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See Also: An Overview of Methods |
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The Deductive method of analysis begins w/ theory
& builds a question ( Hypothesis ) based on that theory The hypothesis is tested using some form of the experimental method to test some part of the theory |
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The Induction method of analysis begins w/
gathering generalizations from data Theory is then created to explain the generalizations |
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Research can be used to test a theory or generate a theory,
but research cannot "find out the truth" |
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Theory: A set of interrelated statements about reality,
usually involving one or more cause-effect relationships |
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Theories are made up of verifiable
statements about reality that,
with the right information, can be tested |
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Theory refers to a set of interrelated
statements about reality,
usually involving one or more major cause-effect relationships. Ideally these statements can be tested through research |
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Law: Theory or part of a theory that is well established and therefore has greater acceptance by scientific community |
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Hypothesis: a research question, that always takes
the form of a statement
It must be able to be disproved |
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A Hypothesis is a testable statement |
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When social scientists use research for theory testing, they usually make use of a hypothesis |
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Correlation: A relationship by which two or more variables change together |
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Concept: An abstract idea that represents some element of the world |
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Variable: a concept that can take on different values or that
has two or more categories
from case to case |
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Independent Variables influence or cause
the dependent variable.
Sometimes called the predictor variable. Independent Variable: the variable that the researcher thinks is the cause. |
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Dependent Variables should be the effect
in the cause-effect relationship.
Its value depends on the value of the independent variable. |
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Positive correlation: both variables change in the same direction |
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Negative correlation: variables change in opposite directions |
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Control Variable: a variable that is held constant
in order to observe the effect on two or more other variable |
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Spurious Correlation: An apparent, although false, relationship
btwn two or more variables caused by some other variable(s) |
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Measurement |
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1. Operational Definition: Precise statement of
the measuring of a variable
or of the categories of a variable for purpose of measurement |
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2. Reliability: the consistency of the measurement |
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3. Validity: measuring the concept you intend to measure |
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4. Constructs Created by researchers when they are attempting to measure abstract concepts such as intelligence |
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Reactivity: tendency of people being studied to react to the researcher or to the fact that they are being studied |
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Hawthorne effect: a form of reactivity where people being studied attempt to please the researcher |
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Placebo effect: form of reactivity: people as a result of being studied, when in fact nothing has changed |
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Objectivity: a state of complete personal neutrality in conducting research |
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Bias: non-objectivity in research; personal involvement in conducting research (whether intentional or unintentional) |
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The Survey: Most widely used method in sociology |
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Kinds of Surveys
- questionnaire - telephone interview - personal interview |
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Fixed-response questions are like multiple-choice exam questions. |
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Likert Scale
Give a clear range of choices on a 5 or 7 pt scale
Neutral /
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Open ended questions: respondent states or writes an answer to the question in their own words. (Similar to an interview) |
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There are FOUR types of questions typically used in surveys
& interviews
- Background (demographics) - Activities - Knowledge - Sentiments (opinions, values, attitudes, feelings, etc.) |
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Nature of questions:
Use short statements Begin w/ 'easy' questions Near the end: 'hard' questions End w/ open ended questions |
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Sampling: the random selection from a general population
to establish a
Sample Group, which represents the entire population |
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In-Class Project: Surveying |
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Experiments: carried out in a situation that is under some control of the researcher, such as a lab or classroom |
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Experimental Process:
Sample to determine the Control & experimental groups Pre-test Experimental manipulation Post-test Debriefing Analysis |
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Experimental Group: goes through an experience or manipulation |
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Control Group: does not experience a manipulation of an independent variable & receives the pre-test & post-test |
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Lab Experiments: done in setting w/ almost total control by researcher |
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Field Experiments
a. Natural Experiments b. Social Experiments |
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Natural Experiments
Give pre & post tests around a natural event. Or you could tabulate data before & after a natural event |
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Social Experiments
Give pre & post tests around a social policy |
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Interviews: oral surveys
Strength of interview over survey is that researcher can follow leads to unplanned questions Structured interviews: questions are pre-planned Unstructured interviews: unplanned questions that follow the flow of the conversation |
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Field Observation
Obtrusive: Seen, recognized as a researcher: open Unobtrusive: hidden or not recognized as a researcher: secret Participant observation: during research, participate in the activities of the subjects Non-participatory observation: do not participate, remain separated, aloof |
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Content analysis: Analysis of narrative data
from open ended surveys, interviews, books, press, media, etc.) that looks for regularity |
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Statistical Analysis:
Analysis of existing data (census, govt records, etc.) or data you have collected (surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.) to determine correlations |
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Multivariate Analysis: sorting out many factors to determine most important factors |
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