

 
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 Outline on  Planned Social Change 
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  SOC CHANGE CAN OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE SOCIAL POLICY BY GOVTS, CORPS, ORGS, POWERFUL PEOPLE, & MORE 
 
  SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE GOVT POLICY 
 
  Planning soc change is perhaps the most challenging of human endeavors 
 
  Sometimes the intended changes bring about unforeseen & unwanted changes 
 
  The Chinese govt sought to control pop growth by restricting couples to one child & while the policy is effective it has had several unintended consequences 
 
  One unintended consequence of the Chinese one child policy is that children are spoiled & families must spend all their resources to help the one child succeed 
 
  One unintended consequence of the Chinese one child policy is that b/c China is so patriarchal, many couples have committed infanticide on girl babies, & thus there is a high % of boys compared to girls 
 
  Other examples of govt orchestrated soc change include labor laws, civil rts laws, gender equity laws, privacy laws, Social Security, Obamacare, & more 
 
  SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE CORPORATE POLICY 
 
  Western corps have embraced the practice of offering fringe benefits as part of a pay package 
 
  Corps make policies that impact the env & thus people 
 
  Corps decide where development is to occur or not occur 
 
  Corps have fostered a culture of consumerism
 
  SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE ORG/SOC MVMT / NGO POLICY 
 
  Other orgs that have fomented social change include religions, charities, social movements, non governmental orgs, think tanks, & more   
  Christian, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, & many other religions often change a society as they gain adherents, & often stabilize a society in the fact of other forces of soc change   
  Charities such as the United Way & Red Cross have defined the who, what, where, why, & how we come to the aid of others   
  The NRA has helped create a culture that supports gun use for sports & self defense   
  The NAACP helped create a melting pot society where diversity on many levels is embraced  
  NGOs such as the Peace Corp or Doctors w/o Borders have a lasting, significant impact on many societies, including the people that send/support such orgs   
  Think tanks from the Heritage Foundation to Plowshares influence public opinion & the larger social & political conversation in society   
 
 SOC CHANGE MAY OCCUR AS A RESULT OF DELIBERATE POLICY AS FORMED BY POWERFUL PEOPLE   
  Obviously billionaires can impact world history   
  The Coke Brothers are one of the leading forces behind the new wing of the Republican Party, the Tea Party   
  Bill Gates founded the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation which is funding, & more importantly managing, many initiatives such as the global eradication of polio   
  Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Airlines, is also funding space exploration by developing a commercial, public transportation system to take people to space   
  Oprah Winfrey funds & manages the Leadership Academy for Girls in South Africa, the Rebuilding the Gulf Coast Project & much more   
  Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer is the first female to be part of Annual 40 most powerful CEOs Under 40 List & she has sparked a new conversation of the role of women in business   

 
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  Outline on   Economic Development
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  ECON DEVELOPMENT IS THE GROWTH OF THE ECON & USUALLY INCLUDES A GROWTH IN THE NUMBER OF JOBS, WAGES, GENERAL PROSPERITY, & THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURES THAT MAKE IT POSSIBLE   
  Economic development is the transformation of the nature & composition  of the economy & usually implies increases in prosperity
 
 
 Ec dev is the process whereby simple, low income national economies are transformed into modern industrial economies  
  ECON GROWTH IMPLIES THAT QUAL ECON GROWTH ACCOMPANIES ECON DEV AS IN PEOPLE MOVING UP IN THE CLASS STRUCTURE   
  Economic growth is not the same as economic development since the former implies quantitative growth only while the latter implies quantitative growth, but more importantly qualitative growth
 
  Ec growth implies qualitative growth, a movement up the hierarchy of economic types of  agriculture econ, extractive econ, industrial econ, high tech econ, & service econ  
  For many social activist the term econ dev is nearly synonymous w/ exploitation in that ec dev allows corps to move into an area & avoid many of the rules & reg of the indilzed nations including labor laws, envl laws, safety laws, etc.  
  ECON DEV IMPACTS ARE BOTH POSITIVE & NEGATIVE; FROM ED & WEALTH TO URBAN SPRAWL & ENVL DEGRADATION  
  For social critics, ec dev retains all or most of the negative impacts that the indlized nations experienced in their own indl rev  
  All participants in the ec dev debate are concerned w/ making the ec dev process less exploitative & more friendly to corps, labor, the env, etc.  
  At present there is no clear distinction in the language to differentiate btwn "good" & "bad" ec dev, i.e. there are no labels for different types of ec dev other than to state it is green ec dev, or labor friendly ec dev, etc.   
  The issue of econ dev is important because through govt policies & the policies of econ dev agencies, many other issues & policies are impacted  
  Econ dev pol impacts envl pol, military pol, trade pol, human rights pol, etc.  
  Econ dev pol often impacts the very tone the debate around other issues & thus is often defining what is important on issues, the nature of scientific studies done, & the very ground rules for what is "knowledge" & what is not by setting the parameters of the discussion  
 
 A SOCIO HIST ANALYSIS OF ECON DEV INCLUDES COLONIALISM, THEN NEO COLONIALISM, THEN NEO LIBERALISM, & NATION BUILDING  
  The history of economic development is that in the early 1900s,  European colonialism ended
 
  Ec dev was not recognized as a social process until after WW II  
  Former colonies & other countries had low living standards compared to the developed countries  
  The colonies came to be known as developing countries  
  As the concept of econ development emerges, the concepts of developing & undeveloped countries emerges
 
  MEASURING ECON DEV IS PRIMARILY DONE VIA GDP, WHICH INCLUDES THE VALUES OF A NATION'S EXPORTS  
  Economists usually rank countries as developed, developing or undeveloped based on per capital income criterion
 
  Another intl econ ranking system, which parallels the developed, developing, undeveloped system, labels nations as core, semi peripheral, & peripheral   
  There are several problems w/ using the developed, developing, undeveloped system to measure ec dev including currency comparisons & quality of life issues
 
  The current measure of ec dev may result in the classification of oil rich nations w/ hi per capita income as dev, when in fact other than the oil ind, they are undeveloped  
 
 The current measure of ec dev does not effectively acct for currency exchange rates & variations in the cost of living:  comparing dollars to denars & cost of living
 
  The current measure of ec dev does not take into acct quality of life factors such as food, shelter, health, retirement, etc.   
 
 GDP, GNP, PPP HELP US UNDERSTAND DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF ECONOMIES   
  GDP, GNP, PPP are THREE methods of measuring income  
  Gross domestic product ( GDP ) is the amount of income that a given nation creates both nationally & internationally  
  GDP is the most frequently used measure of income  
  Gross national product ( GNP ) is the amount of income that is produced in each nation, thus the international production in another nation is not counted  
  GNP was the measure on income used until globalization became so widespread that GDP became a clearer measure   
  Purchasing power parity ( PPP ) is a measure that equalizes the measure of income based on the purchasing power of income for necessities   
  Using PPP as a measure of income means that, for example, that $55 K provides a mid class living in the US while $45 K provides a mid class living in Australia  
  PPP is considered to be the clearest measure of income across nations   
 
 Other means of measuring development include: 
a.  nutritional status 
b.  hospital beds per capita 
c.  physician per capita 		 d.  teachers per capita
e.  infant mortality 
f.  etc. 
 
  Examples of comparing economic development  
 
 The gap between rich & poor is over $20,000 and growing
         Core:  PPP  GDP:   $ 15,000   to   $ 20,000   per yr.
  Periphery:  PPP  GDP:        $ 750   to   $   7,000		  
  India      per capita income est at $270 in 1985
Brazil    est at $1,640, 
Italy       est at $6,520 		  
  An analysis of the ec dev of Italy, i.e. Italy's living standard, is raises the question of whether 24 times greater than India's, or just how they relate to one another  
  The living standard gap btwn Italy & India could be biased, i.e. it could be too hi or too lo  
  An analysis of the comparative ec dev of Italy & India leaves no doubt that the Italian living standard is significantly higher than that of Brazil, which in turn was higher than India's by a wide margin  
  ECON DEV CONCEPTS DEMONSTRATE THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT SECTORS OF THE ECON & THE FACT THAT ECONS MUST HAVE PARTICULAR CAPACITY LIKE ED IN PLACE BEFORE OTHER ASPECTS CAN MANIFEST   
  There are FOUR types of economic activities: Primary Activities, Secondary Activities, Tertiary Activities, Quaternary Activities  
  Geographical path dependence analyzes the relationship btwn the present activities & the past activities of that place  
  There are always different pathways to development according to the circumstances of the variations in factors involved  
  What is the Geographic Path Dependence of the coalfields?  
  FIVE CHANGES IN SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN EC DEV INCLUDE THE BASE, EC SYS, TECH, CONDITIONS, INFRASTRUCTURE  
  Economic Development causes changes in FIVE  a society's social structure including the  
  a.  structure of a region's economic type of base: ag, raw material extraction, industrial, info/ high tech, services  
  b.  form of economic organization (e.g., barter, pure capitalism, state capitalism, socialism)  
  c.  availability & use of tech  
  d.  basic living conditions  
  e.  physical framework or infrastructure  
  UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT IS WHERE AN ECON STRAYS FROM ECON PATH DEVELOPMENT  
  Uneven development is a problem that has plagued nations & their economies:  e.g., a nation must have the infrastructure of roads, power, etc. to support an industrial base  
  GENDER & DEVELOPMENT: IN PERIPHERAL NATIONS, WOMEN EXCEL AT STARTING SMALL BUSINESSES WHILE PATRIARCHAL MEN DO NOT  
  An analysis of gender & development demonstrates that in no country are women better off than men  
  In the core women have 85 to 95 % of the wealth of men  
  In the periphery, women have less than 5 % of the wealth of men  
  Developers have found that women invest in new sectors of the econ, whereas men are more likely to invest in tradl areas  
  Women must go to new sectors to gain an econ foothold  
  REGIONAL PATTERNS IN DEVELOPMENT DEMONSTRATE REGIONAL EC DEV SYNERGY   
  Regional patterns in development are a form of uneven development  
  Regional patterns in development are explained by the unique interaction of factors affecting development & scarce resources, history of neglect, aka the history of exploitation, lack of investment, concentration of low skilled people, etc.  
  Explain how each of these has occurred in the Appalachians   
  In reality, many pathways exist to development  
  The same factors that effect econ development itself, also effect which pathway is followed  
  Regions are interdependent & Econ Development is based on geographic, physical & social factors  
  THE STANDARD PATHWAY TO DEVELOPMENT INCLUDES HG, AG, EXTRACTION, IND, INFO / HI TECH, SERVICE  
  The 'standard pathway to development' typically includes the SIX phases of: 
a.  Hunter gatherer economy
b.  Agriculture economy
c.  Raw materials extraction economy		 d.  Industrial economy
e.  Info processing / high tech economy
f.  Services economy
 
  Most core countries followed the standard pathway to it's end  
  Most semi peripheral countries are struggling in extraction or industry econ systems  
  Most peripheral countries are struggling in H-G, agricultural, & extraction type of econ systems  
  We cannot yet foresee what the next type of economy will be for the core countries  
  We now understand that the pathway to development for semi peripheral & peripheral countries will not be the same path taken by the core countries  
  Thus economists, social scientists, politician, business people, etc. are all attempting to discover the best pathway for each type of nation to take  

 
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 Outline on  Social Change in the 3rd World
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  SOCIAL CHANGE & ECON DEVELOPMENT IS OCCURRING RAPIDLY IN THE 3RD WORLD 
 
  While soc chg came quickly to No Am & Euro w/ the Ind Rev, today, it is occurring even more quickly in much of the rest of the world   
  Tech & the power of global corps based in the ind nations are some of the factors leading to rapid soc chg in the 3rd world   
  There are many impacts of contact btwn more & less modernized nation, one of which is rapid soc chg   
  ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT REFERS TO GROWTH & MATURATION OF THE ECON & SOCIETY   
  Development may refer to economic development, meaning the econ changes assoc w/ the Ind Rev   
  Development may refer to all the changes that occur in a nation, meaning that development means modernization which includes econ changes as well as the changes in the other sectors of society such as its culture & structure   
  NATIONS ARE OFTEN CHARACTERIZED AS DEVELOPED, DEVELOPING, OR UNDEVELOPED   
  Developed nations are those that have modern political instits, ind econs, high standards of living, high literacy rates, good medical care, & so on   
  The US, Japan, the UK, France, & most of W Euro are examples of developed nations 
 
  Developing nations are those that lack some or all of the quals of dev nations, but are well along in the process of industrializing   
  The BRIC nations, Brazil, Russia, India, & China are the major developing nations, & there are others   
  The less developed or undeveloped nations are those that lack some or all of the quals of dev nations & have low standards of living & have very little industrialization 
 
  Many nations in Africa, Asia, & So America are are less developed 
 
  The developed, developing, & less developed nations may also be called the 1st, 2nd, & 3rd world respectively 
 
  1ST, 2ND, & 3RD WORLD NATIONS HAVE COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OTHER THAN STAGE OF ECON DEV SUCH AS GENERALLY, THE MORE DEVELOPED, THE MORE DEMOCRATIC, & THE LESS DEVELOPED THE LESS LITERATE, & SO ON   
  Some sociologists focus on other qualities to categorize the development of nations such as the political & judicial systems, historical chars 
 
  Historically, except for Japan, the 1st world nations have the oldest democratic instits 
 
  Historically, the 2nd world nations were, ostensibly, socialist, though from an accurate theoretical pt of view, they were authoritarian regimes w/ command econs, which is not socialism 
 
  Historically, the 3rd world nations were former colonies of the 1st world 
 
  The divisions of developed, developing, & less developed nations can never be a fully adequate description, many nations fall in btwn, still, they do make reasonable divisions   
  4TH WORLD NATIONS ARE THE POOREST NATIONS & OFTEN CANNOT MAINTAIN THE BASIC NEEDS OF FOOD, CLOTHING, & SHELTER W/O AID FROM OTHER NATIONS   
  Some soc scientists also denote the category of 4th world nations   
  Many 4th world nations have few or no quals of development such as modern political instits, ind econs, high standards of living, high literacy rates, good medical care, & so on   
  The distinguishing characteristics of 4th world nations are that they are the poorest of the poor, have little development in progress, have authoritarian states, have widespread corruption, & often require extensive aid from other nations to prevent famine & societal collapse   
  Since 9 11, 4th world nations have become more likely to become havens for terrorists b/c the states do not have the will or the power to maintain soc control & order   
  UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT IS THE CONDITIONS WHERE ECON & SOC DEV OCCUR IN ONE REGION BUT NOT ANOTHER, OFTEN CAUSING SOCIAL & ECON DISRUPTION   
  Uneven development is the difference in growth & econ development among different geog areas   
  FUNCTIONALISTS SEE DEV OF THE 3RD WORLD BY THE 1ST AS BENEFICIAL TO BOTH   
  Functionalists see contact w/ industrialized nations as a means by which 3rd world nations can modernize & attain the benefits of econ dev   
  Functionalists focus on the changes assoc w/ contact btwn 1st & 3rd world nations which are beneficial to both parties & over the long run will lead to decreases in the pattern of uneven development   
  Functionalists predict that contact btwn the 1st & 3rd world will enable the less developed nation to modernize which will enable them to support more people at a higher standard of living & w/ less soc inequality   
  Functionalists predict declining birth & death rates, higher literacy, & greater urbanization   
  CONFLICT THEORISTS SEE DEV OF THE 3RD WORLD BY THE 1ST AS BENEFICIAL TO THE 1ST WORLD BUT EXPLOITATIVE TO THE 3RD, & THAT SUCH DEV EXACERBATES UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT & CONFLICT BTWN 1ST & 3RD WORLDS   
  Conflict theorists emphasize the conflict btwn the developed nations & all other nations   
  Conflict theorists recognize the superior adaptation of developed societies, but they see it as a root cause of the lack of development elsewhere, ie the powerful nations exploit the less developed nations   
  Conflict theorists explain differences in rates of development in terms of competition among nations over raw materials, intl trade, geog advantage, the uses of labor & capital, & more   
  In direct contrast to functionalist theories, conflict theory hold that uneven development is perpetuated & sometimes even exacerbated by contacts btwn 1st & 3rd or 4th world nations   

 
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 Outline on  Modernization Theory
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  MODERNIZATION THEORY HOLDS THAT FOR DEVELOPMENT TO OCCUR THE IMPORTATION OF TECH & CULTURE IS NEEDED, & THIS WILL RESULT IN ECON DEV & THE DECREASE OF UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT 
 
  Modernization theory holds that as 3rd world nations modernize & industrialize, uneven development will gradually decrease   
  Mod th has functionalist roots   
  Mod theorists believe that as the process of modernization spreads, they will benefit much as the industrialized nations have   
  The development of the 3rd world is linked to the process of diffusion of both culture & tech  
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 See Also:  Contact & Diffusion   
  For tech, econ dev is seen as an outgrowth of tech that were developed in Euro or No Am which allow increases in productivity, esp from the mid 19th C to the mid 20th C   
  Gains can be made in 3rd world nations through the importation of mod tech & mod forms of org, along w/ infusions of the capital necessary to build factories that use these tech   
  Econ booms in nations such as So Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, & Taiwan are examples of formerly 3rd world nations that have developed to such an extent that they are now considered 2nd world, ie developing nations 
 
  The 'Asia tigers' have had infusions of investment from corps & other orgs based in more developed nations 
 
  FOR MODERNIZATION TO OCCUR, CULTURAL DIFFUSION OF 'MODERN VALUES' IS NEEDED SO THAT  PEOPLE WILL ACCEPT & USE NEW TECH   
  Cultural diffusion is the spread of ideas & objects from one culture to another   
  According to McClelland, for nations to modernize there is a need for such values as individualism, self reliance, gratification deferral, an achievement orientation, gender equality, tolerance esp for religion & race, & more   
  McClelland's view is a modern version of Weber's theories about the Protestant work ethic where societies who have a 'work ethic' & related values as described by Weber are better able to take advantage of imported tech   
  The challenge today is to import not only tech, but the values of modern societies, both which are resisted by staunch, radical traditionalists in many 3rd world nations   
  A STUDY BY KLEIN FOUND THAT THE IMPRESSIVE GROWTH OF CHINA IS THE RESULT OF THEIR EMBRACE OF 'MODERN VALUES', & THAT THE LACK OF GROWTH OF RUSSIA IS PARALLELED BY THEIR LOW LEVEL OF 'MODERN VALUES'   
  A study by Klein in 1993 compared the econ dev & the cultures of Russia & China   
  Russia has remained a 2nd world nations, & it's standard of living remains low compared w/ Western nations, & it is characterized by one dominant industry:  oil & gas   
  China has grown from having a 3rd world status to 2nd world status & has become the world's 2nd largest econ behind only the US   
  Klein pts out that the entrepreneurial aspects of China's culture created an atmosphere favorable to econ dev   
  Chinese living abroad include many successful business people who bring what they have learned to their homeland in the form of investment   
  Klein found that 80% of foreign investment in China comes from ethnic Chinese living abroad   
  Klein found that compared to China, Russia lacks the entrepreneurial spirit & the native investment   
  CRITICS OF MOD TH HOLD THAT 'MODERN VALUES' DO EXIST IN MANY LESSER DEV NATIONS & THAT FOREIGN INVESTMENT IS FREQUENTLY MORE EXPLOITATIVE THAT GROWTH ORIENTED   
  Critics notes that research has not shown that nations w/ lower levels of econ dev have any lower 'achievement values'   
  There is evidence that intl investment can harm development of 3rd world nations b/c the money is often siphoned off by corruption of the ruling elite, b/c the costs of interest rates overwhelm an benefit from growth, & for other reasons   
  Major criticisms of modernization theory can be found in both dependency theory & world systems theory   
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 See Also:  Dependency Theory  
  See Also:  Wallerstein   
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 See Also:  World Systems Theory   

 
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 Outline on  Dependency Theory 
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  SOME CONFLICT THEORISTS BELIEVE THAT WHILE THE CORE NATIONS PURPORT TO BE HELPING 2ND & 3RD WORLD NATIONS, THEY ARE IN EFFECT CREATING DEPENDENT STATES, A NEW NONE MILITARISTIC FORM OF COLONIALIZATION 
 
  Some conflict theories argue that 1st world nations have developed at the expense of less developed nations & have even pushed some of these nations backward 
 
  Frank (1969) called the process of exploitation of the 3rd world by the 1st world the development of underdevelopment 
 
  The generally accepted name for any theories addressing how & why 3rd world nations remain in low levels of development is dependency theory 
 
  Dep th claims that the activities of the ind nations keep 3rd wrld nations in a dependent positions rather than enabling them to develop 
 
  Some dep th argue that the 'help' provided by the 1st world to the 3rd world is either disguised benefits for the 1st world's intl corps or political blackmail used to force rd world nations to support 1st world goals, initially cold war goals, & today the war on drugs or the war on terrorism 
 
  One of the major dependency theories is world systems theory, 1st developed by Immanuel Wallerstein 
 
  See Also:  Wallerstein 
 
  See Also:  World Systems Theory 
 

 
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Topics on Immanuel Wallerstein's   World Systems Theory
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  -  Project:  World Systems Theory 
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  INTRO:  WORLD SYSTEM THEORY HOLDS THAT GLOBAL CAPITALISM HAS BEEN DEVELOPING W/IN & BTWN NATIONS SINCE THE MID AGES   
  World systems theory ( WST ) holds that the world is made up of interdependent systems of countries linked by political & economic competition  
  The world system is a worldwide econ & pol sys that includes a div of labor among nations, as well as a straf sys among these nations   
  The world sys is an outgrowth of the process of globalization   
  While soc inequality, econ exchange, & pol & econ domination once occurred w/in boundaries of particular nations, in the world system, they occur on a worldwide scale   
  It makes as much sense today to talk about inequality btwn different nations as it does to talk about inequality btwn different grps w/in the same nation   
  Rich nations are the core of the world econ & low income nations are at the periphery of the world econ   
  WST is similar to dependency theory in that both agree that the dependency of the peripheral nations results from:
a.  narrow, export oriented economies
b.  lack of industrial capacity
c.  foreign debt
d.  rich nations' single minded pursuit of profit.		  
Link
 See Also:  Dependency Theory  
  WST suggests that the prosperity or poverty of any country results from the operation of the global econ system  
  The world economy: 
a.  benefits rich societies by generating profits
b.  harms the rest of the world by causing poverty
c.  makes poor nations dependent on rich ones		  
  CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORLD SYSTEM INCLUDE GLOBAL DIV OF LABOR, THE NATION STATE, CONFLICT, INTERDEPENDENCE  
  Throughout history, each World System has had FOUR Qualities: 
a.  A world system is a broad economic entity w/ a world level division of labor
b.  A world system is a self contained social system w/ set boundaries & a definite life span
c.  A world system has systems held together by forces in tension, not consensus
d.  A world system is characterized by interdependence
 
  Today the modern world system is characterized by the relatively strong econ links btwn states, i.e. interdependence   
  The constituent geopolitical units depend fundamentally on features of the system as a whole which reflect transnational linkages   
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 THE WORLD SYSTEM IS ROUGHLY DIVIDED INTO THE: 
-  CORE (1st WORLD / DEVELOPED WORLD) 
-  SEMI PERIPHERY (2nd WORLD / DEVELOPING WORLD) 
-  PERIPHERY (3rd WORLD / UNDEVELOPED WORLD) 		  
  The most important current determinant of a state's classification w/in the world system is its ability to ensure intl econ competitiveness of its domestic companies   
 
 The world is best understood by dividing the world into THREE major sectors including the core, the semi periphery, & the periphery   
 
 1.  The core includes the major industrialized countries   
  As the center of the global world sys are the core nations, characterized by industrialization, econ diversification in secondary & tertiary production, heavy investment in foreign areas, & considerable political & econ autonomy in pursing their own interests   
  The core is also known as the first world or the developed world   
  Core regions usually have a higher per capita income than do periphery regions   
  The core is dominate trade, technology, highest productivity   
  Domination of trade, tech, & productivity allows the core to dominate the world politically & militarily   
  The core's econ is based on services & mfr   
  The core exploits other regions via colonialism, imperialism, or hegemony  
  The leading core nations are the US, Germany, & Japan   
 
 2.  The semi periphery is also known as the second world or developing countries   
  Semi peripheral nations are less developed than core nations, but less developed that peripheral nations   
  The semi periphery's economy is based primarily on mfr   
  The semi periphery can exploit the periphery, but is often exploited by core   
  Brazil, Spain & Greece are currently semi peripheral states   
 
 3.  The periphery is also known at the third world, or the undeveloped countries   
  Peripheral nations have little or no industrialization, specialize in primary production, are heavily invested in by foreign nations, & experience frequent outside interference in their political & econ affairs   
  Core nations use the resources of peripheral nations to enhance their own development & consequently retard the development of peripheral nations   
  The periphery is exploited by other regions   
  The periphery's econ is primarily based on natural resource extraction, exploitation of subsistence level labor in mfr   
  Examples of peripheral nations are Sri Lanka, El Salvador, & Zimbabwe   
  Historically, the location of the sectors of world systems have changed as states compete for dominance   
  Thus, there have been different types of core states that have dominated in different stages of world development   
  The labels of core, semi periphery, & periphery are not merely descriptive; they indicate an intl div of labor in which the core is linked to the semi periphery, & periphery in dynamic & exploitative ways   
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 THE TYPES OF WORLD SYSTEMS INCLUDE EMPIRES, CAPITALISM, GLOBALISM, & SOCIALISM, ALL ON A WORLD SCALE   
  There are FOUR types of world systems   
  a.  An empire world system is based on political & / or military domination  
  b.  The modern capitalist world system is based on econ domination 
 
 
 Compared to the empire world system, the modern capitalist world system is more stable, has a broader base, encompasses many independent states, & has a built in process of economic stability   
  Modern capitalism began development in late 1400s 
 
  c.  The global capitalist world system is based on the globalization of econ domination   
  Some facets of global capitalism developed w/ capitalism in the 1400s but has come to dominate world events since the early 1900s   
  d.  The socialist world govt world system is a future possibility   
  SOCIO HISTORICAL PROCESSES OF THE WORLD SYSTEM   
  There are FIVE historical processes that span types & stages of world systems   
 
 1.  GEOGRAPHIC EXPANSION GENERALLY INCLUDES THE EXPANSION OF EMPIRE, COLONIES, OR MKTS   
  The histl process of geographic expansion is a prerequisite for the many stages   
  The histl process of geographic expansion is caused by people advancing their own interests   
  During geographic expansion, the world must have enough trade to advance the social systems   
  Geographic expansion is a sign in all of the stages mentioned above, though in the later stage domination shifts forms   
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 2.  THE DIVISION OF LABOR HAS STEADILY INCREASED THROUGHOUT HIST  
  As the mod world sys grew, it produced a div of labor among the different nations of the world   
  While the typical definition of the division of labor referred to the subdivision of tasks, Wallerstein sees the division of labor developing into types of labor   
  Wallerstein sees the division labor developing from the individual in Hunter Gatherer Society, to a national division of labor, to a world wide or global division of labor   
  The sociologist Emile Durkheim recognized the division labor as the major foundation of modern society   
  See Also:  Durkheim   
  See Also:  The Division of Labor   
  See Also:  The Intl Division of Labor   
 
 An example of the development of the division of labor from the individual to the national level, to the world wide or global level is that as the nation state developed, various nations took different places in a globalized division of labor   
  Even as far back as the 16th Century,   
  a.  capitalism replaced statism as the major mode of domination   
  b.  the solidarity of capitalism was based on unequal development   
  c.  some nations could exploit & some would be exploited   
  d.  the intl division of labor relegated different nations to different roles   
  e.  the roles included creating labor power, food production, raw material production, & industry   
  In the past, different areas produced different types of labor, including the: 
-  African supply of slaves 
-  Southern Europe supply of tenant farmers 
-  Western Europe supply of wage workers 		  
  The new intl division of labor is caused by the decentralization of mfring from the core countries to semi peripheral & peripheral nations   
 
 Today, different areas around the globe produce different types of labor
 
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 PRE INDL LABOR TYPES INCLUDED FREE LABOR, FORCED LABOR, & SHARECROPPING   
  The global div of labor divided nations of the world into 3 major, interrelated grps   
 
 Until the Industrial Age, there were THREE types of labor including free labor, forced labor, & sharecropping  
  A.  The core had free labor as its primary form of labor  
  B.  The semi periphery had sharecropping as its primary form of labor  
  C.  The periphery had forced labor as its primary form of labor  
  Capitalism's strength lies in the core w/ free labor & the periphery w/ unfree labor  
  Since the Pre Industrial Age, the amount of forced labor in use has diminished  
  3.  URBANIZATION IS A DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN INDL WORLD   
 
 Urbanization is characterized by a continual movement to urban areas  
  The histl trend toward urbanization has reversed itself only during extraordinary circumstances such as war, plagues, famines, etc.  
  4.  DOMINATION BY THE CORE HAS ALWAYS EXISTED   
  Colonialism is domination of regions of the core, the semi periphery, & the periphery through political/military power   
  Imperialism via neocolonialism is the domination of regions of the core, the semi periphery, & the periphery through economic power   
  Hegemony is domination of regions of the core, the semi periphery, & the periphery through a combination of economic, military, financial, & especially cultural means   
  5.  THE CYCLE OF LEADERSHIP CONSISTS OF THE INTERACTION BTWN ECON, MILITARY, & POLITICAL POWER   
  The cycle of leadership has many stages, including: 
Competitive struggle --> economic power --> political power -->
military power --> expansion/hegemony --> imperial overreach -->
decline/defeat -->
begin again w/ competitive 
 struggle -->
 
  Britain maintained world domination in two successive cycles of leadership   
  The US is now considered to be the world's hegemonic power   
  The fact that the US is not militarily conquering the world brings the cycle of leadership into question   
  Japan became a member of the world system core in the mid 20th century   
  The basic arguments of WST is that relations btwn core nations & peripheral nations are imperialistic   
  Core development & continued econ growth occur at the expense of the underdevelopment of the peripheral & semi peripheral nations   
  Core nations use peripheral nations as sources of cheap raw materials &, increasingly, cheap labor   
  The objective of investment by core nations in peripheral nations is to increase profits in core nations & not to assist peripheral nations   
  A large proportion of the profits generated in peripheral nations are taken out of those nations by multinational corps of the core nations   
Link
 See Also:  Imperialism   
  A SOCIO HISTL ANALYSIS REFLECTS PERIODS OF STABILITY & CHANGE   
  Before the Modern Era, there was the sense that history was cyclical   
  At times in history, one nation may dominate by econ, political, & military power   
  There are also periods of flux   
  This cycle first developed during Early Empire Era era & to a great extent still exists today   
  WST holds that the world system is held together by forces in tension, not consensus   
  WST sees the world in historical & developmental terms   
  Historically the world developed through these stages such as: 
   Hunter Gatherer Society 1.5 mm BP - 10 K BC 
   Pre Empire Era:  Ancient Agricultural Society 10 K BC - 3K BC
   Early Empire Era 3 K BC - 200 BC
   Roman Empire Era 200 BC - 500 AD
   Pre Industrial Society (Middle Ages) 500 - 1300
   Early Industrial Age 1300 - 1700
   Industrial Age 1700 - present
   Global Capitalism 1910 - present
   Post Industrial Society 1970 - present
 
  Starting w/ ancient agricultural societies, hearth areas developed which were early core areas   
  By the time of the Early Empire Era era,  there is full development of the core, semi periphery & periphery   
  Periods of stability include various centuries in the Egyptian Empire, Chinese Empire, the Roman Empire, & Feudal Europe   
 
 While much of history is characterized by change, some of the most studied eras of change include the collapse of the Roman Empire & the transition from feudalism to capitalism 
 
 
 The modern world system began in the late 15th century 
 
 
 Wallerstein argued that the modern world sys began in what he call the 'long 16th C, which ran from about 1450 to 1650 in W Euro 
 
 
 During the last few centuries, the world sys expanded to encompass the entire planet 
 
 
 The world sys is the context for the spread of capitalism, the Ind Rev, globalization, & modernization 
 
  It is only w/in the world sys that the rise & fall of states, relative rates of dev, & soc relations in general can be fully understood   
  Although the sys has always had core nations, the nations in the cores have varied through time   
  WST sees the origin of the mod nation state as a result of the expansion of the intl sys   
  Semi peripheral nations are esp volatile, b/c they are typically declining former core nations or rising former peripheral nations   

 
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 Outline on  Imperialism
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  IMPERIALISM IS A METHOD OF RULE OVER AN EMPIRE, USUALLY THROUGH THE COMBINATION OF MILITARY & CIVIL RULE 
 
  Imperialism can be defined as a sys in which a nation uses the resources of another to its own advantage   
  Imperialism is the policy or action by which one nation controls another nation or territory   
  In the past imperialism was more directly linked to rule empire by an empire over its colonies   
  Imperialism is a sys of govt for the advocacy of imperial interests, specifically the policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign nations, or of acquiring & holding colonies & dependencies   
  Most of imperialistic control is achieved by military means to gain econ & pol advantages   
  Imperialistic policy is also called expansionism   
  An expansionist state that obtains overseas territories follows a policy usually called colonialism   
  An imperialist govt may wish to gain new mkts for its exports, plus sources of inexpensive labor & raw materials   
  A far flung empire may satisfy a nation's desire for military advantage or recognition as a world power   
  Today, as framed by world system theory, imperialism is a sys of control of semi peripheral & peripheral nations by core nations for the benefit of the core nations   
  IMPERIALISM HAS EXISTED SINCE THE BEGINNING OF RECORDED HISTORY WHEN THE 1ST EMPIRES AROSE IN THE ANCIENT MID EAST, & HAS CONTINUED THROUGH TODAY, MORPHING FROM BEING PRIMARILY MILITARY RULE TO PRIMARILY ECON RULE   
  The rise & decline of vast empires, such as those of Persia, Rome, Byzantium, Great Britain, & Nazi Germany, form some of the basic outlines of world hist  
  Imperialism has been the driving force behind most wars, territorial expansion, &  cultural exchange  
  The British had a policy of uniting the separate parts of their empire w/ separate govts as to secure for certain purposes in a single unit   
Link
 See Also:  A Socio Hist Analysis of Imperialism   
  LENIN WAS THE 1ST MAJOR THEORIST TO OBSERVE THAT IMPERIALISM IN THE MODERN ERA HAD DEVELOPED INTO PRIMARILY ECON RELATIONSHIPS   
  Lenin was imperialism as a product of saturated mkts & depleted natural resources in ind nations   
  When mkts are saturated & ind nations have depleted their natural resources, banks & corps use their influence to encourage their govts to engage in colonial expansion to secure new sources of nat resources & new mkts for their products, which include not only goods but also capital investments   
  Lenin believed that capitalism in Euro had escaped failure because of imperialism, a policy in which one country extends influence over other countries   
  Capitalists from Euro imperialist countries underpaid wkrs they hired in African & Asian colonies   
  This helped the capitalists produce goods cheaply, which in turn kept prices in Euro low   
  Low prices contributed to a high standard of living for Euro, which helped prevent unrest in Euro  
  But the exploitation of workers in non industrial societies created the possibility of a Communist revolution there, which Marx had not foreseen   
  LENIN & MARX THOUGHT THE EXPLOITATION INHERENT IN IMPERIALISM WOULD CREATE THE IMPETUS FOR REVOLUTION   
  Lenin agreed w/ Marx's idea that only revolutionary violence could bring about political change   
  Lenin believed a highly centralized, tightly disciplined vanguard, leading grp, of professional revolutionaries would lead the revolution   
  The vanguard would make up the Communist Party   
  Marx's idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat became, in Lenin's thinking, the dictatorship of the Communist Party, which claimed to represent the proletariat   
  THE RISE OF THE MULTI NATIONAL CORP HAS HERALDED THE EMERGENCE OF IMPERIALISM BECOMING PRIMARILY AN ECON RELATIONSHIP, OFTEN SIMPLY CALLED GLOBALIZATION TODAY   
  As multinational corps have become more powerful, they have become less reliant on govt to engage in colonial expansion   
  In a sense the corps colonize nations themselves, though often w/ the backing of the local govts   
  Am & Euro corps have invested heavily in the oil resources of the Mid East   
  The persian Gulf War, 1990-1991, was fought largely to protect Western oil interests in Kuwait & Saudi Arabia   
  Am corps shift jobs from the US to Mexico where wages are lower & there are no safety, labor, or env regs   
  Japanese corps are shifting jobs to Korea, Taiwan & other low wage Asian nations   
  The corp strat of globalization is occurring w/o any actions by govts to estb colonies in the 3rd world   
  Most of the old colonies have gained independence   
  ONE FACET OF IMPERIALISM, 1ST CALLED DEINDUSTRIALIZATION, TODAY CALLED GLOBALIZATION, IS THE TRANSFER OF JOBS FROM CORE NATIONS' INDUSTRY TO 2ND & 3RD WORLD INDUSTRY; & TODAY SERVICE JOBS ARE ALSO BE TRANSFERRED OVERSEAS   
  Cheap labor is increasingly what global or multinational corps seek as illustrated by Am & Jap corps shifting jobs overseas   
  The process of corps shifting jobs to foreign nations was originally called deindustrialization b/c nearly all the jobs that were shifted were industrial jobs   
  See Also:  Deindustrialization   
  Today the process of corps shifting jobs to foreign nations is often called globalization, but it should be noted that moving jobs overseas is simply one facet of globalization   
  See Also:  Globalization  
  World sys theory (WST) notes that global corp job shifts distort class strat in peripheral nations, leading to the development of s small, wealthy class that owes its position to the econ relations w/ the core nations   
  IMPERIALISM IS THE RESULT OF THE DRIVE FOR ECON POWER, MILITARY SECURITY, RELIGION, CULTURAL & RACIAL SUPERIORITY, PATRIOTISM, & MORE   
  Many theories attempt to explain the motives for imperialism   
  Some of the best known theories focuses on econ profit as the chief reason for a nation to seek foreign territories   
  Industrialized nations can produce more mfr goods than their people need or can afford to buy   
  Colonies may serve as mkts for these unsold products   
  They also may provide cheap land, valuable natural resources, & investment opportunities for surplus capital   
  For some theorists, econ oriented theories do not fully explain imperialism b/c many colonies were not economically profitable   
  MILITARY IMPERIALISM OF OFTEN THE RESULT OF THE BELIEF THAT GEOGRAPHY IS POWER:  THE MORE LAND AN EMPIRE CONTROLS, THE MORE POWER IT HAS; AND THERE IS A SENSE THAT NATIONS CAN AMASS A 'BUFFER ZONE' OF CLIENT STATES AROUND THEM   
  Military strategy is another important motive for imperialistic activity   
  Since ancient times, nations have absorbed territory near their borders to protect themselves from foreign attack   
  Such territory serves as a buffer zone   
  In the late 1800s, many Euro powers had colonies throughout the world where their ships, both naval & merchant, could take on supplies   
  IMPERIALISM HAS BEEN JUSTIFIED BY EVANGELICALISM OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS THROUGHOUT HISTORY, AS WELL AS BY OTHER CULTURAL GOALS   
  Imperialism can also be encouraged by religion, a sense of cultural & racial superiority, & patriotism   
  During the late 1800s, a strong feeling of nationalism swept most Euro nations   
  Many people believed their nation's greatness depended on the size of its territory   
  National leaders encouraged expansion & the planting of their nation's flag on foreign soil   
  In addition, many Europeans considered the peoples of Africa & Asia to be racially inferior   
  The lack of industrial development in these lands reinforced this prejudice   
  Many expansionists thought they had a God given mission to take new territory & to spread Christianity & the benefits of Euro culture   
  IMPERIALISM GENERALLY BENEFITS THE RULING NATION & EXPLOITS THE COLONIES OR CLIENT STATES   
  The effects of imperialism include certain benefits that a ruling nation may provide for territories that form part of its empire   
  The colonial powers built new communications & transportation systems, established universities, & introduced modern medical practices   
  Many nations took advantage of their colonies by exporting natural resources w/o providing econ return for most of the people   
  Many colonial administrations were insensitive to local customs and destroyed old ways of life   
  IMPERIALISM, DEINDUSTRIALIZATION, GLOBALIZATION HAS INCREASED THE GAP BTWN THE RICH & THE POOR, BUT A MID CLASS HAS ALSO DEVELOPED IN SOME 2ND WORLD NATIONS   
  Investment in primary production, ie the extraction of nat resources does not lead to econ dev   
  Primary production creates relatively few jobs, & those it does create are unskilled & low paying   
  A large, poor working class or in the case of ag production, a large class of peasants develops   
  The gap btwn rich & poor in peripheral nations increases w/ development, just the opposite of what modernization theory predicts   
  Lack of jobs & econ development from primary extraction industries such as ag, mining, logging, fishing, & more can be seen in 3rd world nations as well as areas in 1st world nations such as the Appalachian coal mining region   

 
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 Outline on a  Socio Historical Analysis of Imperialism
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  IMPERIALISM BEGAN W/ THE 1ST EMPIRES & CITY STATES IN THE ANCIENT MID EAST, AS PEOPLE CAME TO DOMINATE & EXPLOIT OTHER PEOPLE, & HAS CONTINUED TO THE MODERN ERA 
 
  The rise & decline of vast empires, such as those of Persia, Rome, Byzantium, Great Britain, & Nazi Germany, form some of the basic outlines of world hist   
  First Sargon of Akkad & then the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, & Persians estb large empires from more than 2,000 to more than 4,000 yrs ago in the Mid East   
  By the beginning of the Christian era, the Romans had created a vast empire from Asia Minor to what is now France & Great Britain   
  The western part of the Roman Empire collapsed in the AD 400s, but the eastern section, called the Byzantine Empire, survived until 1453   
  The Byzantine Empire fell to the Ottoman Turks, who created a powerful empire that included parts of the Middle East, southeastern Euro, & northern Africa   
  The western part of the Roman Empire was revived in name only as the Holy Roman Empire   
  The Holy Roman Empire ruled much of central Europe from 962 to 1802   
  The Mongols, an Asian people, built the largest land empire in history in the 1200s   
  The Mongol Empire extended from SE Asia to eastern Euro
 
  FROM THE MIDDLE AGES UNTIL WW 1, EURO IMPERIALISM DOMINATED MUCH OF THE WORLD   
  The new Euro nations of the 1400s & 1500s acquired colonial possessions as they spread Christianity & searched for mkts & raw materials   
  For example, Portugal estb a seagoing empire along the shores of the Indian Ocean & coasts of Southeast Asia   
  Spain established colonies in what is now Latin America & the southern US  
  By the early 1700s, the British, French, & Dutch had colonized much of eastern No Am  
  The Dutch gained control of the East Indies (now Indonesia), & the British began their rule of India   
  By the mid 1800s, many colonies in the New World had overthrown foreign rule   
  But Great Britain & other Euro powers maintained 'informal empires' w/o actual govtl control   
  Euro powers maintained 'informal empires' by controlling the trade policies of some former Spanish colonies & by estb new trade relations w/ African & Asian nations   
  THE 1800s WAS CALLED THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM, DURING WHICH AFRICA WAS COLONIZED BY EURO POWERS, SETTING THE STAGE FOR WW 1   
  The late 1800s are often called the Age of Imperialism   
  During this period, Belgium, Fr, Ger, Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, & Spain divided up nearly all of Africa   
  Euro nations also took over large sections of SE Asia & many islands in the So Pacific   
  Spain surrendered Guam, Puerto Rico, & the Philippines to the US after losing the Spanish American War of 1898   
  The determined pursuit of colonies & foreign trade by the major Euro powers strained intl relations   
  This tension was one of the causes of WW I, which began in 1914   
  EURO, US, CHINESE IMPERIALISM ALL CONTRIBUTED TO WW's 1 & 2   
  During the 1930's, Germany, under the rule of Adolf Hitler, began a program of expansion in Euro   
  Germany gained territory both by negotiation &  by armed seizure   
  In Asia, Japan annexed Manchuria & waged war against China   
  For a brief period during WW II, 1939 to 1945, Japan had an enormous empire in the Pacific, & Germany controlled much of Euro & No Africa   
  Germany & Japan were defeated in 1945 & lost their foreign territories   
  MILITARY, COLONIAL IMPERIALISM ENDED AFTER WW 2, & WAS REPLACED BY ECON ORIENTED IMPERIALISM, IE GLOBALIZATION   
  Large scale colonialism ended in the 1950s & early 1960s  
  Euro nations that were recovering from WW II had neither the money nor the will to continue the rule of colonies thousands of miles away   
  In addition, the people of many colonies demanded & won independence   
  Today, a few scattered territories, mostly islands in the Caribbean Sea & Pacific Ocean, are all that remain   
  The US & other world powers still give econ & military assistance to former colonies   
  Some critics call this aid a form of imperialism   
  They say it can lead to indirect control of a nation's politics & econ   

 
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 Outline on  Peripheral Nations & Revolution 
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  PERIPHERAL NATIONS ARE MORE PRONE TO REV THAN CORE & SEMI PERIPHERAL NATIONS B/C THEY EXPERIENCE EXPLOITATION & AN INCOME GAP 
 
  Peripheral nations are more prone to revolution than are core & semi peripheral nations   
  Marx predicted that socialist revs would occur in the core nations b/c of the full development capitalism & the exploitation that would ensue   
  In the peripheral nations there are vast gaps btwn the wealthy & the poor   
  The people are aware of the internal gaps as well as the gap btwn their nations & the core nations   
  The leaders & people of peripheral nations often trace their problems to the actions of the core nations   
  In the past, the people of nations that were exploited by authoritarian capitalist systems tended toward socialist revs   
  SOME REVS IN THE PERIPHERY ARE AS MUCH TO ESCAPE AN OLD SYS AS THE EMBRACE OF A NEW SYS   
  Since the Russian Rev of 1917, nearly all socialist revs have occurred in 3rd world or peripheral nations, such as China, Cuba, Vietnam, Zimbabwe & Nicaragua   
  Part of the impetus for rev was not to embrace socialism, but to escape the exploitation of the globalized, capitalist sys, & to embrace modernization   
  The wave of socialist revs took place in the context of the Cold War, ie the geo political conflict, framed by the buildup of a nuclear arsenal capable of destroying the Earth, & while there were many revs that tended toward socialism & the Soviet block, there were also coups & revs that tended toward capitalism & the US block  
  Power was consolidated in the US block in nearly all of So Am & Cen Am w/ revs such as that in Chile in 1973, or simply a 'negotiated allegiance' to the US block in many other nations   
  The same process of 'alignment' w/ either the Soviet or the US block took place around the world fueling such outright conflicts as the Vietnam war as well as revs & minor wars across Africa, much of SE Asia, & other corners of the world   
  THE COLD WAR WAS THE CONTEXT FOR MANY REVS, FORCING MANY PERIPHERAL NATIONS TO ALIGN W/ THE US OR THE SOVIET UNION   
  During the Cold War, the core nations of the US Block, ie primarily the US, the UK, & France opposed virtually all 3rd world socialist revs  
  Today, the people of nations exploited by authoritarian, often corrupt systems of some mix of capitalism & socialism tend toward Islamic revs  
  In Chile in 1973, socialist who had been freely elected to lead the govt were ousted by a CIA backed coup   
  Ostensibly, core nations opposed socialist revs out of a desire to support democracy, but two realities suggest strongly that other motivations played an equal or greater role   
  In Chile, Socialist President Salvador Allende was ousted & killed w/ US backing & his successor, Augusto Pinochet, was a brutal dictator who ruled w/ an iron fist   
  The response of core nations to govts of peripheral nations has depended more on whether they were cap or soc than on how democratic they were   
  The US opposed Nicaragua's soc Sandanista govt while supporting a cap govt in nearby El Salvador despite a worse record on human rights & repression of dissent in El Salvador   
  A large part of core nations opposition to socialist revs was b/c they threatened the power of multi national corps based in core nations   
  SINCE THE FALL OF THE SOVIET UNION & THE END OF THE COLD WAR, THERE HAVE BEEN BOTH 'VELVET REVS' & TRANSITIONS TO MIXED CAP IN THE OLD SOVIET BLOCK NATIONS   
   Ironically in light of Marx's theories, soc revs that occurred in peripheral nations were reversed by cap revs once those nations reached a certain level of modernization & industrialization   
  Soc revs had reversals or attempted reversals in the Soviet Union (SU), & nearly happened in China per the Tiananmen Square uprising of 1989   
  Both Russia & China have become mixed capitalist states w/ some leanings towards democracy, though they remain essentially authoritarian political systems w/ the infusion of some major, global multi national corps to create a cap sector of the econ   
  In China investment by multi national corps has grown, much of its farming is privatized, & a stock exchange opened in 1992   
  In some cases econ sys estb by soc revs may become cap w/o cap revs such as Russia's in 1991   
  E Euro experienced a series of 'velvet revs' in 1989 & 1990 & there after their escape from Soviet authoritarianism, these nations have estb mixed capitalist states, ie they embrace some free mkts, have some state regulated sectors of the econ, & maintain a large social safety net   
  TODAY MANY REVS IN THE PERIPHERY ARE LINKED TO AN ISLAMIC SYS OF GOV & ECON   
  Today, the people of nations exploited by authoritarian, often corrupt systems of some mix of capitalism & socialism tend toward Islamic revs   
  Examples of Islamic revs were the primarily capitalist Egypt & the primarily socialist Syria both have either had or had attempted Islamic revs as part of the Arab Spring   
  Revs since this wave of socialist revs have also sought to escape exploitation of whatever sys they were under & to embrace was seemed to be the most positive sys   
  After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1989 into the nations of Russia, its former satellites such as Poland & Hungary, & also its historical regions such as Kazakhstan & Ukraine, many of these new nations had 'velvet revs,' ie peaceful revs & have trended toward democratic, mixed capitalist systems   
  The objective of these revs was to escape the authoritarianism & exploitation of the old Soviet Union socialist sys   

 
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 Outline on  Foreign Aid 
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  FOREIGN AID IS THE FINANCIAL & OTHER AID GIVEN BY ONE NATION TO ANOTHER 
 
  Foreign aid refers to the money, goods, or services that govts & private orgs give to help other nations & their people   
  Both private grps & govts give aid to help developing nations fight poverty, disease, & ignorance   
  Since the end of WW 2 in 1945, foreign aid has also become an important part of foreign policy for a large number of nations   
  FOREIGN AID IS PROVIDED TO 2ND & 3RD WORLD NATIONS FOR REASONS OF NATIONAL SECURITY, INTL TRADE, POL OBJ, HUMANITARIAN GOALS, & MORE   
  The govts of many countries give aid to support 3 foreign policy goals: (1) to promote national security; (2) to increase international trade; & (3) to achieve political obj, including humanitarian goals   
  The nations giving aid try to strengthen their own national defenses by strengthening friendly or neutral govts   
  They also give aid to create or maintain trade & investment ties w/ other nations   
  When they give aid, they expect the receiving nations to support, or at least not oppose, their political policies 
 
  FOREIGN AID TAKES MANY FORMS INCLUDING FOOD, TECH ASSISTANCE, LOANS, INFRASTRUCTURE & MORE  
  Foreign aid may be packages of food or clothing for needy people, or volunteers wking in villages   
  Foreign aid could be technicians who teach others such things as modern farming methods or how to operate heavy construction machinery   
  Foreign aid could also take the form of long term loans to help developing countries build roads & power plants   
  Foreign aid includes money, supplies, & tech assistance aimed at helping another nation build up its econ or military power   
  But foreign aid does not include military forces sent to help another nation  
  Nor does foreign aid  include intl trade, private intl investment, or diplomatic efforts to help other nations  
  PRIVATE AID IS OFFERED BY NGOs & OFFICIAL AID IS OFFERED BY GOVTS   
  Private aid is offered by voluntary non govt orgs (NGOs), such as CARE & the Red Cross   
  Govts give official aid   
  Official aid given by one nation to another is called bilateral aid   
  Aid given by a grp of nations through the UN or other instits is called multilateral aid   
  About 3/4s of all official aid is bilateral   
  Since WW 2, about 1/3 of all US aid has gone to help other nations build up their armed forces   
  THE US BEGAN GIVING LARGE AMTS OF FOREIGN AID DURING WW 2   
  Us aid programs:  Large scale foreign aid began during WW 2 (1939-1945)   
  From the early 1940s to the mid 1960s, the US gave or lent about $140 bb in foreign aid   
  At one time or another, almost every nation in the world has received US aid   
  The rest has gone to teach people new skills, to provide emergency aid for people who lacked food or homes, &  to build up national wealth & income in poor nations   
  Changes in types of aid & in the nations receiving aid reflect changes in US national interests since 1940   
  From 1940 through 1945, the US gave over $50 bb in supplies & equipment to its allies, esp the UK the Soviet Union (SU)  
  The US gave much of this aid through the Lend Lease Program   
  The US also started a tech & development assistance program for Latin America & gave funds to war relief programs   
  After WW 2 the US provided relief & reconstruction to Euro, Japan, & many other nations   
  One of the most pressing needs at the end of WW 2 was to provide food & shelter for millions of people in Euro & Asia   
  Another was to help the people rebuild their war torn nations   
  The UN Relief & Rehabilitation Admin (UNRRA), an org financed largely by US grants, helped meet these needs   
  The US also made loans to the UK & other nations after WW 2  
  But these were only temporary measures   
  In 1948, the US began the first broad reconstruction program, the Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program)   
  The plan gave the nations of W Euro about $13 bb for rebuilding over a period of 4 yrs   
  TRUMAN IS LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR SHIFTING US FOREIGN AID PROGRAMS FROM RECOVERY & RECONSTRUCTION DURING WW 2 TO THE COLD WAR OBJ OF SECURITY   
  In his inaugural address, Truman called for "a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances & industrial progress available for the improvement & growth of underdeveloped areas"  
  In 1950, Congress approved $35 mm for the 1st part of this Point Four Program   
  Late in 1951, Truman asked Congress to set up a new foreign aid program for communist threatened countries in SE Asia   
  Congress estb the Mutual Security Administration to strengthen military defenses in many nations   
  W Euro had recovered economically from the war, so Truman changed the emphasis of foreign aid from econ help to mutual security   
  Truman believed that if the nation's allies were strong, America would be strengthened, too   
  IN THE CONTEXT OF THE COLD WAR, THE US BEGAN ECON & MIL DEV IN MANY 2ND & 3RD WORLD NATIONS WHEREVER THE REAL OR IMAGINED THREAT OF COMMUNISM AROSE   
  After the Marshall Plan, US interests turned to promoting the econ dev & military security of developing nations in Africa, Asia, & Latin Am   
  In 1950, the US Congress authorized $35 mm for President Truman's proposed Point Four Program to give tech assistance to the developing nations in Africa, Asia, & Latin Am   
  The threat of Communism changed the emphasis in foreign aid   
  Americans were concerned about the Communist takeover in China in 1949, the Korean War in the 1950s, & increasing Cold War tensions btwn the US & the SU  
  To stop the spread of Communism, the US helped found the North Atlantic Treaty Org (NATO) & pledged military aid to NATO members   
  It gave military & econ aid to developing nations facing Soviet or Chinese pressure   
  These countries included Greece, Laos, South Korea, South Vietnam, Taiwan, & Turkey   
  The US also gave mutual security aid to India, Pakistan, & other developing countries it considered to be of major political importance   
  KENNEDY & LBJ BEGAN TO OFFER AID FOR REASONS OTHER THAN THE COLD WAR, IE TO FOSTER ECON DEVELOPMENT BY ATYPICAL METHODS SUCH AS THE PEACE CORP & MORE   
  In the 1960s, Presidents Kennedy & Johnson strongly supported tech assistance & econ dev programs   
  In 1961, Congress estb the Agency for Intl Development (AID) to administer all US bilateral aid programs, & Kennedy estb the Peace Corps   
  Thousands of Peace Corps volunteers have lived & wked w/ people in developing countries to help them improve their living conditions   
  In 1961, the US & 19 Latin Am nations formed the Alliance for Progress to promote econ dev & social reform in Latin Am  
  Under the Food for Peace Program, set up in 1954, food shipments to needy nations averaged about $11/2 bb a yr in the 1960s  
  THE POPULARITY & LEVEL OF FOREIGN AID HAS HAD MANY UPS & DOWNS SINCE WW 2   
  But in the early 1970s, the US reduced its foreign aid program   
  Public support for foreign aid weakened   
  The US felt it needed the money more for military & domestic programs   
  It also had to end a balance of payments deficit caused by the nation's spending more money abroad than foreigners spent in the US   
  In the mid 1970s, US foreign aid began to rise again, esp to Egypt & Israel   
  DONORS FROM SOURCES OTHER THAN THE US ARE BECOMING MORE IMP, ESP FROM CHINA & SOME OTHER 2ND WORLD NATIONS  
  Other nations besides the US give econ aid to developing nations   
  Japan gives much of its aid to other Asian countries   
  It lends money to China, Myanmar, Vietnam, & many other nations for development projects   
  Japan also supplies money & tech aid to such Pacific Island nations as Fiji, Papua New Guinea, & Samoa   
  France has given much to French overseas territories & to its former colonies in Africa   
  Belgium, the UK, & other former colonial powers also give aid to their former colonies   
  DURING THE COLD WAR, THE SOVIET UNION GAVE AID TO IT'S SATELLITE NATIONS OF THE COMMUNIST BLOCK   
  The Soviet Union, before it broke up in 1991, gave large amounts of military & econ aid to several countries, including Afghanistan, Cuba, Egypt, India, No Korea, & Vietnam   
  In the 1970s, Soviet leaders began to reduce econ assistance to other nations   
  They believed that such aid brought the SU few benefits & that the receiving countries did not appreciate the aid   
  By the late 1980s, econ problems w/in the SU had caused the nation to reduce its foreign aid program drastically   
  AID GIVEN BY NATIONS OTHER THAN THE SU & THE US IS MORE LIKELY TO BE NOT MILITARY ORIENTED   
  Other nations have been less concerned than the SU & the US w/ aid for security purposes   
  They are more interested in promoting trade, cultural, or diplomatic ties   
  France has given the most technical assistance b/c most of its aid goes to Africa, which lacks trained people   
  Belgium, the UK, Germany, & Italy also have supplied much tech assistance   
  A number of nations coordinate their bilateral aid through the Org for Econ Cooperation & Dev (OECD)   
  The nations providing aid often negotiate as a grp w? aid receiving nations to determine the size & use of aid programs   
  MULTI LATERAL AID IS GIVEN BY GRPS OF NATIONS OFTEN THROUGH THE UN OR WORLD BANK   
  About 1/4 of all official foreign aid is multilateral   
  A large part of this aid is channeled through the UN   
  Most multilateral aid goes for development & technical assistance, & disaster relief   
  Multilateral agencies do not offer military aid   
  But the aid they do offer may release for military use funds that had been reserved for other projects   
  TECH ASSISTANCE IS OFTEN GIVEN THROUGH THE UN & NGOs  
  UN technical assistance, refugee, & relief programs are financed mostly by contributions from member govts   
  A large share of these contributions goes to the UN Development Programme (UNDP)   
  The UNDP selects aid projects & distributes funds to various agencies to carry out the projects   
  Each agency also receives funds directly from member nations   
  THE UN GIVES TECH ASSISTANCE THROUGH THE FAO, UNESCO, WHO, UNICEF, THE IDO & MORE   
  Five agencies carry out much of the UN's technical assistance work in developing countries   
  1) The Food & Ag Org of the UN (FAO) promotes ag dev   
  2) The UN Educational, Scientific & Cultural Org (UNESCO) gives educational & scientific assistance   
  3) The World Health Organization (WHO) helps countries improve their health services   
  4) The UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) helps fight children's diseases, & aids needy children and mothers   
  5) The International Labour Organization (ILO) conducts labor training programs   
  Other agencies also give technical assistance to developing countries   
  The UN Industrial Development Org (UNIDO) was formed in 1966 to give advice on industrial development   
  The UN Conference on Trade & Development (UNCTAD) does not give aid, but it serves as a forum for its members to frame aid & trade policies to benefit developing nations   
  ALMOST EVERY AFRICAN NATION DEPENDS TO SOME EXTENT ON FOREIGN AID  
  Aid to africa consists of grants of money; loans; & tech assistance in such areas as ag, ed, & health   
  Individual nations & various intl orgs provide Africa w/ aid   
  France, the UK, & the US, in that order, are the leading individual contributors   
  The UN, through various affiliates, provides huge amts of aid   
  Other major contributors include the World Bank & its affiliate, the Intl Dev Assoc; the Econ Dev Fund & other funds of the EU; & the African Dev Bank & its affiliate, the African Development Fund   
  Egypt receives more foreign aid than any other country in Africa   
  Other African nations that receive large amts of foreign aid include Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Mozambique, Sudan, & Tanzania   
  Foreign aid has helped African nations establish industries, improve ag productivity, & build houses, roads, & schools   
  Foreign aid also has provided African countries w/ food & supplies in times of drought & other natural disasters.   
     
  More in Foreign Aid file notes.   
 

 
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 Outline on  International Loans
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  LOANS ARE MADE TO 2ND & 3RD WORLD NATIONS FROM GOVTS OF CORE NATIONS, GLOBAL INSTITS SUCH AS THE WORLD BANK, & FROM PRIVATE CORPS 
 
  Worldwide lending programs help developing countries finance development projects   
  The Intl Bank for Reconstruction & Development (World Bank), an agency of the UN, makes long term loans to member govts at reasonable interest rates   
  The Intl Development Association (IDA), a World Bank affiliate, makes loans to the least developed member countries, allowing 50 yrs to repay w/ no interest   
  Another World Bank affiliate, the International Finance Corporation (IFC), invests in private enterprises in developing countries   
  REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS HAVE LENDERS FROM REGIONAL CORE NATIONS TO REGIONAL 2ND & 3RD WORLD NATIONS  
  Regional development programs aid poor countries in particular areas   
  The Inter American Development Bank (IDB) makes long term development loans to Latin American countries   
  Founded in 1959, the IDB is financed primarily by the US govt 
 
  The bank's headquarters are in Washington, DC 
 
  The Asian Development Bank, estb in 1965, lends money to govts and private firms in Asia 
 
  The bank's original financing came mainly from the US, Japan, India, & Australia & headquarters are in Manila, the Philippines. 
 
  The African Development Bank, financed by over 25 African countries, makes loans to promote econ & social development in Africa   
  Founded in 1964, the bank has headquarters in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire   
  The European Bank for Reconstruction & Dev (EBRD) was founded in 1990 & was estb to make loans to E Euro nations to help them switch from communist to free mkt econs   
  The EBRD is financed by about 40 nations from around the world & by two instits of the Euro Union, the Euro Commission & the Euro Investment Bank   
  The Euro Investment Bank also makes development loans to the Euro Union's African associates   
  The EU's Euro Dev Fund provides grants to EU associates in Africa & in the Caribbean & Pacific regions.   
  FOREIGN AID HAS NOT ALWAYS BEEN WHOLLY BENEFICIAL   
  Many loans call for high interest payments   
  As a result, several countries receiving aid are finding it extremely difficult to repay the loans   
  Some loans require that the nation receiving aid buy materials from the donor country   
  In many cases, the donor countries thus end up w/ more financial benefits than the receiving countries   
  In addition, large amts of aid sometimes are used to build impressive govt structures such as dams, superhighways, or other projects that do not help most of the people.  
  MANY VIEW THE INTL LOAN SYS AS PRIMARILY EXPLOITATIVE, ADVANCING THE INTERESTS OF CORE NATIONS & EXPLOITING 2ND & 3RD WORLD NATIONS   
  From the standpt of world system theory (WST), foreign aid, loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), & development loans from private banks are all forms of imperialism b/c they require the recipient to buy goods & supplies from the lending nation(s) & to follow certain econ & political policies   
  Foreign aid ensures large mkts for firms in core nations   
  Foreign aid is designed to ensure large profits for banks in the form of interest on development loans   
  Foreign aid, development funds, intl loans, etc are one cause of the current 3rd world debt crisis   
  So much money has been loaned to developing nations that failure to repay the loans will lead to the collapse of major core banks   
  The lack of development in these recipient nations has made many of them unable to pay their loans   
  The development crisis gives some control to debtor nations & forces core nations to take some interest in peripheral development to protect their money   

 
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 Outline on a  World System Theory Critique 
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  THERE IS SIGNIFICANT DATA SUPPORTING THE TENETS OF WST 
 
  Empirical research supports some aspects of world systems theory (WST)   
  Snyder & Kick (1979) analyzed intl networks of trade, military intervention, diplomatic ties, & treaty memberships   
  Snyder & Kick found that the global div of labor postulated by WST existed in nations as predicted   
  WST HOLDS THAT WHAT IS TYPICALLY CALLED 'ECON DEVELOPMENT' RESULTS IN GREATER EXPLOITATION OF THE 3RD WORLD TO THE BENEFIT OF THE CORE   
  Heavy foreign investment, presence of intl corps, & concentration on raw material production, esp in ag, slows development in 3rd world nations   
  Core nations are developing faster than peripheral nations   
  B/c of the difference in rates of development, the gap btwn rich & core nations continues to widen   
  Intl relations work to the advantage of the 1st & 2nd worlds & to the disadvantage of the 3rd world 
 
  Modernization & industrialization have had opposite effects on internal inequality in core & peripheral nations 
 
  In core nations, industrialization has led to a decrease in inequality 
 
  In peripheral nations inequality has increased 
 
  Wimberly (1990) found, using mortality level as his indicator of well being, that in peripheral nations w/ higher levels of involvement by corps from core nations, people are worse off 
 
  Involvement by muti national corps from core nation inhibits the development of a higher standard of living in 3rd world nations 
 
  WST challenges the view of modernization theory that the importation of tech & capital will improve the standard of living in these nations 
 
  CRITICS OF WST HOLD THAT IMPERIALISM DISSIPATED AFTER WW 2 & THAT THE 3RD WORLD IS NOW BENEFITING FROM DEVELOPMENT, & IS NOT BEING EXPLOITED BY THE CORE   
  WST & other dependency theory are criticized by those who argue that imperialism was not necessary for the origin of the capitalist world sys, arguing that the advantages for peripheral nations outweigh the disadvantages   
  Critics of WST from the right find that, at most, the raw materials taken from early colonies sped up the development of the core nations but were not crucial to it   
  Critics of WST do not dispute the contention that colonization may have had harmful effects on the development of colonial areas   
  Critics of WST suggests that Lenin's theory, & hence a major portion of world sys theory may describe what happened but not why it happened   
  WST critics from the left believe there is an overemphasis on econ factors & a relative neglect of class, politics, culture, & gender   
  Despite these criticisms, a major contribution of WST is to prompt social scientists to look at hist & intl aspects of soc change   
  WST has raised important questions about the assumption that the importation of capital & tech leads to econ dev   

 
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 Outline on  Social Change & Individualism 
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  SOCIAL CHANGE IS MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN IT HAS STRONG INDIVIDUALS LEADING IT 
 
  The effect of individuals on soc change is complex in that individuals do act in history but it is never clear if it is the individual leading the trend or the trend leading the individual   
  What most soc scientists agree on is that change is most likely when the trend & individual efforts coincide, ie when people 'read' a soc change is coming & choose to advocate for that change   
  Social insight leads us to note that the effect of individual activities on long term soc change is usually limited   
  Individuals may be able to alter such trends, but they cannot create or reverse them   
  TODAY THE TRENDS ARE TOWARD MORE INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM & INFLUENCE; ANDY WARHOL SAID:  'IN THE FUTURE WE WILL ALL HAVE 10 MINUTES OF FAME'   
  The long term trend in many nations appears to be a continued mvmt toward democracy   
  Leaders & soc mvmt pushed these nations ahead toward democracy, & often traditional, historic forces pushed them back to authoritarian rule   
  Every leader & every one of us plays a part in these larger societal changes, both contributing to & being affected by them   
  Today, for example, each of us typically makes quite different decisions regarding family relations & structures, relations btwn men & women, racial & ethnic relations, & sexual behavior than were made 2 or 4, or 4 generations ago in out own society   
  We are heavily influenced by the rapid soc change that has taken place in our society in the recent past   
  We are in a small way contributing to the soc change of today & tomorrow   
  The compliment of social change & the individual effort is most beneficially exercised when individuals accurately see the trend & act to embrace that trend, to accent that trend, to push that trend   
  The other manner in which individuals can encourage soc change is to lay the broad ground work for soc change   
  GOVT LEADERS HAVE BEEN NOTED FOR HAVING PERHAPS THE GREATEST IMPACT IN SOC CHANGE, BUT THE MOST EFFECTIVE LEADERS LEAD THE TRENDS ALREADY IN MOTION   
  Mikhail Gorbachev took steps to institute democracy in the Soviet Union (SU), but democracy cannot take hold unless conditions favorable to it exist   
  Some of the conditions that are necessary for democracy to exist include: a middle class, usually the result of industrialization, modern communications systems, tolerance & civil liberties, & lack of internal conflict   
  Illustrations of individuals being able to alter trends, but not change them include modern Russia which has democracy ruled by an authoritarian leader & a grp of oligarchs, the ethnic conflict in the former Yugoslavia in the 90s, China's modernization & retention of authoritarian rule, the Arab Spring's failures to create democratic nations, & more   
  Even w/ democratic leaders like Gorbachev & Yeltsin, deep ethnic & nationality conflicts, & a culture of corruption have kept Russia from fully democratizing, & thus they have had authoritarian rule under Putin for years   
  The Russian econ sys has been dominated by a oligarchy of capitalists who compete via corrupt capitalism, called by some:  kleptocapitalism   
  China's Deng Xiaoping could temporarily stop democracy through the bloody crackdown in Tiananmen Sq in 1989, but over the long run, there is a strong possibility that democracy will nonetheless prevail   
  China has the same conditions that have been favorable to developing of democracy in the SU, as well as the added pressure that have resulted from the collapse of communism in E Euro & the SU   
  While Gorbachev, Yeltsin, Deng Xiaoping cannot create or reverse a basic society trend, these leaders show us cleanly that individuals can have important effects on the course of such trends   
  Soc mvmts began revolutionary soc change towards democracy in the the Arab Spring & the Ukraine   
  Neither Arab Spring or the Ukraine have successfully created democracy to date, but again, the trend seems clear   
  LEADERSHIP & SOC CHANGE OFTEN ALSO COMES FROM NON GOVT INDIVIDUALS AS WELL AS FROM 'LEADERLESS' SOC MVMTS THEMSELVES   
  Non govt individual leaders & soc mvmts also have to capitalize or recognize trends in order to be effective   
  Examples of important non govt individuals who are leaders include:   
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 Bono   
  Helen Keller   
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 Maathai   
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 Mandella   
  Simmons   
  ... and thousands more   
  Soc mvmts that have had important effects that have been essentially leaderless include the Occupy Mvmt & the Arab Spring   
  Many soc mvmt have had important leadership in the form of leadership systems & individual leaders   
  Most of these mvmts were the most effective when they were active at the peak of the societal trend that had some influence in creating them   
  The Black Panthers   
  The Civil Rts Mvmt   
  The Invisible Children & Kony   
  The Labor Mvmt   
  MADD   
  NAACP   
  NOW  
  The Other 98%  
  Tiananmen Sq  
  ... and thousands more   

 
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 Outline on the  Importance of Social Movements: 
Social Movements as Social Change Agents
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  -  Project:  How Has a Soc Mvmt Affected Your Life? 
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  -  Project:  The Types & Importance of Social Movements 
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  SOC MVMTS HAVE ALWAYS BEEN & CONTINUE TO IMPORTANT CHANGE AGENTS   
  Soc mvmts can influence history, the way individuals live, societies live, & even world events 
 
  Soc mvmts that become large orgs, or institutions are the instrument through which people, groups, orgs, nations influence other people, groups, orgs, nations 
 
  Soc mvmts have even destroyed societies 
 
  The Prohibition Mvmt got alcohol totally outlawed in the US from 1920 to 1933 
 
  The Nazi mvmt in Germany began as a workers' soc mvmt & led to the destruction of much of Europe 
 
  MADD led the fight against drunk driving & has impacted much of the US adult entertainment industry, the alcohol industry, the police, & all of the drinking public 
 
  WHILE MANY SOC MVMTS HAVE TAKEN DECADES, EVEN CENTURIES TO COME TO FRUITION, THEY INCREASE THE PACE OF SOC CHANGE, ESP WHEN COMPARED TO EVOLUTIONARY, IE DEVELOPMENTAL SOC CHANGE  
  When a soc mvmt sweeps through society, it tends to influence the judgment & perceptions of many people 
 
  W/o soc mvmts, change would be much more gradual & more in the control of the elites 
 
  Prior to the modern era, most soc change occurred only at the behest of the elites as seen in the history of feudal Europe, ancient China, & Rome where change came in the the form of new leaders, leaving life much the same for the masses 
 
  Soc mvmts have increased the ability of the people to foment change in their own society by several factors 
 
  THE RISE OF SOC MVMTS WAS SIMULTANEOUS W/ THE RISE OF MODERN DEMOCRACY & SO THE FRAMERS OF DEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION ESTB THE RTS OF ASSEMBLY & FREE SPEECH AS FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RTS   
  The importance of soc mvmts is recognized in the US Constitution in the Bill of Rights in the right of assembly, the right to free speech, the right to a free press, & more; & these rights have been modeled by many other model democracies 
 
  While all people have the right to vote in a democratic society, elected officials do not always do what people want them to 
 
  The labor, civil rights & other mvmts show that public authorities can be mean spirited, shortsighted, or just plain stupid 
 
  Gov Wallace lied to Pres Eisenhower about his true intentions on desegregation & he ordered the state Nat Guard to block school doors 
 
 
 Soc mvmts make it possible for citizens to change policies created by dictators, elected officials, elites & others in power   
 
 Before the advent of soc mvmts, the masses of people had proportionally little power   
  See Also:  The History of Soc Mvmts   
  SOC MVMTS, SOC ORGANIZATION, SOC CHANGE, ASSEMBLY, FREE SPEECH, ETC, ALL CAN BE FOR GOOD OR ILL   
  Not all soc mvmts create "positive change" for the positiveness or negativeness of a given change must always be determined in light of the predominant norms of society; never-the-less, some changes lead toward greater freedom & democracy, such as the civil rights movement, some lead towards less as w/ the Nazi mvmt, & the positiveness of some are still in debate today as in the labor mvmt, the feminist mvmt, & the env mvmt   
  Some mvmts are trying to better society while others are trying to exclude others from opportunities or liberties & some just want to change things back to the way they believe they used to be   
  The importance of soc mvmts is in many ways similar to the importance of orgs & bureaucracy in that all of these social entities allow individuals to have a voice, exert power, & change history, demonstrating the synergy of collective behavior   
  An old proverb holds that 10 sticks bundled together are stronger than 100 sticks that are not   
  In soc mvmts, grps, orgs, bureaucracy we see that the whole is greater than the sum of its part   
  See Also:  The Importance of Orgs in Society   
  THE SOC CHANGE OF SOME SOC MVMTS BECOMES INSTITUTIONALIZED IN SOCIETY, IE THEY BECOME A ROUTINE PART OF SOCIETY AS WE SEE IN LABOR UNIONS, CIVIL RTS, & WOMEN'S RTS   
  Soc mvmts are important because as seen in the history of soc mvmts, soc mvmts are nascent societal institutions, i.e. soc institutions such as the media, ed, rec, religion, etc. all begin as soc mvmts & then become accepted parts of society, & eventually become routinized & institutionalized   
  Soc mvmts are important because they allow people on the bottom of the stratification system to collectively exert more power & influence in society than their status & class positions would normally allow   
  Soc mvmts are important simply because they are a tool for social change   
  SOC MVMTS ARE SEEN BY MANY AS BEING AS MUCH OF A CHANGE AGENT AS THE EXEC, LEG, OR JUDICIAL BRANCHES OF GOVT   
  Soc mvmts are an effective balance to the power of govt; they are a conduit through which power, info etc. can be channeled to govt so that a public debate can occur on the merits of the proposed change   
  If the media is the "fourth estate" of a democracy, i.e. the fourth branch of governance, then soc mvmts are a "fifth estate" in that it would impossible for society to effectively function if soc mvmts were suppressed   
  The fourth estate is a name often given to the newspaper / media profession   
  Among the members of the fourth estate are those who gather, write, & edit the news for the press   
  Some people use the term to refer to journalists in all news media   
  The phrase fourth estate is believed to have first been used in writing by Thomas Babington Macaulay   
  In 1828, he wrote in an essay that "the gallery in which the reporters sit has become a fourth estate of the realm"   
  Macaulay was adding a term to those already used for the three estates, or classes, of the English realm   
  These were lords spiritual, lords temporal, & commons   
  The three estates later came to stand for govt, while reference to a fourth estate described any other influential body in English political life, such as the army or the press   
  Soc mvmts serve as "watch dogs" on the govt & the media, each focusing on its own area of expertise   
  Soc mvmts are valuable sources of info & constituents for both the govt & media   

 
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 Outline on  Organizations & Social Change
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  There are THREE perspectives from which to view orgl social change including the nominalists, the realists, & the pragmatists 
 
  A.  NOMINALISTS SEE REALITY AS CONSTRUCTED THROUGH INDIVIDUAL COGNITION 
 
  For the nominalists, the world is an artificial creation formed in people's minds   
  If we were total nominalist, we would believe that all things were possible at all times   
  B. REALISTS SEE THE WORLD AS EXTERNAL TO THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
  For the realist, the world is a real world made of hard tangible, relatively immutable structures   
  Total realists believe nothing can change   
  We usually act according to some compromise btwn the nominalist & realist positions   
 
 C.  SOCIAL CHANGE AGENTS ARE PRAGMATISTS, USING PRAXIS AS A TOOL FOR CHANGE 
 
  Praxis is theoretically guided action   
  As pragmatists, using praxis, things can change, but we must deal w/ historical forces (reified relationships), power, people, etc.
 
  Orgs are the source of both: 
- social stability in society 
- social change in society 
 
  ORGS ARE OFTEN STABILIZING AGENTS IN THAT THEY MAKE EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN THE ENV & THEIR POSITION IN IT   
  Examples of orgs as stabilizing agents include: the family, religious orgs, the ed system, the workplace, & others 
 
  Orgs by their very nature are not change agents, but "conservative" in that they often promote the status quo 
 
  When orgs promote stability they also stifle change 
 
  Change occurs indirectly when orgs in these social structures change unintentionally, or when their env changes 
Examples? 
 
  ORGL CONSERVATION CONNOTES THAT  SOME ORGS ARE CONSERVATIVE TO BEGIN W/ WHILE OTHERS BECOME SO AS THEY SEEK LONG TERM SURVIVAL 
 
  Org's intent is stability   
  The Civil Service & the Am auto mfrs are noted for their orgl conservatism & lack of risk taking 
 
  In the education system, Janowitz (1969) notes that ed maintains it's org / process despite changing demographics & ed needs   
  SOME ORGS FUNCTION AS SOCIAL CHANGE AGENTS 
 
  While orgs are inherently conservative social agents, nearly all social change comes through orgs   
  A cause is not enough for social change; must have an org 
 
  Change that direct result of org activity is called  intentional activity or change 
 
  Changes may be an indirect result of org action, which in an unintentional activity or change 
 
  A (un)favorable outcome for an org can lead to changes in society 
 
  ORGS HAVE CREATED INTENTIONAL SOCIAL CHANGE MANY TIMES IN HISTORY   
  Often orgs' goal is social change as seen in 
- the US revolution 
- the abolitionist mvmt & the Civil War 
- the suffrage mvmt 
- WW2:  military & govt 
- the Civil Rights mvmt 
- the Vietnam War peace movement 
- the env movement 
- the TVA: 
- the Bolsheviks 
- McDonalds 
- the financial sector 
- higher ed 
 
  -  Supplement:  TVA Website 
Link
  See Also:  Orgl Co-optation & the Orgl Env   
  Social forecasting is the process of predicting the occurrence & effects of particular social changes   
  Orgs must generate/reap support from society at large   
  Social Forecasting:  major area in sociology today:   
  Predict any social change, & there is $$ in it!   
  Bus, politicians, social activists, etc. cannot determine when an idea's time has come   
  ORGS TEND TO BECOME MORE CONSERVATIVE OVER TIME   
  Almost all "radical" orgs or social change orgs become more conservative as they mature:   
 
 Lipset documented the conservative movement of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF)   
 
 Bolsheviks became "The Communist Party" in Russia & thus in many ways became more conservative 
 
 
 Bill Gates & Steven Jobs became Microsoft & Apple which are innovative orgs, but are more conservative than their original forms 
 
 
 There have been many intentional or unintentional effects of organizations: 
 
  Changes in orgs affect society   
  One of the unintentional changes in society is the change in the membership patterns in orgs as a result of women going to wk or wider stock ownership   
  One of the unintentional changes in society is the change in the patterns of wk such as longer hours for full time jobs, & sub 40 hr weeks for part time workers   
  Transforming wk to reward independent thinking, initiative, etc. has an impact on personalities, attitudes, values   

 
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 Outline on  Bono
1960 - 
External
Links
  Paul David Hewson (born 10 May, 1960), known as Bono, is the lead singer & principal lyricist of the Irish rock band U2 
 
  Bono is also widely known for his activism concerning Africa, & is an Academy Award nominee & Grammy winner 
 
  MOTIVATION 
 
  In a 1986 interview w/ Rolling Stone magazine Bono explained that he was motivated to become involved in social & political causes by seeing one of the benefit shows staged by Monty Python's John Cleese & producer Martin Lewis for the human rights org Amnesty Intl in 1979 
 
  "I saw 'The Secret Policeman's Ball' & it became a part of me. It sowed a seed..." 
 
  In 2001 Bono arranged for U2 to videotape a special live performance for that year's Amnesty benefit show 
 
  Introducing the performance, Bono referred to The Secret Policeman's Ball as "a mysterious & extraordinary event that certainly changed my life..." 
 
  Bono & U2 performed on Amnesty Intl's Conspiracy Of Hope tour of the US in 1986 alongside Sting 
 
  EARLY HUMANITARIAN WORK   
  In 1984, U2 performed in the Band Aid & Live Aid projects organized by Bob Geldof 
 
  Bono sang on the Band Aid single "Do They Know it's Christmas? / Feed the World" (a role that was reprised on the 2004 Band Aid single of the same name) 
 
  Bono & Geldof later collaborated to organize the 2005 Live Aid project where U2 also performed 
 
  DEBT RELIEF & AIDS 
 
  Bono's work is esp important & effective because he focuses not only issues like famine & AIDS, but he focused on root econ causes, & he sough to estb programs that were efficient & long term   
  Since 1999, Bono has become increasingly involved in campaigning for third world debt relief & raising awareness of the plight of Africa including the AIDS pandemic 
 
  In the past decade Bono has met w/ several influential politicians including US President George W. Bush & Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin 
 
  During a March 2002 visit to the White House, after President Bush unveiled a $5 billion aid package to Africa, he accompanied the President for a speech on the White House lawn 
 
  He stated, "This is an important first step, & a serious & impressive new level of commitment. ... This must happen urgently, because this is a crisis."   
  In May of that year, Bono took US Treasury Secretary Paul H. O'Neill on a 4 country tour of Africa   
  In 2005 Bono spoke on CBC Radio alleging Prime Minister Martin was being slow about increasing Canada's foreign aid   
  Bono spoke in advance of President Bush at the 54th Annual National Prayer Breakfast, held at the Hilton Washington Hotel on 2 February 2006   
  In a speech peppered w/ biblical references, Bono encouraged the care of the socially & economically depressed   
  His comments included a call for an extra 1% "tithe" of the US's national budget   
  He brought his Christian views into harmony w/ other faiths by noting that Christian, Jewish, & Muslim writings all call for the care of the widow, orphan, & stranger   
  Bono continued by saying much work is left to be done to be a part of God's ongoing purposes   
  Debt, AIDS, Trade, Africa (DATA) was established in 2002 by Bono & Bobby Shriver, along w/ activists from the Jubilee 2000 Drop the Debt Campaign   
  Some of DATA's goals are to eradicate poverty & HIV/AIDS in Africa   
  DATA encourages Americans to contact senators & other legislators & elected officials to voice their opinions   
  In early 2005, Bono, his wife Ali Hewson, & NY based Irish fashion designer Rogan Gregory launched the socially conscious line EDUN in an attempt to shift the focus in Africa from aid to trade   
  EDUN's goal is to use factories in Africa, So Am, & India that provide fair wages to workers & practice good business ethics to create a business model that will encourage investment in developing nations   
  PRODUCT RED  
  Product Red is an initiative begun by Bono & Bobby Shriver to raise money for the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis & Malaria   
  Bobby Shriver has been announced as the CEO of Product Red, whilst Bono is currently an active public spokesperson for the brand   
  Product Red is a brand which is licensed to partner companies such as American Express, Apple Computer, Converse, Motorola, The Gap & Giorgio Armani 
 
  Each company will create a product w/ the Product Red logo & a percentage of the profits from the sale of these labeled products will go to the Global Fund 
 
 
 HONORS 
 
 
 In 2004 Bono was awarded the Pablo Neruda International Presidential Medal of Honour from the Government of Chile 
 
  Time named Bono one of the "100 Most Influential People" in their May 2004 special issue   
  In 2005 Bono was named by Time as a Person of the Year along w/ Bill & Melinda Gates, who have also become important social change entrepreneurs   
 
 In December 2006, Bono was awarded an honorary knighthood by the Queen of Britain, at the British Embassy in Dublin for "his services to the music industry & for his humanitarian work" 
 
  CRITICISMS   
  Bono has also drawn some criticism from newspaper columnist George Monbiot, political activist Bianca Jagger & others for getting too close to those in power & therefore running the risk of legitimizing their actions & "trying to patent the language of poverty reduction"   
  The Product RED initiative, partly founded by Bono, w/ an estimated promotional budget of $75 million has raised $18 million as of April 2007 for the cause, but the goal of the initiative is to provide long term, sustainable funds   

 

 
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Bono

1960 - 

Paul David Hewson was raised in Dublin alongside his brother, Norman Hewson, by his mother, Iris Rankin Hewson, a Protestant, & his father, Brendan Robert "Bob" Hewson, a Roman Catholic.  Bono was 14 when his mother died on 10 September 1974 of a cerebral aneurysm at her father's funeral.  Bono is married to Alison Hewson.  The couple has four children. 

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Major Works of Bono

Songs:   "I Will Follow", "Mofo", "Out of Control", & "Tomorrow"


 
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 Outline on  Wangari Muta Maathai
External
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  INTRODUCTION   
  Maathai is an environmental & political activist 
 
  In 2004 she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "her contribution to sustainable development, democracy & peace, " the 1st African woman to receive the award 
 
  The Hon. Dr. Maathai is also an elected member of Parliament & served as Assistant Minister for Environment & Natural Resources in the govt of President Mwai Kibaki, Kenya,  btwn January 2003 & November 2005 
 
 
 THE GREEN BELT MVMT 
 
 
 In 1977, Maathai founded the Green Belt Mvmt, a grassroots envl non govt org  (NGO), which has now planted over 30 million trees across Kenya to prevent soil erosion 
 
 
 She has come to be affectionately called "Tree Woman" 
 
  Maathai's envl activism is esp noteworthy because she combined envl concern w/ the empowerment of women & the improvement of the econ in her tree planting program   
  In her society, & many other tradl societies women have few opportunities other than to raise a family & obey their men   
  In her society, years of over grazing & poor land stewardship had degraded the env   
  The degradation of the env had impoverished the families who depended on it for their livelihood   
  By encouraging women to plant trees on their own, & by finding funding to support tree planting, the Green Belt Mvmt gave women economically viable opportunities when the trees they planted & the land 'recovered' so that they could raise crops & herds   
  In 1989 Maathai almost single handedly saved Nairobi's Uhuru Park by stopping the construction by Moi's business associates of the 60 story Kenya Times Media Trust business complex   
  She has been the Assist Minister in the Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources & Wildlife since 2003   
  She founded the Mazingira Green Party of Kenya in 2003   
  In November 2006, she spearheaded the UN's Billion Tree Campaign   
  In January 2007 Maathai will host the Global Young Greens conference in Nairobi, where more than 120 young delegates of envl, civil rights, peace, & social justice youth mvmts as well as youth orgs of green parties from all over the world are expected to come   
  In 2008, she will co host the Global Greens Nairobi conference, which is expected to draw over 1,000 Greens from dozens of Green Parties around the planet   
  OTHER ACTIVISM   
  Maathai has been increasingly active on both envl  & women's issues 
 
  Maathai was also the former chairperson of Maendeleo Ya Wanawake, the National Council of Women of Kenya 
 
  In the 1980s her husband Mwangi Mathai, a politician whom she had married in 1969, divorced her, saying she was too strong minded for a woman, & that he was unable to control her
 
  The judge in the divorce case agreed w/ the husband, & Wangari was put in jail for speaking out against the judge, who then decreed that she must drop her husband's surname 
 
  In defiance, Wangari chose to add an extra "a" instead 
 
  During the regime of President Daniel Arap Moi, she was imprisoned several times & violently attacked for demanding multi party elections & an end to political corruption & tribal politics 
 
  In 1997, in Kenya's second multi party elections marred by ethnic violence, she ran for the country's presidency, but her party w/drew her candidacy 
 
  Nevertheless, she was a minor candidate among several contenders 
 
  In 2002 Maathai was elected to parliament when the National Rainbow Coalition, which she represented, defeated the ruling party, the Kenya African National Union   
  On 28 March 2005, she was elected as the 1st president of the African Union's Economic, Social & Cultural Council   
  In 2006 she was 1 of the 8 flag bearers at the 2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony   
  Also on May 21, 2006 she was awarded an honorary doctorate by & gave the commencement address at Connecticut College   
  On January 28, 2007, Maathai returned to Benedictine College for the first time in over 15 years & spoke to the students at her alma mater   
  THE NOBEL PEACE PRIZE   
  Upon awarding Maathai the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004, the Nobel Committee said, "Her unique forms of action have contributed to drawing attention to political oppression, nationally & internationally. She has served as inspiration for many in the fight for democratic rights & has especially encouraged women to better their situation."   
  Maathai, also won the Kenya National Human Rights Commission, because "Maathai stood up courageously against the former oppressive regime in Kenya"   
  CRITICISMS   
  Maathai caused a stir among media commentators when, at a press conference following the announcement of the Nobel award, she allegedly spoke out in favor of the claim that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) was the product of bio-engineering, & then released in Africa by unidentified Western scientists as a weapon of mass destruction to "punish blacks."   
  The claim is supported by only a small minority, & is one of many AIDS conspiracy theories   
  She has since clarified her position, saying:
“ I have warned people against false beliefs & misinformation such as attributing this disease to a curse from God or believing that sleeping w/ a virgin cures the infection. These prevalent beliefs in my region have led to an upsurge in rape & violence against children. It is w/in this context, also complicated by the cultural & religious perspective that I often speak. I have therefore been shocked by the ongoing debate, generated by what I am purported to have said. It is therefore critical for me to state that I neither say nor believe that the virus was developed by white people or white powers in order to destroy the African people. Such views are wicked & destructive." 		  

 
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Wangari Muta Maathai
 

1940  - 

Wangari Muta Maathai was born in Ihithe village, Tetu division, Nyeri District of Kenya.  She is of Kikuyu ethnicity. 

She attended primary school in in Limuru, Kenya.  She attended universities in the US & Germany to earn a BS & a Masters in biology.  At the University of Nairobi, she earned the a PhD in veterinary medicine; the first awarded to an Eastern African woman.  She became professor of veterinary anatomy at the University of Nairobi, & then later dean of the faculty. In 2002 Maathai accepted a position as Visiting Fellow at Yale University's Global Institute of Sustainable Forestry. 

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Major Works of Maathai

Her autobiography, Unbowed: One Woman's Story, was released in September 30, 2006


 
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 Outline on  Nelson Mandela
1918 - 2013
External
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  OVERVIEW:  MANDELLA WAS FIRST AN INSURGENT, THEN A PRISONER, THEN PRESIDENT & NOBEL PEACE PRIZE WINNER, & THEN AN INTL PEACE BROKER   
  Mandela was president of So Africa from 1994 to 1999 & he was the country's first black president 
 
  Mandela was elected by the country's National Assembly which had been chosen in So Africa's first elections in which the country's blacks were allowed to vote 
 
  He was the first president to be elected in fully representative democratic elections in So Africa   
  Blacks won a majority of the Assembly seats, & the Assembly selected Mandela as president 
 
  These developments marked the beginning of a new era in So Africa, resulting in blacks gaining control of the govt after a long period of domination by the white minority 
 
  Since 1991, Mandela had served as president of the African National Congress (ANC), a largely black group that opposed the So African govt's policy of rigid racial segregation called apartheid 
 
  He had long been a leader of protests against apartheid & was imprisoned in 1962 on charges of conspiring to overthrow the white minority govt 
 
  While in prison, he became a symbol of the struggle for racial justice 
 
  After being freed in 1990, he led negotiations w/ white leaders that eventually brought an end to apartheid & established a nonracial system of govt 
 
  Mandela & then President F. W. de Klerk of So Africa won the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize 
 
  Mandela & de Klerk were honored for their work to end apartheid & to enable the country's non whites to fully participate in the So African govt 
 
  IN EARLY LIFE, MANDELLA BECAME A LAWYER 
 
  Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was born in Umtata, in the Transkei territory of So Africa 
 
  His father was a chief of the Xhosa speaking Tembu tribe 
 
  Mandela gave up his right to succeed his father & instead prepared for a legal career 
 
  He attended the Un College of Fort Hare, studied law by correspondence at Witwatersrand Un, & received a law degree from the Un of So Africa in 1942 
 
 
 That year, in Soweto, he & a friend opened the first black law partnership in So Africa 
 
 
 MANDELLA WAS IMPRISONED FOR HIS ROLE AGAINST APARTHEID & WAS ACCUSED OF TERRORISM   
  Before his presidency, Mandela was an anti apartheid activist & leader of the African National Congress (ANC)   
 
 Mandela joined the ANC in 1944 & helped form the organization's Youth League   
  In 1948, the So African govt established its policy of apartheid   
  The ANC called for equality for all races & began leading open resistance to the govt   
  In 1956, the govt charged Mandela w/ treason & other serious crimes, but he was found not guilty in 1961   
  The govt had outlawed the ANC in 1960, but Mandela renewed the protests & went into hiding   
  He was arrested in 1962, convicted of sabotage & conspiracy, & sentenced to life in prison   
  Mandela had been involved in guerilla warfare & sabotage   
  While Mandela was in prison, growing antiapartheid forces in So Africa argued that he should be freed   
  He saw his wife only three times over the next 27 yrs   
  His wife at that time, Winnie Mandela, became a leading spokesperson for his cause   
  Through his 27 years in prison, much of it spent in a cell on Robben Island, Mandela became the most widely known figure in the struggle against apartheid   
  Among opponents of apartheid in So Africa & internationally, he became a cultural icon of freedom & equality   
  The apartheid govt & nations sympathetic to it condemned him & the ANC as communists & terrorists, & he became a figure of hatred among many So African whites, supporters of apartheid, & opponents of the ANC   
  Shortly before Mandela's release in 1990, the govt recognized the ANC as a legal political org   
  WHILE THE BATTLE TO END APARTHEID HAD VIOLENT EPISODES, THE END OF WHITE RULE CAME THROUGH THE BALLOT BOX   
  Following his release from prison in 1990, his switch to a policy of reconciliation & negotiation helped lead the transition to multi racial democracy in So Africa   
  After leaving prison, Mandela agreed to suspend an armed struggle the ANC had been waging against the So African govt   
  Over the objections of more radical ANC members, he urged conciliation w/ So African President de Klerk & other govt leaders  
  He sought to obtain political power for the country's blacks in a peaceful way   
  In 1990 & 1991, the govt repealed the laws that formed the legal basis of apartheid   
  But Mandela also negotiated an end to other forms of racial injustice, including laws that denied blacks the right to vote in national & provincial elections   
  The first truly open national elections in which all races could vote were held in April 1994   
  The ANC won a majority of the seats in the country's National Assembly, & Mandela became president   
  Mandela stepped down as head of the ANC in 1997 & in 1999, he retired as president of So Africa   
  In 1992, Mandela announced that he & his wife, Winnie, had agreed to separate  The couple was divorced in 1996   
  In 1998, Mandela & Graca Machel, the widow of President Somora Machel of Mozambique, were married   
  Since the end of apartheid, he has been widely praised, even among white So Africans & former opponents   
  In So Africa he is often known as Madiba, an honorary title adopted by elders of Mandela's clan, & the title has come to be synonymous w/ Nelson Mandela   
  POST SO AFRICAN ACTIVITY IS NOTED FOR THE PROCESS OF RECONCILIATION WHICH BROUGHT JUSTICE & FORGIVENESS FOR DECADES OF APARTHEID   
  Mandela has received more than one hundred awards over four decades, most notably the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993   
  He is currently a celebrated elder statesman who continues to voice his opinion on topical issues   
  Since he gave up the presidency of So Africa, Mandela has become an independent global diplomat, intervening in troubled spots around the world   
  Mandela & been an important spokesperson in the fight against AIDS & in 2003, Mandela lent his weight to the 46664 campaign against AIDS, named after his prison number   
  Prior to 2003, he actively opposed the US invasion of Iraq   
  Mandela has intervened & reduced the production & sale of 'blood diamonds,' i.e. those diamonds produced under inhumane conditions & sold & traded to finance dictatorships & war   
  Mandela has tried to moderate the activities of Robert Mugabe, the dictator of Zimbabwe who has killed over 20 K of his people, but Mugabe remains in power   
  In 2007, Mandela, former President Jimmy Carter & other world leaders met w/ Sudanese leaders to try & broker an end to the civil warfare in Darfur   

 
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Nelson Mandela
 

1918  -  2013 

Born to a tribal family, Mandela was educated in a missionary school.  He became active in the 1940s, opposing the apartheid system imposed by the So African govt.  He was arrested & spent 27 yrs in prison, where never the less he became a leader & continued to press for freedom.  After his release he guided So Africa into a climate of reconciliation & the dissolution of apartheid.  He then became President of So Africa & advanced the social & econ development of his nation.  He continues to act as a global statesman

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Major Works of Mandela

Nelson Mandela; Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela; Little Brown & Co; ISBN 0-316-54818-9 (paperback, 1995) 

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